View source for Copts

{{Short description|Ethnoreligious group in North Africa}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Copts
| native_name      = {{Coptic|ⲚⲓⲢⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ̀ⲛ̀Ⲭⲣⲏⲥⲧⲓ̀ⲁⲛⲟⲥ}}
| native_name_lang = cop
| image            = Coptic diaspora map.png
| caption          = Coptic diaspora
| population       = 
| region1          = '''Traditional areas of Coptic settlement:'''
| pop1             = <!--See below-->
| region2          = {{flag|Egypt}}
| pop2             = [[Copts in Egypt|18 million]]
| ref2             = {{Efn|In 2017, the ''Wall Street Journal'' reported that "the vast majority of Egypt's estimated 9.5 million Christians, approximately 10% of the country's population, are Orthodox Copts."<ref name=RoccaKholaif>{{Cite news |last=Rocca |first=Francis X. |last2=Kholaif |first2=Dahlia |date=2017-04-29 |title=Pope Francis Calls on Egypt's Catholics to Embrace Forgiveness |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/pope-francis-calls-on-egypts-catholics-to-embrace-forgiveness-1493464066 |access-date=2025-09-14 |work=Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240608222227/https://www.wsj.com/articles/pope-francis-calls-on-egypts-catholics-to-embrace-forgiveness-1493464066|archive-date=2024-06-08}}</ref> In 2019, the Associated Press cited an estimate of 10 million Copts in Egypt.<ref name=Elhennawy>Noha Elhennawy, [https://apnews.com/a115f4d4a86c4f9b8cdb0802ccf3e5e5 Egyptian woman fights unequal Islamic inheritance laws], Associated Press (November 15, 2019).</ref> In 2015, the ''Wall Street Journal'' reported: "The Egyptian government estimates about 5 million Copts, but the Coptic Orthodox Church says 15-18 million. Reliable numbers are hard to find but estimates suggest they make up somewhere between 6% and 18% of the population."<ref name=WSJ2015>{{Cite news |last=Fitch |first=Asa |date=2015-02-16 |title=5 Things to Know About Egypt's Coptic Christians |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/briefly/2015/02/16/5-five-things-to-know-about-egypts-coptic-christians/ |access-date=2025-09-14 |work=Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200603160443/https://blogs.wsj.com/briefly/2015/02/16/5-five-things-to-know-about-egypts-coptic-christians/|archive-date=2020-06-03}}</ref> In 2004, BBC News reported that Copts were 5–10% of the Egyptian population.<ref name=2004Egypt>{{cite news |title=Egyptian Coptic protesters freed |work=BBC News|date=22 December 2004 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4117831.stm }}</ref> The ''[[CIA World Factbook]]'' reported a 2015 estimate that 10% of the Egyptian population is Christian (including both Copts and non-Copts).<ref name=CIA2015>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|title=Egypt |work=The World Factbook |date=10 April 2023 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> In 2017, the [[Minority Rights Group]] reported that figures for the population of Egyptian Copts "range between 4.7 and 7.1 million, comprising between six and nine per cent of the population, though some estimates put the proportion at as much as 15 to 10 per cent."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/copts/ | title=Copts in Egypt|publisher=Minority Rights Group|date=October 2017}}</ref>}}
| region3          = '''Diaspora:'''
| pop3             = [[Coptic diaspora|1–2 million]] (estimates vary)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://providencemag.com/2023/05/counting-coptic-christians-in-egypt-1/ | title=Counting Coptic Christians in Egypt - Providence | date=26 May 2023 }}</ref>
| region4          = {{flag|United States}}
| pop4             = [[Copts in the United States|500,000 (2018)]]
| ref4             = <ref name=Telushkin2018>{{Cite news |last=Telushkin |first=Shira |date=2018-03-31 |title=The Americanization of an Ancient Faith |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/03/coptic-church/555515/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250712185048/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/03/coptic-church/555515/ |archive-date=2025-07-12 |access-date=2025-09-14 |work=The Atlantic |language=en-US |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
| region5          = {{flag|Sudan}}
| pop5             = [[Copts in Sudan|400,000-500,000]] (2008)
| ref5             = <ref name="unhcr1">[https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/mrgi/2018/en/64852 Sudan: Copts], ''World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples'', Minority Rights Group International (June 2018)</ref>
| region6          = {{flag|Australia}}
| pop6             = [[Copts in Australia|75,000 (2003)]]
| ref6             = <ref name="parliament.nsw.gov.au">In the year 2003, there was an estimated 70,000 Copts in New South Wales alone: {{cite web|title=Coptic Orthodox Church (NSW) Property Trust Act 1990|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/cocpta1990518/|website=New South Wales Consolidated Acts}}</ref>
| region7          = {{flag|Libya}}
| pop7             = [[Copts in Libya|60,000]]
| ref7             = <ref name="LookLex Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|title=Coptic Church|last=Kjeilen|first=Tore|website=LookLex Encyclopedia|access-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083550/http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| region8          = {{flag|Canada}}
| pop8             = [[Copts in Canada|50,000 (2017)]]
| ref8             = <ref name=KermalliRNS2017>Shenaz Kermalli, [https://sojo.net/articles/canadian-copts-ponder-future-their-faith Canadian Copts Ponder Future of Their Faith], [[Religion News Service]] (April 25, 2017).</ref>
| region9          = {{flagicon|France}} [[France]]
| pop9             = 45,000 (2017)
| ref9             = <ref name="la-croix.com">In the year 2017, there was an estimated 45,000 Copts in France: {{cite news|title=Qui sont les coptes en France ?|url=https://www.la-croix.com/Religion/Orthodoxie/Qui-sont-coptes-France-2017-03-16-1200832369|website=La Croix|date=16 March 2017}}</ref>
| region10         = {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Italy]]
| pop10            = 30,000
| ref10            = <ref name="CESNUR – Centro studi sulle nuove religioni (Center for Studies on New Religions)">{{Cite web|url=https://cesnur.com/la-chiesa-copta/|title=La Chiesa copta|date=March 10, 2014}}</ref>
| region11         = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
| pop11            = 25,000–30,000 (2006)
| ref11            = <ref name="middlekilleavy.com">Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain {{cite web |url=http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid%3D2631%26option%3Dcom_cifeed%26task%3Dnewsarticle |title=Middle Killeavy Parish Web Site |access-date=2008-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |archive-date=2009-01-21 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the {{usurped|1=[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]}}</ref>
| region12         = {{flagicon|United Arab Emirates}} [[United Arab Emirates]]
| pop12            = 10,000
| ref12            = <ref name="Teller">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33480115|title=Free to pray – but don't try to convert anyone|work=BBC|first=Matthew|last=Teller|date=12 July 2015|access-date=12 July 2015|quote=Ten-thousand or more live in the UAE, and young, bearded priest Father Markos, 12 years in Dubai, told me his flock are "more than happy – they enjoy their life, they are free."}}</ref>
| region13         = {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]]
| pop13            = 10,000
| ref13            = <ref name="gereformeerdebond.nl">{{cite news|url=https://gereformeerdebond.nl/de-waarheidsvriend/artikelen/welkom-welkom-2/|title='De Koptische kerk telt in Nederland ongeveer tienduizend leden, die grotendeels afkomstig zijn uit Egypte.' |date=12 July 2015|access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>
| langs            = {{hlist|[[Egyptian Arabic]]|[[Saʽidi Arabic]]|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]]|}}[[Coptic language|Coptic]] (liturgical and historical)
| rels             = [[Coptic Orthodox Church]]<br/> [[Coptic Catholic Church]]<br/>[[Protestantism in Egypt|Coptic Protestant Churches]]<br/> [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria]]
| related_groups   = 
}}
{{Contains special characters|Coptic}}
{{Copts}}

'''Copts''' ({{langx|cop|ⲚⲓⲢⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ̀ⲛ̀Ⲭⲣⲏⲥⲧⲓ̀ⲁⲛⲟⲥ|NiRemenkēmi enKhristianos}}; {{langx|ar|أقباط|aqbāṭ}}) are a [[Christians|Christian]] [[ethnoreligious group|ethnoreligious]] group native to [[Northeast Africa]]<ref>[[#Minahan|Minahan 2002]], p. 467</ref> who have primarily inhabited the area of modern [[Egypt]] since antiquity. They are, like the broader [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] population,{{refn|See <ref>{{cite journal |last=Setiyono |first=Mozes Adiguna |title=From Pan-Arabism to Pharaonism: Egypt's Gradual Change of National Identity during the Sisi Era |journal=Global Strategis |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2023|page=312}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Erman |first=Adolf |title=Life in Ancient Egypt |series=Egypt Series|publisher=Courier Corporation |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-486-22632-3 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lefkowitz |first1=Mary R. |author-link=Mary Lefkowitz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AClFWV6PE8wC |title=Black Athena Revisited |last2=Rogers |first2=Guy MacLean |date=1996 |publisher=UNC Press Books |isbn=978-0-8078-4555-4 |page=159|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Pateman, Robert & Salwa El-Hamamsy|title=Egypt|date=2003|publisher=Marshall Cavendish Benchmark|place=New York|page=54|isbn=978-0-7614-1670-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Colla |first=Elliott |title=Conflicted Antiquities: Egyptology, Egyptomania, Egyptian Modernity |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8223-9039-8 |page=128}}</ref>}} descended from the ancient Egyptians.{{refn|See <ref>{{cite book |last=Cannuyer |first=Christin |title=Coptic Egypt: The Christians of the Nile |publisher=Thames & Hudson |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-500-30104-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James B. |title=Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World |edition=2nd |publisher=Greenwood |date=2016 |page=108 |isbn=978-1-61069-953-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Elmasry |first=Iris Habib |title=The Story of the Copts |publisher=St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Monastery Publications |date=1978 |asin=B00NHR2KJW |page=247}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tadros |first=Mariz |title=Copts at the Crossroads: The Challenges of Building Inclusive Democracy in Contemporary Egypt |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-977-416-591-7}}</ref>}} Copts predominantly follow the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]], the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria|Alexandrian Greek Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]].<ref name="WorldAtlas">{{Citation|title=Coptic Christianity|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-with-the-largest-coptic-christian-populations.html|website=worldatlas.com|date=3 April 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Saint Mark Cathedral|url=http://www.alexandria.gov.eg/alex/english/Saint%20Mark%20Coptic.html|website=alexandria.gov.eg}}</ref> They are the largest [[Christianity in Egypt|Christian population in Egypt]] and the [[Christianity in the Middle East|Middle East]],{{refn|See <ref name="CNN1">{{cite web |title=Who are Egypt's Coptic Christians? |date=10 April 2017 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/09/middleeast/egypt-coptic-christians/index.html |publisher=CNN |quote=The largest Christian community in the Middle East, Coptic Christians make up the majority of Egypt's roughly 15 million Christians.}}</ref><ref name="almasryalyoum.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2874344 | title=البابا تواضروس: ١٥ مليون مسيحي في مصر &#124; المصري اليوم }}</ref><ref name="providencemag.com">{{cite web | url=https://providencemag.com/2023/05/counting-coptic-christians-in-egypt-1 | title=Counting Coptic Christians in Egypt - Providence | date=26 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>About 1-2 million more Coptic Christians are spread across Africa, Europe, Australia, Canada and the United States, according to the World Council of Churches.</ref>}} as well as in [[Christianity in Sudan|Sudan]]<ref name="unhcr1" /> and [[Christianity in Libya|Libya]].<ref name="Libya">[http://www.copt.org.au/publications/diary/D2005.pdf Coptic Orthodox Church Listings for Libya, p. 136] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719031825/http://www.copt.org.au/publications/diary/D2005.pdf |date=July 19, 2008 }}</ref> [[Copts in Egypt|Copts]] account for roughly 5 to 15 percent of the [[Demographics of Egypt|population of Egypt]].<ref name="almasryalyoum.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2874344 | title=البابا تواضروس: ١٥ مليون مسيحي في مصر &#124; المصري اليوم }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web | url=https://providencemag.com/2023/05/counting-coptic-christians-in-egypt-1/ | title=Counting Coptic Christians in Egypt - Providence | date=26 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/ | title=How many Christians are there in Egypt? | date=16 February 2011 }}</ref>

Originally referring to all Egyptians,<ref name="Van">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ens2DwAAQBAJ&dq=copts+originally+referred+all+egyptians&pg=PT14 | title=Copts in Context: Negotiating Identity, Tradition, and Modernity | isbn=978-1-61117-785-5 | last1=Doorn-Harder | first1=Nelly van | date=3 October 2017 | publisher=Univ of South Carolina Press }}</ref> the term ''Copt'' became synonymous with native [[Christians]] in light of Egypt's [[Islamization of Egypt|Islamization]] and [[Arabization]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] in 639–646 AD.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last1=Raheb|first1=Mitri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1cBEAAAQBAJ&q=%22The+fortunes+of+Copts+rose+and+fell%22&pg=PA468|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|last2=Lamport|first2=Mark A.|date=2020-12-15|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-2418-5|language=en}}</ref> Copts have historically spoken the [[Coptic language]], a direct descendant of the [[Demotic Egyptian language|Demotic Egyptian]] that was spoken in [[late antiquity]].

Following the Arab Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century, the treatment of the Coptic Christians who did not [[Religious conversion|convert]] ranged from relative [[toleration|tolerance]] to [[Persecution of Copts|open persecution]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt: Copts of Egypt|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2b2d.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|title=Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt| first=Laura S. |last= Etheredge|year= 2011| isbn= 978-977-416-093-6| page =161|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Pau| first=William |last=Lyster|year= 2013| isbn= 978-977-416-093-6|publisher=Yale University Press|quote= Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 978-977-416-093-6| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote=}}</ref> Historically, the Copts suffered from waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances.<ref name=":3" /> Themes of persecution and martyrdom constitute a significant part of [[Coptic identity]] due to historic and current conflicts.<ref name="Deighton, H. S 1946 p. 519">{{cite journal |last1=Deighton |first1=H. S. |title=The Arab Middle East and the Modern World |journal=International Affairs |date=1 October 1946 |volume=22 |issue=4 |page=519 |doi=10.2307/3018194|jstor=3018194 }}</ref>

Most Copts adhere to the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] of [[Alexandria]], an [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox Church]].<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm|title= Egypt from "U.S. Department of State/Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs"|date=September 30, 2008 |publisher= [[United States Department of State]]}}</ref><ref name="FCO/Egypt/">{{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|title=Egypt from "Foreign and Commonwealth Office"|date=August 15, 2008|publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign and Commonwealth Office -UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|archive-date=December 12, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Betty Jane|last2=Bailey|first2=J. Martin|title=Who Are the Christians in the Middle East?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-1020-5|page=145}}</ref> The smaller [[Coptic Catholic Church]] is an [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic Church]], in communion with the [[Holy See|Holy See of Rome]]; others belong to the [[Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|Evangelical Church of Egypt]]. The Copts played a central role in the [[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]] as well as the modernization of Egypt and the [[Arab world]] as a whole.<ref name=":3" /> They also contributed to Egypt's social and political life and key debates such as [[pan-Arabism]], governance, [[Education reform|educational reform]], and [[democracy]].<ref name=":3" /> They have historically flourished in business affairs.<ref name="ReferenceA">Samuel Tadros, ''Motherland Lost'', ch 3–4.</ref>

While an integral part of broader Egyptian society and culture, Copts also preserve distinct religious traditions and some unique cultural elements. [[Coptic music]] is thought to incorporate some influences from [[ancient Egyptian music|earlier]] Egyptian musical traditions.<ref name="Guindy, pp. 25">Guindy, pp. 25</ref> Copts also maintain the use of the [[Coptic calendar]], which is based on the ancient [[Egyptian calendar]] and remains significant in their liturgical practices.

Many Copts view Arab identity as closely associated with Islam and may not fully identify with it,<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Tadros|first=Mariz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhcnDAAAQBAJ&q=copts+identity&pg=PA41|title=Copts at the Crossroads: The Challenges of Building Inclusive Democracy in Contemporary Egypt|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-977-416-591-7|language=en}}</ref> but they also have a [[Egyptians#Identity|national identity]] shared with other Egyptians.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0">Images as Messengers of Coptic Identity An Example from Contemporary Egypt. RAGNHILD BJERRE FINNE STAD</ref> Copts and Muslim Egyptians are recognized as being physically indistinguishable.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Gurr|first=Ted Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-hEA_wWpyMC&q=Egyptian+copts+and+Egyptiam+Muslims+are+recognized+as+being+physically+indistinguishable&pg=PA138|title=Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century|date=2000|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|isbn=978-1-929223-02-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Banjo|first1=Omotayo O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eD1DDwAAQBAJ&q=Egyptian+copts+and+Egyptiam+Muslims+are+recognized+as+being+physically+indistinguishable&pg=PA151|title=Contemporary Christian Culture: Messages, Missions, and Dilemmas|last2=Williams|first2=Kesha Morant|date=2017-11-30|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-5390-2|language=en}}</ref> In urban cities of Egypt such as Cairo and Alexandria, Copts have a relatively high [[educational attainment]], [[Wealth|wealth index]], and a strong representation in [[White-collar worker|white-collar job types]]. However, most Copts live in Upper Egypt, mainly working in blue collar jobs, but with limited representation in security agency work.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Coptic Christians and [[Muslims]] in Egypt.<ref name="ReferenceB">Mohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22 {{doi|10.5339/connect.2013.22}}</ref>

==Etymology==
{{further|Name of Egypt}}

The English language adopted the word ''Copt'' in the 17th century from [[Neo-Latin]] ''Coptus, Cophtus'', which derives from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] collective {{Transliteration|ar|qubṭ / qibṭ}} {{lang|ar|قبط|rtl=yes}} "the Copts" with [[Arabic grammar#nisba|nisba]] adjective {{Transliteration|ar|qubṭī, qibṭī}} {{lang|ar|قبطى|rtl=yes}}, plural {{Transliteration|ar|aqbāṭ}} {{lang|ar|أقباط|rtl=yes}}; Also ''quftī, qiftī'' (where the Arabic {{IPAslink|f}} reflects the historical Coptic {{IPAslink|p}}) an Arabisation of the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ ''aiguption'' ([[Coptic language#Bohairic|Bohairic]] for "Egyptian" or in relation to Egypt) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ ''kuptaion'' ([[Coptic language#Sahidic|Sahidic]]). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, {{Transliteration|grc|Aigýptios}} ({{lang|grc|Αἰγύπτιος}}).<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book|last1= Ackroyd|first1= P. R.|last2= Evans|first2= C. F.|title= The Cambridge History of the Bible: Volume 1, From the Beginnings to Jerome |date= 1975 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-09973-8|page= 27|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QnG2067meU0C&pg=PA27|access-date= 16 October 2016}}</ref>

The Greek term for Egypt, ''Aígyptos'' ({{langx|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}), itself derives from the [[Egyptian language]], but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in [[Mycenaean Greek]] as ''a<sub>3</sub>-ku-pi-ti-jo'' (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form likely comes from [[Middle Egyptian]] {{lang|egy-Latn|[[wikt:ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ#Egyptian|ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ]]}} (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, [[Egyptological pronunciation]] ''Hut-ka-Ptah''), literally "estate/palace of the [[Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul#kꜣ "double"|kꜣ]] ("double" spirit) of [[Ptah]]" (compare [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{lang|akk-Latn|<sup>ālu</sup>ḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ}}), the name of the temple complex of the god [[Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] (and a [[synecdoche]] for the city of Memphis and the region around it).

The term ''Aigýptios'' in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in [[Roman Egypt]] (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion.<ref>"The people of Egypt before the Arab conquest in the 7th century identified themselves and their language in Greek as Aigyptios (Arabic qibt, Westernized as Copt); when Egyptian Muslims later ceased to call themselves Aigyptioi, the term became the distinctive name of the Christian minority." [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026216 Coptic Orthodox Church]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. 2007</ref>

In their historic [[Coptic language]], which represents the final stage of the [[Egyptian language]], there is no distinct term equivalent to Copt, as a designation separate from [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]. Instead, terms such as ''rem en kēme'' (in the [[Sahidic]] dialect) <span lang="cop-Copt" style="font-size:100%;font-family:'Arial Coptic', 'New Athena Unicode', 'MPH 2B Damase', 'Quivira', 'Analecta';">ⲣⲙⲛⲕⲏⲙⲉ</span>,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coptic Dictionary Online |url=https://coptic-dictionary.org/entry.py?tla=C1233 |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=coptic-dictionary.org}}</ref> ''lem en kēmi'' ([[Coptic language#Fayyumic|Fayyumic]]), and ''rem en khēmi'' ([[Bohairic]]) <span lang="cop-Copt" style="font-size:100%;font-family:'Arial Coptic', 'New Athena Unicode', 'MPH 2B Damase', 'Quivira', 'Analecta';">ⲣⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ</span> are attested, all of which literally mean "people of Egypt" or "Egyptians"; cf. [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''{{lang|egy-Latn|rmṯ n [[Km (hieroglyph)|kmt]]}}'', [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''{{lang|egy-Latn|rmt n kmỉ}}''. This is not unique to Coptic, as many minority communities endonyms translate simply to "people", though it is understood that by saying "people", an in-group is being referred to. For example, the term Inuit means "the people",<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Public Services and Procurement Canada |date=2009-10-08 |title=Inuit, Inuk (Linguistic recommendation from the Translation Bureau) |url=https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2guides/guides/wrtps/index-eng.html?lang=eng&lettr=indx_catlog_i&page=91V1uxvxfEc4.html |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca}}</ref> and the term Romani derives from words referring to "man" or "people".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-10 |title=ROMANY definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/romany |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=www.collinsdictionary.com |language=en}}</ref> To an extent it was not necessary to make a distinction between "person of Egypt" as someone other than a Copt throughout much of history, as other groups residing in Egypt (such as the Greeks) had recognized ethnonyms in Coptic, such as "Hellene", that were sufficient.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coptic Dictionary Online |url=https://coptic-dictionary.org/entry.py?tla=C11085 |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=coptic-dictionary.org}}</ref> In the medieval era there also was not always a distinction made between Christian Copts and their Pre-Christian ancestors, and the same ethnonym was sometimes used for both, meaning identity to the culture of being "Coptic" was not as tightly tied to Christianity as it commonly is today (though it was still often placed as in opposition to being Muslim, usually by Muslims themselves, who ceased identifying a family as "Coptic" after the first generation of converts to Islam).<ref>Lamenting Islam, imagining persecution: Copto-Arabic opposition to Islamization and Arabization in Fatimid Egypt (969–1171CE) by Maryann Magdalen Shenoda</ref>  

The Arabic word {{Transliteration|ar|qibṭ}} "Copt" has also been connected{{by whom|date=March 2019}} to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos ({{langx|grc-x-koine|Κόπτος}}, now [[Qift|Qifṭ]]; Coptic ''Kebt'' and ''Keft'') in [[Upper Egypt]]. This association may have contributed to making "Copt" the settled form of the name.<ref>[[OED]] s.v. "Copt".</ref>

In the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of [[Pharaonism]] began using the term {{Transliteration|ar|qubṭ}} in the historical sense to refer to all ethnic Egyptians, both Christians and Muslims.<ref>qtd. in M. Hussein. {{Transliteration|ar|el Ittigahat el Wataneyya fil Adab el Muʻaṣir}} ''[National Trends in Modern Literature]''. Vol. 2. Cairo, 1954.</ref>

==History==
{{Main|Coptic identity|Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|History of Christianity in Egypt}}

===Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt===
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom|Roman Egypt}}
[[File:Fayum-22.jpg|thumb|right|[[Faiyum mummy portraits|Faiyum mummy portrait]] of an Egyptian man with sword belt, [[Altes Museum]]]]
After the conquest of Egypt by [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 B.C., the country came under the rule of Greek [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] kings. While the majority of the population remained Egyptian, foreign settlers of both Greek and non-Greek origin emigrated to Egypt during that period. While 10% may stand as a very approximate figure for the total immigrant population in Ptolemaic Egypt, including both Greeks and non-Greeks, this figure has been challenged as excessive.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 30">Bagnall, pp. 30</ref> The native Egyptian population, which remained Egyptian in language and culture, spoke the latest stage of the [[Egyptian language]], which came to be known later as [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. The creation of [[Coptic script|Coptic]] as a coherent writing system to express the Egyptian language undoubtedly served to cement the distinction between the native population in Egypt and the ruling Greeks.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 30"/>

Despite the presence of these immigrants and a foreign pharaoh, Egypt remained home primarily to Egyptians, by far the largest group within the population.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 30"/> In fact, most of the rural and urban native population that lived in towns, villages and hamlets the length of the [[Nile Valley]] continued their lives little changed during the rule of the [[Ptolemies]].<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 30"/> Even in [[Alexandria]], the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt and the largest Greek city outside of [[Greece]], the number of native Egyptians far outnumbered that of Greeks.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 78">Bagnall, pp. 78</ref> In numbers and in culture, Egypt remained essentially Egyptian, even as foreign communities were incorporated into the life of the country.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 33">Bagnall, pp. 33</ref> Over time, the small numbers of foreigners were integrated into the Egyptian population so that, when finally Rome took control of Egypt in 30 BC, the vast majority of Greeks in Egypt were essentially categorized by the Roman conquerors as Egyptians.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 33"/><ref>Walker, Susan, ''op cit.'', p. 24</ref>

The [[Faiyum mummy portraits]] reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and religion, with that of [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic art]], and were attached to sarcophagi of firmly Egyptian character.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 114</ref> The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations.<ref>Dentition helps archaeologists to assess biological and ethnic population traits and relationships</ref><ref>Irish JD (2006). "Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples.". ''Am J Phys Anthropol'' 129 (4): 529-43</ref>

===Foundation of the Christian Church in Egypt===
[[File:StMarkcoptic.jpg|thumb|right|Coptic icon of [[Mark the Evangelist|St. Mark]]]]

According to ancient tradition, [[Christianity]] was introduced to present day [[Egypt]] by [[Mark the Evangelist|St. Mark]] (Also known as St. Markos) in [[Alexandria]], shortly after the ascension of [[Christ]] and during the reign of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Claudius]] around 42 AD.<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of Ecclesiastical History in the fourth century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e., 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.</ref> The legacy that St. Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. Within half a century of St. Mark's arrival Christianity had spread throughout Egypt. This is clear from a fragment of the [[Gospel of John]], written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and found in [[Upper Egypt]] that can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and the [[New Testament]] writings found in [[Oxyrhynchus]], in [[Middle Egypt]], which date around 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the Coptic language (then known as ''Egyptian''). By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, [[Christians]] constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the [[Church of Alexandria]] was recognized as one of [[Christendom]]'s four apostolic sees, second in honor only to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church in Rome]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.goarch.org/-/the-primacy-of-the-see-of-constantinople-in-theory-and-practice- | title=The Primacy of the See of Constantinople in Theory and Practice* - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America - Orthodox Church }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.catholic.com/magazine/print-edition/papal-primacy-and-the-council-of-nicea | title=Papal Primacy and the Council of Nicea }}</ref> The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in [[Africa]].

===Contributions to Christianity===
{{Main|School of Alexandria|Coptic monasticism}}
The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to the Christian tradition. The [[Catechetical]] [[School of Alexandria]] was the oldest institution of its kind in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar [[Pantanaeus]], the school became an important focus of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as [[Athenagoras of Athens|Athenagoras]], [[Clement of Alexandria|Clement]], [[Didymus the Blind|Didymus]], and [[Origen]] (185–251, the father of [[Christian theology | theology]],<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Issa
 |first1               = Islam
 |author-link1         = Islam Issa (academic)
 |date                 = 2 January 2024
 |title                = Alexandria: The City that Changed the World
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=j7zEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT160
 |edition              = reprint
 |publisher            = Simon and Schuster
 |page                 = 
 |isbn                 = 978-1-63936-546-3
 |access-date          = 22 May 2025
 |quote                = Origen's detailed and comparative commentaries on the Bible essentially made him the founder of biblical studies. They led to his title, the father of theology, and cemented his reputation as the most influential Christian theologian until St Augustine over a century later.
}}
</ref>
who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative [[Biblical studies]]). However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects: science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before [[Braille]], blind scholars used wood-carving techniques there to read and write.

As major [[Early Christianity | early adopters of Christianity]], Copts have the reputation of [[Christian mission | mission]]aries spreading the Christian faith as far afield as Switzerland, Abyssinia and India, influencing Mesopotamia, Persia, Rome, and Ireland.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Naiem
 |first1               = Girgis
 |date                 = 12 February 2018
 |chapter              = The Copts and their Influence on Christian Civilization
 |title                = Egypt's Identities in Conflict: The Political and Religious Landscape of Copts and Muslims
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=yR9JDwAAQBAJ
 |publication-place    = Jefferson, North Carolina
 |publisher            = McFarland
 |pages                = 27–29
 |isbn                 = 978-1-4766-7120-8
 |access-date          = 22 May 2025
 |quote                = Copts themselves spread Christianity and their impact exceeded the borders of Egypt. [...] Cyrenaica is part of the title of the Coptic pope as an area of his jurisdiction. [...] The impact of the Coptic Christian missions was much more influential in the upper side of the Nile Valley in Nubia. [...] Coptic influence [...] reached farther south to Abyssinia, present day Ethiopia. [...] Copts also spread Christianity into the East [...]. The Egyptians went to Palestine, Syria, Cappadocia, Caesarea and some parts of Arabia. [...] Mar Augin of Clysma, Suez, founded monasticism in Mesopotamia and Persia and had a great impact on the Syrian and Assyrian Christians. In the second century, [[Pantaenus]], the dean of the School of Alexandria, introduced the Gospel into India and Arabia Felix, or Yemen. [...] [[Athanasius of Alexandria | Athanasius the Apostle]] [died 373] [...] introduced Coptic religious life and monasticism to the Romans. [...] The influence of the Copts also reached Switzerland [...]. [...] Coptic influence also reached the British Isles far before St. Augustine of Canterbury did, in AD 597. [[Catholic Church in Ireland | Irish Christianity]], the influential civilizing agent between northern nations in the Middle Ages, was the child of the Coptic church.
}}
</ref>

Another major contribution the Egyptian Copts made to [[Christianity]] was the creation and organization of [[monasticism]]. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from Egyptian origins.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Stewart
 |first1               = Columba
 |author-link1         = Columba Stewart
 |editor-last1         = Johnston
 |editor-first1        = William M
 |editor-link1         = Will Johnston
 |year                 = 2000
 |chapter              = Desert Fathers
 |title                = Encyclopedia of Monasticism 
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=GfC0TDkJJNgC
 |volume               = 1: A-L
 |publication-place    = Chicago
 |publisher            = Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers
 |page                 = 373
 |isbn                 = 978-1-57958-090-2
 |access-date          = 31 May 2025
 |quote                = Through its own literature, the accounts of outsiders who visited, and the monastic forms that it inspired, the life of the Desert Fathers provided the grounding for all later Christian monasticism.
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Brakke
 |first1               = David
 |author-link1         = David Brakke
 |editor-last1         = Kaczynski
 |editor-first1        = Bernice M.
 |editor-last2         = Sullivan
 |editor-first2        = Thomas
 |year                 = 2020
 |chapter              = Holy Men and Women of the Desert
 |title                = The Oxford Handbook of Christian Monasticism
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=j5r9DwAAQBAJ
 |series               = Oxford handbooks
 |publication-place    = Oxford
 |publisher            = Oxford University Press
 |page                 = 36
 |isbn                 = 978-0-19-968973-6
 |access-date          = 31 May 2025
 |quote                = The traditional narrative placed the origins of desert monasticism precisely in Egypt [...]. This story, however, is far too clear and orderly. We no longer trace all of Christian monasticism to Egypt; rather, recent work explores how forms of monasticism arose independently in particular geographic regions with their distinctive religious cultures.
}}
</ref> Prominent figures of the early monastic movement in Egypt included [[Anthony the Great]] (251-356), [[Paul of Thebes]] ({{circa | 227}} – {{circa | 341}}), [[Macarius the Great]] ({{circa |300}} – 391), [[Shenouda the Archimandrite]] (died 465) and [[Pachomius the Great|Pachomius the Cenobite]] (died 348). By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Pilgrims from all over the world visited the Egyptian [[Desert Fathers]] to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. [[Saint Basil|St Basil the Great]] Archbishop of [[Caesarea Mazaca]], and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in [[Asia Minor]], visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]. [[Saint Jerome]], who translated the [[Bible]] into [[Latin]], came to [[Egypt]] while en route to [[Jerusalem]] around 400 AD, leaving details of his experiences in his letters. [[Benedict of Nursia|St. Benedict]] founded the [[Benedictine Order]] in the 6th century on the model of [[Saint Pachomius]], although in a stricter form.

===Ecumenical councils===
The major contributions that the [[See of Alexandria]] has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three [[ecumenical council]]s in the history of [[Christianity]] were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] (325 AD) was presided over by [[Pope Alexander I of Alexandria]], along with [[Hosius of Córdoba|Saint Hosius of Córdoba]]. In addition, the most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], who played the major role in the formulation of the [[Nicene Creed]], recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of [[Easter]] to the rest of the Christian churches. The [[First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]] (381 AD) was presided over by [[Timothy I of Alexandria|Pope Timothy I of Alexandria]], while the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] (431 AD) was presided over by [[Cyril of Alexandria|Pope Cyril of Alexandria]].

===Council of Chalcedon===
{{Main|Council of Chalcedon}}
In the fourth and fifth centuries AD, the foundations were laid for the divergence in doctrine between the native Christian Church of the Egyptians, and that of the empire. The official schism occurred at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 AD. The council, which condemned, deposed, exiled and replaced the native Egyptian Patriarch of Alexandria [[Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria|Dioscorus I]], was rejected by the Egyptian delegation to the council, and by extension by the entirety of the native Egyptian population. As a result of the Council of Chalcedon, the [[Church of Alexandria]], which had jurisdiction over the entire country of Egypt, as well as all of continent of [[Africa]], was divided into a church that accepted the decrees of the council, and one that rejected them. The church that accepted the council, became known as the Chalcedonian church, and survives today as the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria]]. On the other hand, the church that rejected the council of Chalcedon, to whom the vast majority of the native Copts adhered, became the predecessor of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]]. The latter has been erroneously referred to as [[Monophysitism|Monophysite]], although it itself rejects that term and self-proclaims to be [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite]]. The non-Chalcedonian Miaphysite doctrine became adopted as a badge of nationalism for the native Egyptians.<ref name="Guindy"/>

===Byzantine Egypt===
A distinctive Egyptian character of Egypt's native Copts began to develop after the council of Chalcedon, and reached its zenith in the period after the reign of emperor [[Justinian I]] in the sixth century AD.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 179">Bagnall, pp. 179</ref> That process became the foundation for the evolution of a distinctive Egyptian character for the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]], with its distancing from the empire's official [[Chalcedonian Christology]] and its distinctive Greek character.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 179"/> During that period and until the Arab invasion of Egypt in the seventh century, the Byzantine emperors repeatedly deposed and exiled native Egyptian non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria, and imposed pro-Chalcedonian ones, most of whom were non-Egyptian. Over the years, because of what they had construed as persecution of the imperial authorities, the Egyptians hardened their position and rejected all conciliatory efforts that fell short of a full condemnation of the Council of Chalcedon.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 236</ref> This position coincided with the rise in the public visibility of the [[Coptic language]] in several areas of the Egyptians' daily life.

===Arab conquest of Egypt===
{{Main|Arab conquest of Egypt|Islamization of Egypt}}
[[File:Kairo Hanging Church BW 1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Hanging Church]] in [[Coptic Cairo]]]]

In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by Arab Muslim forces following the defeat of the Byzantine army. According to historian Roger S. Bagnall, the Copts who had developed a distinct Egyptian and non-Chalcedonian identity were subjected to a new system of governance that prioritized fiscal exploitation and systematic resource extraction, particularly through taxation.<ref name="Bagnall284">{{cite book |last=Bagnall |first=Roger S. |title=Egypt in Late Antiquity |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1993 |page=284}}</ref>

Alfred J. Butler records that parts of Alexandria were damaged during the Arab entry into the city, including the destruction of some of its walls and the burning of several churches.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Alfred J. |title=The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of the Roman Dominion |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1902 |pages=227–230}}</ref>

During the early years of the Rashidun Caliphate, Egypt's population particularly the native Copts was subjected to the imposition of new forms of taxation, forced labor requisitions for state infrastructure, and the appropriation of agricultural and technical resources. The fertile Nile Valley and the country's skilled labor force, particularly in shipbuilding and irrigation, were of strategic importance to the new administration.<ref name="Bagnall284">{{cite book |last=Bagnall |first=Roger S. |title=Egypt in Late Antiquity |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1993 |page=284}}</ref>

By the early eighth century, Coptic Christians were increasingly compelled to participate in state-sponsored labor. According to Alfred J. Butler, entire Egyptian villages were required to supply annual quotas of workers for construction projects including palaces and mosques in Fustat, Damascus, and Jerusalem. Additionally, they were conscripted into naval expeditions considered especially harsh, as those sent rarely returned to their villages due to the dangerous conditions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Alfred J. |title=The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of the Roman Dominion |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1902 |pages=230–231}}</ref>

Roger S. Bagnall emphasizes that fiscal exploitation and labor requisition were central elements of the early Islamic administrative system in Egypt. These policies imposed disproportionate burdens on rural communities, particularly the Copts, who bore the brunt of extractive practices aimed at funding the caliphate's military and infrastructural expansion.<ref name="Bagnall284"/>

In addition to labor, native Christians were subject to the [[jizya]] a special tax levied exclusively on non-Muslims under Islamic law. Aziz Suryal Atiya notes that during the Umayyad period, this tax was extended even to monks, in violation of earlier pledges of exemption, and was often enforced with harsh penalties.<ref>{{cite book |last=Atiya |first=Aziz Suryal |title=A History of Eastern Christianity |publisher=Methuen & Co. |year=1968 |pages=104–106}}</ref>

Faced with the cumulative pressures of taxation, legal inequality, and the threat of forced conscription or persecution, many Copts gradually converted to Islam. These converts were classified as [[Mawali]] (non-Arab Muslims) who, while integrated into the Muslim community, initially occupied a lower social and legal status than Arab Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoyland |first=Robert G. |title=Christians and Others in the Umayyad State |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |chapter=4: Taxation and Persecution}}</ref>

The burden of taxation left many Copts in rural areas unable to meet their obligations.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 304</ref> Oppressive taxation resulted in local resistance and many revolts by the Copts against the Arab occupiers, the most famous of which were the [[Bashmurian revolts]] between 720 A.D. and 832 A.D.<ref>Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by [[Al-Maqrizi]]</ref><ref>Chronicles, by [[John of Nikiû]]</ref> Another reaction to the heavy taxation was for poor Christian Copts to either borrow money from richer members of their communities, or to altogether flee their lands and escape to other parts of Egypt.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 299, 304</ref>

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Coptic monks.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Coptic monks at the [[American Colony, Jerusalem]], between 1898 and 1914.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matson|first1=G. Olaf|title=The American Colony Guide-book to Jerusalem and Environs|date=1925|publisher=Vester|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMLTAAAAMAAJ|access-date=7 September 2017|quote=Copts. A very small community representing the large Coptic Church in Egypt.[...] Abyssinian. Also represented by a Bishop in Jerusalem. They, like the Copts, are Monophysites}}</ref>]]
Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian for approximately 800 years. Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shea |first=Nina |date=2017-06-20 |title=Do Copts Have a Future in Egypt? |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210219151911/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt |archive-date=2021-02-19 |access-date=2025-09-14 |work=Foreign Affairs |language=en-US |issn=0015-7120}}</ref> as a result of successive persecutions and the destruction of the Christian churches in Egypt.<ref name="auto"/> From the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes,<ref name="auto1"/> such as the [[Umayyad Caliphate]],<ref>H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 219.</ref> the [[Abbasid Caliphate]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Goddard|first=Hugh|title=A History of Christian–Muslim Relations|date=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1-56663-340-0 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bq2oLEvHzl8C&pg=PA71 |page=71|access-date=20 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Feder |chapter=The Bashmurite Revolts in the Delta and the 'Bashmuric Dialect' |title=Christianity and Monasticism in Northern Egypt: Beni Suef, Giza, Cairo, and the Nile Delta |editor-first1=Gawdat |editor-last1=Gabra |editor-first2=Hany N. |editor-last2=Takla |year=2017 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |pages=33–35}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus |first=Ira M. |last=Lapidus |title=The Conversion of Egypt to Islam |journal=Israel Oriental Studies |volume=2 |year=1972 |page=257}}</ref> the [[Fatimid Caliphate]],<ref name="Robert Ousterhout 1989 pp. 66-78">Robert Ousterhout, "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre" in ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 48, No. 1 (March, 1989), pp.66–78</ref><ref name="Saunders2002">{{cite book|author=John Joseph Saunders|title=A History of Medieval Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109|date=11 March 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-93005-0|pages=109–}}</ref><ref name="Rustow2014">{{cite book|author=[[Marina Rustow]]|title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219|date=3 October 2014|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2|pages=219–}}</ref> the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teule|first1=Herman G. B.|editor1-last=Thomas|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Mallett|editor2-first=Alex|title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350-1500)|date=2013|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-25278-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgy7SN3ZixsC&pg=PA11|chapter=Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516 |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218-1250| first= Kurt J.|last=Werthmuller |year= 2010| isbn =978-0-8054-4073-7| page = 76|publisher= American Univ in Cairo Press}}</ref> and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The [[Persecution of Copts|persecution of Coptic]] Christians included closing and demolishing churches, [[forced conversion]]s to [[Islam]],<ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 978-977-416-093-6| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote= By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...}}</ref><ref>ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.</ref> and heavy [[Jizya]] taxation for those who refused to convert.<ref>{{Citation|title=Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert|url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x00372f27.pdf|quote= ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"}}</ref>

Coptic converts to [[Islam]] may have been motivated by the prospect of financial relief, as they would no longer be subject to the Jizya tax, which was levied only on non-Muslims according to [[Sharia|Islamic Sharia law]].<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 339">Bagnall, pp. 339</ref> The ''[[History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria]]'' recounts the history of fiscal oppression imposed by the [[caliphate]] against Copts as driving conversions from Christianity to Islam.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 339"/> Early converts had to attach themselves to Arab Muslim patrons as [[Mawla|Mawali]]. While they had to adopt Arabic as their main language, they remained fluent in Coptic, thus creating a growing bilingual group among Egyptian Muslims.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 338</ref> Nevertheless, Egypt remained a majority Christian country well into the [[Middle Ages]]. Many cities in [[Upper Egypt]] had no Muslim communities at all during that time.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 342</ref>

===Early Modern Period===
[[File:Baron Antoine-Jean Gros-Battle Pyramids 1810.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]] at the [[Egyptian pyramids|Pyramids]] in 1798, by [[Antoine-Jean Gros]] ]]
[[File:Bertha Müller - portrait d'une copte.webp|thumb|right|Portrait of a Coptic Christian woman by [[Bertha Müller]], circa 1850]]
The treatment of Christian Copts by Muslim rulers remained challenging throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and continued into the [[Early modern period]].{{citation needed|date=April 2025}} When [[Napoleon]] conquered Egypt in 1798 as part of the [[French invasion of Egypt and Syria|Napoleonic wars]], a military unit known as the [[Coptic Legion]] was created out of necessity for self-defense by the Coptic community for protection against the [[Mamluk]]s, [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s and Egyptian Muslims.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://copticliterature.wordpress.com/2012/06/01/the-excellent-article-on-general-yaqub-by-anwar-louca-in-the-coptic-encyclopedia/ |title=THE EXCELLENT ARTICLE ON GENERAL YA'QUB BY ANWAR LOUCA IN THE COPTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA |website=copticliterature.wordpress.com |date=2012-06-01 |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref><ref name="insidegmt.com">{{cite web |url=https://insidegmt.com/napoleon-in-egypt-local-units-side-with-the-french |title=Napoleon in Egypt: Local Units Side with the French |website=insidegmt.com |date=2024-06-18 |access-date=2024-04-06}}</ref> The Coptic Legion was headed by a Coptic general, [[General Yaqub]], who recruited young Copts from [[Cairo]] and [[Upper Egypt]] for the Legion. These were trained by instructors from the French army. Together with the Greek Legion, the Coptic Legion formed the ''[[Bataillon des Chasseurs d'Orient]]''.<ref name="insidegmt.com"/> Members of the Coptic Legion returned with the French army to [[France]] in 1801 after the defeat of the [[French invasion of Egypt and Syria|Napoleonic conquest of Egypt]].<ref name="insidegmt.com"/>

[[General Yaqub]] is considered to be the founder of the first project for Egypt's independence in modern times from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gate.ahram.org.eg/daily/News/131723/149/453487/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B0%D9%89/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84.aspx |script-title=ar:لويس عوضسيد العقل - الأهرام اليومي |trans-title=Louis Awad, Master of the Mind |language=ar |publisher=Al-Ahram Daily |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref><ref name="Motherland Lost pp. 64-45">Motherland Lost: The Egyptian And Coptic Quest For Modernity. By Samuel Tadros. pp. 64-45</ref><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=598134 | last1=Haddad | first1=George A. | title=A Project for the Independence of Egypt, 1801 | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | date=1970 | volume=90 | issue=2 | pages=169–183 | doi=10.2307/598134 }}</ref> He argued for the country's independence from an [[Egyptian nationalism|Egyptian nationalist]] point of view, highlighting the past glory of Egypt, lamenting its current state unworthy of a people who built a great civilization, and stressing the debt that humanity owes to Egypt's ancient culture.<ref name="Motherland Lost pp. 64-45"/>

During the Ottoman period, Copts were classified alongside other Oriental Orthodox (namely the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]]) and [[Church of the East]] peoples under the [[Armenian millet]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald Grigor |title="They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide|title-link=They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6558-1|page=48}}</ref> Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes, had lower access to political power, and were exempt from military service.

The position of the Copts improved dramatically under the rule of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] in the early 19th century. He abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Copts to enroll in the army. [[Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria|Pope Cyril IV]], who reigned from 1854–1861, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive [[Isma'il Pasha]], in power 1863–1879, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Copts in modern Egypt===
{{Main|Copts in Egypt|Pharaonism|Egyptian nationalism|Coptic identity}}
{{further|Christianity in Egypt}}
[[Image:Wafd party flag.svg|thumb|right|The flag of Egyptian nationalist revolutionaries during the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|1919 Revolution]]. It displays both the crescent representing Muslim Egyptians and the cross representing Christian Egyptians]]

Egypt's struggle for independence from both the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[United Kingdom]] was marked by secular [[Egyptian nationalism]]. Copts were in the forefront of that struggle for Egypt's independence. When the Egyptian nationalist leader [[Saad Zaghlul]] met the Arab delegates at [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Versailles]] in 1919, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, stressing that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one.<ref>Makropoulou, Ifigenia. [http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html Pan – Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism? Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002224756/http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html |date=October 2, 2018 }}</ref>

When Zaghlul was [[exile]]d by the British to [[Malta]] in 1919, a number of prominent Christian Coptic figures who joined him in resisting the British occupation of Egypt were also exiled with him, including [[Wissa Wassef]] and [[George Khayat]], both key members of the Egyptian nationalist movement. When Zaghlul returned from his first exile, he was joined by the Copts [[Wissa Wassef]], [[Sinout Hanna]], [[Wassef Ghali]], [[Morcos Hanna]] and [[Makram Ebeid]] in forming a strong opposition against British colonialism in Egypt.<ref name="dotmsr.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.dotmsr.com/News/196/224995/%D8%B5%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-1919 |script-title=ar:صراع الرفاق في ثورة 1919 |trans-title=The struggle of the comrades in the 1919 revolution |language=ar |website=dotmsr.com |date=10 March 2015 |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref> Later in 1921, when Zaghlul was exiled to the [[Seychelles]], the prominent Copt [[Makram Ebeid]] was exiled with him.<ref name="dotmsr.com"/>

The exiles were part of the larger Egyptian nationalist response to British colonial rule and represented a unified effort across religious lines in Egypt. They galvanized widespread protests in Egypt that culminated in the famous [[1919 Egyptian revolution|1919 revolution]], which further emphasized the shared desire for independence among Egyptians of all faiths. This unity became a hallmark of the early 20th-century Egyptian nationalism. In his memoirs,

[[Fakhri 'Abd al-Nur]], one of the most recognized Coptic figures of the 1919 Revolution, recalls the positive impact of the statement made by Saad Zaghlul at the onset of the revolution, declaring "equal responsibilities and equal rights" of Egyptian Copts and Muslims.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/1199/327758/Egypt/-Revolution/-A-people;s-revolution-The-Coptic-contingent------.aspx |title=A people's revolution: The Coptic contingent |website=english.ahram.org.eg |date=2019-05-07 |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref> In fact, the preacher of the 1919 Revolution was a Coptic priest, [[Father Morcos Sergius]], who had been previously exiled by the British in 1915.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/327815.aspx |title=Father Sergius: The preacher of Egypt's 1919 revolution |website=english.ahram.org.eg |date=2019-05-07 |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref>

In April 1922, the British ordered the execution of seven Egyptian nationalists, four of whom were Copts: Wissa Wassef, Wassef Ghali, George Khayat, and Morcos Hanna.<ref name="dotmsr.com"/> As a result of their struggle, Egypt gained its independence from both Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire on 28 February 1922. This struggle of Copts against the British and the Ottomans within the framework of Egyptian nationalism highlighted the Copts' (as well as the Egyptian Muslims') self-identification as Egyptians first and foremost with little attention to religious affiliations.

[[File:Copts-with-Nasser-1965.jpg|thumb|right|President [[Nasser]] welcomes a delegation of Coptic bishops (1965)]]

Two significant cultural achievements for Copts in the twentieth century include the founding of the [[Coptic Museum]] in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are [[Salama Moussa]], [[Louis Awad]] and Secretary General of the Wafd Party [[Makram Ebeid]].

In 1952, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] led some army officers in a coup d'état against [[Farouk of Egypt|King Farouk]], which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. [[Nasser]]'s mainstream policy was [[pan-Arab]] nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies.<ref name="nisan">{{Cite book | last = Nisan | first = Mordechai | title = Minorities in the Middle East | publisher = McFarland | year = 2002 | page = 144 | isbn = 978-0-7864-1375-1}}</ref> In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and non-Arab identity.<ref name= nisan />

==Demographics==
{{further|Christianity in Egypt}}
The Coptic population [[Copts in Egypt|in Egypt]] is difficult to estimate because researchers are forbidden by Egyptian authorities to ask a survey participant's religion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2016/06/20/what-egypt-under-sissi-is-really-like-for-coptic-christians/|title=What Egypt under Sissi is really like for Coptic Christians|last=Yerkes|first=Sarah|date=20 June 2016|quote=Egyptian authorities prevent surveyors from asking a participant's religion when doing research.}}</ref> A lack of definite, reliable demographic data renders all estimates uncertain.<ref name=WSJ2015 /><ref name=Hanna /> As of 2019, Copts were generally understood to make up approximately 10 percent of Egypt's population,<ref name=Hanna>Michael Wahid Hanna, [https://tcf.org/content/report/christian-exclusion-from-egypts-security-state/ Excluded and Unequal: Copts on the Margins of the Egyptian Security State], [[The Century Foundation]] (May 9, 2019).</ref> with an estimated population of 9.5 million (figure cited in the ''Wall Street Journal'', 2017)<ref name=RoccaKholaif /> or 10 million (figure cited in the [[Associated Press]], 2019).<ref name=Elhennawy /> Smaller or larger figures have also been cited, in the range of "somewhere between 6% and 18% of the population,"<ref name=WSJ2015 /> with the Egyptian government estimating lower numbers and the Coptic Orthodox Church estimating higher numbers.<ref name=Hanna /> In 2023, [[Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria]] stated that the number of Copts in Egypt is estimated at approximately 15 million out of a total population of 105 million, or approximately 14% of the population in Egypt.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="almasryalyoum.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2874344 | title=البابا تواضروس: ١٥ مليون مسيحي في مصر &#124; المصري اليوم }}</ref> He also said there were another 2 million Copts living in approximately 100 different countries in the [[Coptic diaspora|diaspora]].<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="almasryalyoum.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2874344 | title=البابا تواضروس: ١٥ مليون مسيحي في مصر &#124; المصري اليوم }}</ref> He explained that this data was obtained from records of child baptisms, marriages, and deaths.

Despite challenges, Copts are well integrated in the Egyptian society. The highest concentrations of Copts are in [[Upper Egypt]], especially around [[Asyut]], [[Minya, Egypt|Minya]] and [[Qena]].<ref name="Mohamoud Cuadros Abu-Raddad 2013 p. 22">{{cite journal | last1=Mohamoud | first1=Yousra A. | last2=Cuadros | first2=Diego F. | last3=Abu-Raddad | first3=Laith J. | title=Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators | journal=QScience Connect | issue=2013 | date=2013 | issn=2223-506X | doi=10.5339/connect.2013.22 | page=22| doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Diaspora===
{{Main|Coptic diaspora}}
There are approximately 1-2 million Copts living outside of Egypt, and are known as the ''[[Coptic diaspora]]''.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="almasryalyoum.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2874344 | title=البابا تواضروس: ١٥ مليون مسيحي في مصر &#124; المصري اليوم }}</ref> They live mainly in the [[United States]]	(500,000),<ref name=Telushkin2018 /> Sudan (400,000-500,000),<ref name="unhcr1">[https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/mrgi/2018/en/64852 Sudan: Copts], ''World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples'', Minority Rights Group International (June 2018)</ref> Australia (75,000),<ref name="parliament.nsw.gov.au">In the year 2003, there was an estimated 70,000 Copts in New South Wales alone: {{cite web|title=Coptic Orthodox Church (NSW) Property Trust Act 1990|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/cocpta1990518/|website=New South Wales Consolidated Acts}}</ref> Libya (60,000),<ref name="LookLex Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|title=Coptic Church|last=Kjeilen|first=Tore|website=LookLex Encyclopedia|access-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083550/http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Canada (50,000),<ref name=KermalliRNS2017>Shenaz Kermalli, [https://sojo.net/articles/canadian-copts-ponder-future-their-faith Canadian Copts Ponder Future of Their Faith], [[Religion News Service]] (April 25, 2017).</ref> France (45,000),<ref name="la-croix.com">In the year 2017, there was an estimated 45,000 Copts in France: {{cite news|title=Qui sont les coptes en France ?|url=https://www.la-croix.com/Religion/Orthodoxie/Qui-sont-coptes-France-2017-03-16-1200832369|website=La Croix|date=16 March 2017}}</ref> Italy (30,000),<ref name="CESNUR – Centro studi sulle nuove religioni (Center for Studies on New Religions)">{{Cite web|url=https://cesnur.com/la-chiesa-copta/|title=La Chiesa copta|date=March 10, 2014}}</ref> the United Kingdom (25,000–30,000),<ref name="middlekilleavy.com">Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain {{cite web |url=http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid%3D2631%26option%3Dcom_cifeed%26task%3Dnewsarticle |title=Middle Killeavy Parish Web Site |access-date=2008-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |archive-date=2009-01-21 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the {{usurped|1=[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]}}</ref> the United Arab Emirates (10,000)<ref name="Teller">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33480115|title=Free to pray – but don't try to convert anyone|work=BBC|first=Matthew|last=Teller|date=12 July 2015|access-date=12 July 2015|quote=Ten-thousand or more live in the UAE, and young, bearded priest Father Markos, 12 years in Dubai, told me his flock are "more than happy – they enjoy their life, they are free."}}</ref> and the Netherlands (10,000).<ref name="gereformeerdebond.nl">{{cite news|url=https://gereformeerdebond.nl/de-waarheidsvriend/artikelen/welkom-welkom-2/|title='De Koptische kerk telt in Nederland ongeveer tienduizend leden, die grotendeels afkomstig zijn uit Egypte.' |date=12 July 2015|access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>

====Sudan====
{{Main|Copts in Sudan}}
{{further|Christianity in Sudan}}
[[File:Coptic cathedral (Khartoum) 001.jpg|thumb|right|Holy Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in [[Khartoum]]]]

[[Sudan]] has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants.<ref name="unhcr1" /> Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities close to the border with Egypt.<ref name="unhcr1" /> Many Sudanese Copts have advanced educations.<ref name="unhcr1" /> They have occasionally faced forced [[conversion to Islam]], resulting in their emigration and decrease in number.<ref name="unhcr1" />

Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under [[History of Mahdist Sudan|Mahdist rule]] at the end of the 19th century.<ref name="unhcr1" /> As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt [[Islam]], and intermarry with the native Sudanese population. The [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian invasion]] in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom. However, the return of [[Islamism]] in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an [[Sharia|Islamic constitution]] prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule.<ref name="unhcr1" />

Introduction of Islamic [[Sharia]] law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims.<ref name="unhcr1" /> Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the [[National Islamic Front]] overthrew the elected government with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary.<ref name="unhcr1" /> In 1991, many Copts in Sudan fled the country after the execution by the government of a Coptic pilot for illegal possession of foreign currency and refusing to convert to [[Islam]].<ref name="sudanupdate1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/PEOPLES/COPTS.HTM|title=Copts|website=www.sudanupdate.org}}</ref> Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and the imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of [[hijab]] dress laws. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim [[Friday prayers]], the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service.

After the 2018 [[Sudanese revolution]], one Copt ([[Raja Nicola|Raja Nicola Issa Abdul-Masseh]]) was appointed in 2019 to the 11-member [[Transitional Sovereignty Council]], which was convened as part of plan to transition Sudan to democracy.<ref>Mohammed Alamin, [https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_sudans-copts-see-hope-appointment-first-christian/6177321.html Sudan's Copts See Hope in Appointment of First Christian], Voice of America (October 9, 2019).</ref> However, a [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup in 2019]] dissolved the council and halted the democratic transition. Christians, including Copts, were subjected to intensified persecution during the [[Sudanese civil war (2023–present)|civil war that began in 2023]].<ref name=JCasper2023>Jayson Casper, [https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2023/may/sudan-christians-burhan-rsf-civil-war-khartoum-churches.html Khartoum Churches Damaged as Sudan Descends Closer to Civil War], ''Christianity Today'' (May 2, 2023).</ref> Many became refugees or were [[internally displaced]].<ref name=JCasper2023/>

A 2018 report by the [[Minority Rights Group]] said Sudanese Copts had previously estimated their numbers at 400,000 to 500,000,<ref>[https://minorityrights.org/communities/copts-2/  Copts in Sudan], Minority Rights Group (June 2018).</ref> about 1% of the Sudanese population,<ref name="unhcr1" /> but that emigration and conversion (including forced conversion) to Islam had decreased their number.<ref name=Mehari>Fikiru Mehari, [https://www.thetablet.co.uk/blogs/1/2421/the-fears-and-vulnerabilities-of-christians-amid-the-conflict-in-sudan The fears and vulnerabilities of Christians amid the conflict in Sudan], ''The Tablet'' (April 28, 2023).</ref>

====Libya====
{{Main|Copts in Libya}}
{{further|Christianity in Libya}}
[[File:Altar of the church of Libyan Martyrs in Minya.jpg|thumb|right|[[Coptic art|Coptic icon]] of the [[2015 kidnapping and beheading of Copts in Libya|21 Coptic martyrs of Libya]]]]
The [[Copts in Libya|Coptic population in Libya]] is uncertain. A 2013 estimate by the [[U.S. Department of State]] placed the entire population of non-Muslim Libyans at 180,000 (roughly 3% of the country's population). However, the Coptic Orthodox Church in Libya estimated that its membership alone was 300,000, including those who do not regularly attend church services.<ref name=Tadros>{{cite book|editor=Daniel Philpott & Timothy Samuel Shah|chapter=Christians in Egypt, Libya, and Palestine Responding to the Aftermaths of the Arab Revolts|title=Under Caesar's Sword: How Christians Respond to Persecution|series=Cambridge Studies in Law and Christianity|author=Mariz Tadros|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=108–113}}</ref> In 2011, there were three Coptic churches in the country. From 2011 to 2015, during the [[Libyan Crisis (2011–present)|Libyan civil war]], at least 200,000 Christians [[Libyan refugees|fled Libya]]. during that time, Islamist militants such as the [[Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)|Ansar al-Sharia]], [[Nusra Front]], and [[Islamic State in Libya|Islamic State]] violently persecuted Copts.<ref name=Tadros/>

In 2015, [[2015 kidnapping and beheading of Copts in Libya|twenty Copts were killed by beheading]] in Libya by the [[Islamic State]]. The video of their execution, which was broadcast by [[Al-Hayat Media Center|Al-Hayat]] gained widespread international attention, leading to their canonization by both the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-11 |title=Vatican formally recognizes 21 Coptic Orthodox killed in Libya as martyrs, gives them feast day |url=https://apnews.com/article/vatican-coptic-orthodox-martyrs-beheaded-libya-45937c3da0c43868ef33ceceaf6d8906 |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref>

====North America====
{{Main|Coptic Orthodox Church in North America|Coptic Orthodox Church in the United States|Coptic Orthodox Church in Canada|Coptic Americans|Coptic Canadians}}
[[File:StMarkCopticOrthodoxChurchBellaireTX0.JPG|thumb|right|St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in [[Bellaire, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]).]] 
The largest Coptic diaspora population outside of Egypt is located in [[North America]], both in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].

The first Coptic Orthodox church in [[North America]], [[Coptic Orthodox Church in Canada|Saint Mark Coptic Orthodox Church]], was built in [[Toronto]] in 1964.<ref name=Clark2016>Stanley A. Clark, "Coptic Orthodox Church" in ''Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States''  (eds. George Thomas Kurian & Mark A. Lamport: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), pp. 638-39.</ref> The first [[Coptic Orthodox Church in the United States|Coptic Orthodox church in the United States]], [[St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church (Jersey City, New Jersey)|Saint Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in New Jersey]], was built in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]] shortly afterward.<ref name=Clark2016 />

As of 2018, the [[Coptic American]] population was estimated to be more than 500,000, with more than 250 Coptic churches in the United States at the time.<ref name=Telushkin2018 /> In the early 2010s, the Canadian Coptic Association estimates that the population of [[Copts in Canada|Canadian Copts]] was 35,000.<ref name=CBC2011>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/coptic-christians-in-canada-1.1020870 Coptic Christians in Canada], CBC News (January 4, 2011).</ref> By 2017, there were an estimated 50,000 Canadian Copts, with more than 80% living in [[Ontario]],<ref name=KermalliRNS2017 /> mainly in the [[Greater Toronto Area]].<ref name=CBC2011 />

====Australia====
{{Main|Coptic Orthodox Church in Australia|Coptic Australians}}
The [[Copts in Australia|Coptic Australians]] population has been estimated at 30,000 ([[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]], 2017)<ref>Steven Viney, [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-04-10/who-are-egypts-copts/8429634 Who are Egypt's Coptic Christians and why are they persecuted?], ABC News (April 10, 2017).</ref> to 100,000 ([[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]], 2018).<ref>Hannah Sinclair, [https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/coptic-christians-celebrate-christmas-after-sadness-of-terror-attacks/6nh50nn4v Coptic Christians celebrate Christmas after 'sadness' of terror attacks], [[Special Broadcasting Service]] (January 7, 2018).</ref> The first Coptic Orthodox priest in Australia arrived in 1969. The [[Coptic Orthodox Church in Australia]] is organized into two dioceses, the first based in [[Melbourne]] (diocese organized in 1999) and the second in [[Sydney]] (diocese organized in 2002).<ref>{{cite book|title=Australia's Religious Communities: Facts and Figures from the 2011 Australian Census and Other Sources|page=78|date=2012|author=Philip J. Hughes, Margaret Fraser, and Stephen Breck Reid|publisher=[[Christian Research Association]]}}</ref> There is a single Coptic Catholic church in Australia, consecrated in 2019.<ref>Mary Brazell, [https://catholicoutlook.org/first-coptic-catholic-church-in-australia-blessed-and-consecrated-in-western-sydney/ First Coptic Catholic church in Australia blessed and consecrated in Western Sydney.], ''Catholic Outlook'' (March 18, 2019).</ref>

====Middle East====
{{Main|Coptic Orthodox Archdiocese of Jerusalem}}
Smaller communities of Copts are found throughout the [[Middle East]], including [[Kuwait]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51603.htm|title=Kuwait|work=U.S. Department of State|access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref> [[Jordan]] and [[Lebanon]].

[[Jordan]] has a minor community of Copts. In 2005, the [[Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Church (Jordan)|Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Church]] in the [[Abdali area|Abdali]] district of [[Amman]] had 8,000 members, mostly Egyptians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926234617/http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm|title=King commends Coptic Church's role in promoting coexistence|archive-date=September 26, 2011}}</ref>

As of 2012, [[Lebanon]]'s Syriac League estimated that the Coptic population in the country numbered at 3,000 to 4,000.<ref name="state2">{{cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2012/nea/208400.htm |title=Lebanon|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]], [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]|date=2013|work=2012 [[Report on International Religious Freedom]]}}</ref>

In [[Israel]], there were approximately 1,000 Copts as of 2014, mostly residing in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The ethnic origin of Christians in Israel |url=https://www.parshan.co.il/index2.php?id=11204&lang=HEB|website=parshan.co.il |language=he}}</ref>

====Europe====
{{Main|Coptic Orthodox Church in Europe}}
In [[Europe]], [[France]] has the largest number of Copts, estimated at approximately 45,000.<ref name="la-croix.com">In the year 2017, there was an estimated 45,000 Copts in France: {{cite news|title=Qui sont les coptes en France ?|url=https://www.la-croix.com/Religion/Orthodoxie/Qui-sont-coptes-France-2017-03-16-1200832369|website=La Croix|date=16 March 2017}}</ref> This is followed by [[Italy]] (30,000),<ref name="CESNUR – Centro studi sulle nuove religioni (Center for Studies on New Religions)">{{Cite web|url=https://cesnur.com/la-chiesa-copta/|title=La Chiesa copta|date=March 10, 2014}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]] (25,000–30,000)<ref name="middlekilleavy.com">Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain {{cite web |url=http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid%3D2631%26option%3Dcom_cifeed%26task%3Dnewsarticle |title=Middle Killeavy Parish Web Site |access-date=2008-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |archive-date=2009-01-21 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the {{usurped|1=[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]}}</ref> and the [[Netherlands]] (10,000).<ref name="gereformeerdebond.nl">{{cite news|url=https://gereformeerdebond.nl/de-waarheidsvriend/artikelen/welkom-welkom-2/|title='De Koptische kerk telt in Nederland ongeveer tienduizend leden, die grotendeels afkomstig zijn uit Egypte.' |date=12 July 2015|access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>

As of 2017, [[Germany]] was home to between 6,000 and 10,000 Copts.<ref>[https://www.dw.com/en/faith-matters-germanys-growing-coptic-church/video-37051273 Germany's growing Coptic Church], [[DW News]] (January 7, 2017).</ref> In the 2020s, the Coptic Orthodox population of [[Austria]] was estimated to be 10,000, although the 2001 Austrian census (the country's last to record religious affiliation) tallied just 1,633 Coptic Orthodox.<ref>Andreas Schmoller, [https://muse.jhu.edu/journal/785 The Syriac Orthodox and Coptic Orthodox Churches in Austria: Inter-Church Relations and State Recognition], ''Mashriq & Mahjar: Journal of Middle East and North African Migration Studies'', vol. 8, no. 1 (2020).</ref>

In [[Switzerland]], the first Copts arrived in the 1960s, mostly students and those fleeing Egypt after the [[1952 Egyptian revolution|1952 revolution]]. The first Coptic church in Switzerland opened in 2004, when there were approximately 1,000 Copts in the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/history/orthodox-copts-open-church-in-switzerland/4000104|title=Orthodox Copts open church in Switzerland|last=Burnand|first=Frédéric|work=[[SWI swissinfo]]|date=July 17, 2004 }}</ref>

===Socioeconomics===
Copts in Egypt are generally characterized by relatively high levels of educational attainment, income, and representation in professional and white-collar occupations, though their participation in security-related institutions remains limited.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Most socioeconomic and health indicators among Copts in Egypt are broadly comparable to those of Egyptian Muslims.<ref>Mohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22 {{doi|10.5339/connect.2013.22}}</ref> Historical data also suggest that Egyptian Christians have been overrepresented in the country's middle and upper-middle classes.<ref>{{cite book|title=Christians in Egypt: Strategies and Survival|first=Andrea |last=B. Rugh |year=2016|isbn=978-1-137-56613-3|page=30|publisher=Springer}}</ref> As of 2016, 36% of Egyptian Christians had completed university education in institutions of [[higher education]]; among the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa.<ref name="Pew2016">{{cite web |date=19 December 2016 |title=Religion and Education Around the World |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222152619/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-22}}</ref>

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Copts held significant roles in Egypt's financial and administrative sectors. They were widely employed as accountants in government offices, and by the 1960s reportedly owned 51% of the country's banking institutions.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/comparative-studies-in-society-and-history/article/abs/accursed-superior-men-ethnoreligious-minorities-and-politics-in-the-medieval-mediterranean/EB9A103390FE521CB065862F5918BA07|title=Accursed, Superior Men: Ethno-Religious Minorities and Politics in the Medieval Mediterranean|date=3 October 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/S0010417514000425 |last1=Catlos |first1=Brian A. |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=844–869 |s2cid=145603557|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Christian Heritage: History, Faith and Culture|first=Lois|last=M. Farag |year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-66684-3|page=83|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In the mid-20th century, Christians were estimated to represent 45% of Egypt's medical doctors and 60% of its pharmacists.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Copts in Modern Egypt|date=3 October 1982|publisher=JSTOR|jstor=4282879|last1=Pennington |first1=J. D. |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=158–179 |doi=10.1080/00263208208700503}}</ref>

Several Coptic families have attained significant economic influence, particularly in the private sector. The [[Sawiris family]], through its [[Orascom Construction|Orascom conglomerate]], became one of Egypt's most prominent business dynasties in the early 2000s, with interests spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, and technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/culture-society/432946-naguib-sawiris-if-god-wanted-women-to-be-veiled-he-would-have-created-them-with-veil |title=Naguib Sawiris: 'If God wanted women to be veiled, he would have created them with a veil' |website=Arabian Business |date=11 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/richlist/profile/16|title=Arabian Business: The Sawiris Family|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407183236/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/richlist/profile/16?|archive-date=7 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clickafrique.com/Magazine/ST014/CP0000003388.aspx|title=The richest men in Africa – 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921050058/http://www.clickafrique.com/Magazine/ST014/CP0000003388.aspx|archive-date=21 September 2017}}</ref> In 2008, Forbes estimated their combined wealth at $36 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Naguib-Sawiris_4MRK.html|title=#60 Naguib Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Nassef-Sawiris_FWHQ.html|title=#68 Nassef Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Onsi-Sawiris_PPZY.html|title=#96 Onsi Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Samih-Sawiris_L391.html|title=#396 Samih Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref>

Some scholars attribute the high educational and economic profile of the Coptic community to a historical emphasis within the Coptic community on literacy and the development of human capital.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/>

==Language==
{{Main|Coptic language|Coptic script|Egyptian language}}
[[File:Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church.jpg|thumb|Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church]]

The [[Coptic language]] is the most recent stage of the [[Egyptian language]]. Coptic should more correctly be used to refer to the [[Coptic script|script]] rather than the language itself. Even though this script was introduced as far back as the 1st century BC, it has been applied to the writing of the Egyptian language from the 1st century AD to the present day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Definition|title=The Coptic Studies' Corner|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419152624/http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Definition|archive-date=2012-04-19}}</ref>

Coptic continued to flourish as a literary language in Egypt until the 13th century.<ref name="Guindy, pp. 25"/> It was supplanted by [[Egyptian Arabic]] in [[Lower Egypt]] and [[Sa'idi Arabic]] in [[Upper Egypt]] toward the 16th century but remained part of the education of well-bred Copts until the middle of the 17th century, and was still taught regularly in Coptic schools.<ref name="Guindy, pp. 25"/><ref name="Allen2010">{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&pg=PA2 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-139-48635-4 |edition=2nd |pages=1–2 |author-link=James Peter Allen |access-date=19 May 2014}}</ref> In the early 19th century, [[Coptic language|Coptic]] was instrumental in [[Jean-François Champollion|Champollion]]'s success in deciphering the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]].

Today Coptic is extinct but it is still the [[liturgical language]] of the native Egyptian Churches (the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]]). It is taught worldwide in many prestigious institutions, but its teaching within Egypt remains limited.

[[File:Leaves from a Coptic Manuscript MET sf21-148-2as1.jpg|thumb|right|Leaf from a Coptic manuscript, 6th-14th century, Metropolitan museum of art, NYC]]
Dialects of the Coptic language:
* [[Sahidic]]. Also known as Theban or [[Upper Egypt]]ian.
* [[Bohairic]]. The dialect of the [[Nile Delta]], and of the medieval and modern Coptic Church.
* [[Akhmimic]].
* [[Lycopolitan]]. Also known as Subakhmimic.
* [[Fayyumic]].
* [[Oxyrhynchite]].

==Calendar==
{{Main|Coptic calendar}}

The [[Coptic calendar]], also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and also by [[Ethiopian calendar|Ethiopia]] as its official calendar (with different names). This [[calendar]] is based on the ancient [[Egyptian calendar]]. To avoid the calendar creep of the latter, a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar was introduced at the time of [[Ptolemy III]] (Decree of Canopus, in 238 BC), which consisted of the intercalation of a sixth [[epagomenal day]] every fourth year. However, this reform was opposed by the Egyptian priests, and the idea was not adopted until 25 BC, when the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Emperor [[Augustus]] formally reformed the calendar of [[Egypt]], keeping it forever synchronized with the newly introduced [[Julian calendar]]. To distinguish it from the Ancient Egyptian calendar, which remained in use by some astronomers until medieval times, this reformed calendar is known as the Coptic calendar. Its years and months coincide with those of the [[Ethiopian calendar]] but have different numbers and names.<ref name="calendar">{{cite web|title=The Coptic Calendar of Martyrs|url=http://www.copticchurch.net/easter.html|website=Coptic Orthodox Church Network}}</ref>

===Coptic year===
{{See also|Computus}}
[[File:Coptic cross.svg|thumb|Coptic Orthodox Cross with traditional Coptic script reading: 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God']]

The Coptic year is the extension of the ancient Egyptian civil year, retaining its subdivision into the three seasons, four months each. The three seasons are commemorated by special prayers in the Coptic liturgy. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons. The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and an intercalary month at the end of the year of 5 or 6 days, depending whether the year is a leap year or not. The year starts on 29 August in the [[Julian Calendar]] or on the 30th in the year before (Julian) Leap Years. The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.<ref>{{cite book |last=Declercq |first=Georges |title=Anno Domini: The Origins of the Christian Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8AZAAAAYAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Isd |isbn=978-2-503-51050-7 |page=80}}</ref>

The Feast of [[Neyrouz]] marks the first day of the Coptic year. Its celebration falls on the first day of the month of [[Thout]], the first month of the Egyptian year, which for AD 1901 to 2098 usually coincides with 11 September of the [[Gregorian calendar]], except before a Gregorian leap year when it's 12 September. Coptic years are counted from 284 AD, the year [[Diocletian]] became Roman Emperor, whose reign was marked by tortures and mass executions of Christians, especially in Egypt. Hence, the Coptic year is identified by the abbreviation A.M. (for ''Anno Martyrum'' or "Year of the Martyrs").<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2021667881/ | title=Calculating Coptic Orthdox Easter }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/39581.aspx | title=Birth of the Coptic Calendar - Special Files - Folk }}</ref> The A.M. abbreviation is also used for the unrelated Jewish year (''[[Anno Mundi]]'').

Every fourth Coptic year is a leap year ''without exception'', as in the Julian calendar, so the above-mentioned new year dates apply only between AD 1900 and 2099 inclusive in the Gregorian Calendar. In the Julian Calendar, the new year is ''always'' 29 August, except before a Julian leap year when it's August 30. [[Easter]] is reckoned by the Julian Calendar in the Old Calendarist way.

To obtain the Coptic year number, subtract from the Julian year number either 283 (before the Julian new year) or 284 (after it).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://copticchurch.net/easter.html|title=Coptic Orthodox Calendar / Easter Calculation|website=copticchurch.net|access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref>

==Music==
{{Main|Coptic music}}
{{See also|Music of Egypt}}
Coptic music is the [[music]] sung and played in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]]. It has some roots in [[ancient Egypt]]ian music and many elements of ancient Egyptian music continue to survive in Coptic liturgical music, with additional [[Byzantine music|Byzantine]] and [[Jewish music|Hebrew]] influences.<ref name="ccdl.claremont.edu">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/1446/rec/1 |title=Music, Coptic |encyclopedia=Claremont Coptic Encyclopedia |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref><ref name="tasbeha.org">{{cite web |url=https://tasbeha.org/content/articles/dl/The_Egyptian_Copts_And_Their_Music-John-Gillespie.pdf |title=The Egyptian Copts And Their Music |website=tasbeha.org |access-date=2025-04-06}}</ref> It consists mainly of chanted [[hymns]] in rhythm with instruments such as [[cymbal]]s (hand and large size) and the [[triangle (instrument)|triangle]]. The percussion instruments used in the Coptic Church are unusual among Christian liturgies. Since similar instruments appear in ancient Egyptian frescoes and reliefs, some believe that they may represent a survival from a very old tradition. Coptic music is purely religious.

Coptic chant is an ancient tradition that has been linked to the musical practices of ancient Egypt.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/1446/rec/1 | title=Music, Coptic }}</ref><ref name="egyptindependent.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.egyptindependent.com/humming-oldest-tune-history/ | title=Humming the oldest tune in history | date=23 October 2012 }}</ref> One example is a hymn sung on Good Friday, which may be derived from melodies used by ancient Egyptian priests during royal funerary rites.<ref name="egyptindependent.com"/>

Coptic music has been transmitted orally over thousands of years, and only recently have manuscripts, musical notes and books been used to record the Coptic music.<ref name="ccdl.claremont.edu"/><ref name="tasbeha.org"/>

==Persecution and discrimination==
{{Main|Persecution of Copts}}
{{Modern persecution of Coptic Christians}}
Religious freedom in Egypt is constitutionally guaranteed but restricted in practice, particularly for the Coptic Christian minority. Discriminatory policies and bureaucratic hurdles have historically hampered the construction and repair of churches. Until 2005, presidential approval was required for even minor repairs. Although this requirement was devolved to governors and further eased by the 2016 Church Construction Law.<ref>WorldWide Religious News. [http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318161245/http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3|date=March 18, 2009}}. December 13, 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 December 2005 |title=Egypt: Church Building Regulations Eased |url=http://www.compassdirect.org/en/display.php?page=news&lang=en&length=long&idelement=4132 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20071017013530/http://www.compassdirect.org/en/display.php?page=news&lang=en&length=long&idelement=4132 |archive-date=17 October 2007 |work=Compass Direct News}}</ref>

Copts have been the target of sectarian violence. Notable incidents include the [[Kosheh massacres|1999–2000 El-Kosheh clashes]] that left 21 dead,<ref name="Egyptian court orders clashes retrial">{{cite news|url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1465023.stm|title= Egyptian court orders clashes retrial|date=July 30, 2001|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9C0zAAAAIBAJ&pg=6308,5873985&dq=international-christian-concern&hl=en |title=Copts Under Fire |publisher=The Free Lance–Star |date=November 23, 2002 |access-date=August 2, 2015}}</ref> attacks on Alexandria churches in 2006,<ref name="Coptic Christians attacked in churches">{{cite news | last = Miles | first = Hugh| title= Coptic Christians attacked in churches| publisher= [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date=April 15, 2006 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1515829/Coptic-Christians-attacked-in-churches.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1515829/Coptic-Christians-attacked-in-churches.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2008-10-07 | location=London}}</ref><ref>BBC. [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4911346.stm Egypt church attacks spark anger], April 15, 2006.</ref> and mob violence in [[Marsa Matrouh]] in 2010.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians">{{Cite news |last=Zaki |first=Moheb |date=2010-05-17 |title=Moheb Zaki: Egypt's Persecuted Christians |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703745904575248301172607696 |access-date=2025-09-14 |work=Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200101183437/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703745904575248301172607696 |archive-date=2020-01-01}}</ref> Reports from the same period indicate that police frequently arrived too late to prevent violence, pressured Copts into "reconciliation" sessions, and rarely prosecuted attackers.<ref name="2010 USCIRF">{{cite web|title=United States Commission on Int'l Religious Freedom|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/ar2010/egypt2010.pdf|website=USCIRF}}</ref>

Following the 2013 ousting of President [[Mohamed Morsi]], churches and Christian properties were targeted in retaliatory attacks. At least 45 churches were attacked, with accusations that [[Muslim Brotherhood]] rhetoric incited the violence.<ref>{{cite news | last = Chulov | first = Martin | title= Egypt's Coptic Christians report fresh attacks on churches | work= The Guardian | date= Aug 15, 2013 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/15/egypt-coptic-christians-attacks-churches | access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Khairat | first = Mohamed | title= Coptic churches burn amid violence in Egypt | work= Egyptian Streets | date= Aug 16, 2013 | url = http://egyptianstreets.com/2013/08/16/coptic-churches-burn-amid-violence-in-egypt/ | access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref><ref name=MB-war>{{cite web | url = https://www.hudson.org/research/11318-egypt-s-coptic-christians-braced-for-persecution | title = Egypt's Coptic Christians – Braced for Persecution | last = Gilbert |first = Lela |date = 25 May 2015 | website = Hudson Institute | access-date = 17 February 2018}}</ref>

Human trafficking and forced conversions have also been reported. Coptic women and girls have been subject to abduction, coercion, and forced marriage, with congressional and NGO concern raised about state inaction and complicity.<ref name="trafficking">{{cite news | url = https://www.foxnews.com/politics/house-members-press-white-house-to-confront-egypt-on-forced-marriages/ | title = House Members Press White House to Confront Egypt on Forced Marriages | last = Abrams | first = Joseph |date = April 21, 2010 | work = [[Fox News]] | access-date = November 8, 2010}}</ref><ref name=bbcforcedmarriage>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12014779 | title = Christian minority under pressure in Egypt | date = December 17, 2010 | work = BBC News | access-date = January 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2017/09/egypt-ex-kidnapper-admits-get-paid-every-copt-christian-girl-bring/ |title=Egypt: ex-kidnapper admits 'they get paid for every Coptic Christian girl they bring in' |date= 2017-09-14 |publisher= World Watch Monitor |access-date=2017-12-25 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180913115753/https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2017/09/egypt-ex-kidnapper-admits-get-paid-every-copt-christian-girl-bring/ |url-status= live |archive-date= 2018-09-13}}</ref>

Copts are underrepresented in public office, security services, and judiciary positions. During President [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak's tenure]], only a few Copts held cabinet or gubernatorial positions.<ref>Freedom House. [http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/publications/endangered Egypt's Endangered Christians.] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20030107001824/http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/publications/endangered |date=January 7, 2003 }}</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch. [https://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |date=2008-11-14 }}. 2005</ref>

Religious conversion laws in Egypt remain asymmetrical. While conversion to Islam is easily recognized, Christians converting from Islam face legal and bureaucratic obstacles. Some converts have been arrested or denied identity documents.<ref>[https://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm Human Rights Watch. World report 2007: Egypt] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928034724/http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm |date=September 28, 2008 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM |title=Egypt: National Unity and the Coptic issue. (Arab Strategic Report 2004–2005) |access-date=2007-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912060035/http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM |archive-date=2007-09-12 }}</ref> Though a 2008 court ruling allowed 12 citizens to re-register as Christians after converting to Islam, it required them to list their period as Muslims on official documents.<ref name="Egyptian Court Allows Return to Christianity">{{cite news | last = Audi | first = Nadim | title= Egyptian Court Allows Return to Christianity | work= [[The New York Times]] | date= February 11, 2008 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/11/world/africa/11egypt.html?ex=1360386000&en=03faf391c4592600&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | access-date=2008-10-07 | url-access=subscription | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822231852/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/11/world/africa/11egypt.html?ex=1360386000&en=03faf391c4592600&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref>

Recent years have seen incremental improvements. Church construction has become easier, with thousands of churches legalized under the 2016 law and fewer reports of obstruction.<ref name=catholicnewsagency>{{cite news |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/258105/christians-in-egypt-embark-on-construction-of-churches-as-persecution-ebbs |title=Christians in Egypt embark on construction of churches as persecution ebbs |work=Catholic News Agency |date=21 March 2024 |access-date=25 March 2025}}</ref> In Open Doors' World Watch List, Egypt dropped from 25th place out of 50 in 2013 to 40th in 2025, indicating a decline in reported persecution, though social and legal challenges remain.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opendoors.org/en-US/persecution/countries/ |title=World Watch List – Persecution of Christians |publisher=Open Doors |access-date=25 March 2025}}</ref>

== Church affairs ==
Today, members of the [[non-Chalcedonian]] Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Diaspora communities of other Christians, especially ones from across the Middle East, have added to the diversity of churches in Egypt (such communities are not Egyptians themselves); this includes sister [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches ([[Syriac Orthodox Church]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]), [[Roman Catholic Churches]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and [[Protestants|Protestant]] churches. Western missionary efforts have also led to the conversion of local Copts to various Protestant churches. The term ''Coptic'' remains exclusive, however, to the Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called "[[Coptic Evangelical Church]]", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans..<ref>{{Cite web |last=(U.S.A.) |first=Presbyterian Church |date=2010-04-23 |title=Egypt — Presbyterians at work around the world — Mission and Ministry — Presbyterian Mission Agency |url=http://www.presbyterianmission.org/ministries/global/egypt/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815201939/http://www.presbyterianmission.org/ministries/global/egypt/ |archive-date=2013-08-15 |access-date=2025-07-07 |website=www.presbyterianmission.org |language=en}}</ref>

The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria]], died on 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, [[Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria|Bishop Tawadros]] was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in [[Cairo]]'s [[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo|St Mark's Cathedral]].<ref name=CNANKH-BBC-4NOV2012>{{cite news|title=Bishop Tawadros new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20192922|access-date=4 November 2012|date=4 November 2012|work=BBC News}}</ref>

==Identity==
{{Main|Coptic identity|Coptic nationalism|Egyptian nationalism|Pharaonism}}
[[File:Philae Temple of Isis coptic cross 1.JPG|thumb|right|[[Coptic Cross]] on a column in the [[Philae temple complex|Temple of Philae]]]]
Copts have historically maintained a strong sense of Egyptian identity, which has played a role in their cultural and religious expression.<ref name="Guindy, pp. 24">Guindy, pp. 24</ref><ref name="U.S. Bill">{{cite news |last=Ibrahim|first=Youssef M.|title=U.S. Bill Has Egypt's Copts Squirming|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=1998-04-18|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E5DC103DF931A25757C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1|access-date=2008-10-08|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250712190453/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/12/world/us-bill-has-egypt-s-copts-squirming.html|archive-date=2025-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |date=11 May 2011 |title=Who are the Coptic Christians? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2011/may/11/coptic-christians-ancient-egypt |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 June 2024 |title=The Copts of Egypt: Guardians of an Ancient Faith - Travel2Egypt |url=https://travel2egypt.org/exploring-the-great-sphinx-of-giza/#:~:text=Genetics,was%20known%20simply%20as%20Egyptian}}</ref><ref name="Guindy">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd-UzQEACAAJ|title=A Sword over the Nile|date=June 2020|publisher=Austin Macauley|isbn=978-1-64378-761-9}}</ref> Throughout history, Copts have expressed resistance to broader regional identities such as pan-Arabism and Islamism, while emphasizing their connection to Egypt.<ref name="Werthmuller, Kurt J 1250">Werthmuller, Kurt J. ''Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt 1218–1250''. American University in Cairo Press. 2009</ref>

The formulation of Coptic identity in the ethnic sense began in [[Greco-Roman Egypt]] against the backdrop of foreign rulers, first the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] and subsequently the [[Roman emperor]]s. In [[Greco-Roman Egypt]], the term Copt designated the local population of [[Egypt]], as opposed to the [[elite]] group of foreign rulers and settlers (Greeks, Romans, etc.) who came to Egypt from other regions and established prominent [[empire]]s. During that period, foreign rulers respected the Egyptians and their local [[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]], and erected many temples for [[Egyptian gods]], such as the [[Temple of Edfu|Temple of Horus in Edfu]] and the [[Dendera Temple complex|Temple of Hathor at Dendra]].<ref>Bagnall, pp. 16</ref> Despite the presence of these immigrants and a foreign pharaoh, Egypt remained home primarily to Egyptians, by far the largest group within the population.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 30">Bagnall, pp. 30</ref> In fact, most of the rural and urban native population that lived in towns, villages and hamlets the length of the [[Nile Valley]] continued their lives little changed during the rule of the [[Ptolemies]].<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 30"/> Even in [[Alexandria]], the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt and the largest Greek city outside of [[Greece]], the number of native Egyptians far outnumbered that of Greeks.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 78"/> In numbers and in culture, Egypt remained essentially Egyptian.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 33">Bagnall, pp. 33</ref>

The foundation for defining the Copts as an ethno-religious group rather than just an ethnic group began in the fourth and fifth centuries AD, as divergence in doctrine between the native Christian Church of the Egyptians and that of the empire began. The persecution and exile in the fourth century by emperor [[Constantine the Great]] of [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], the native Egyptian patriarch of the [[Church of Alexandria]], became the embodiment of the Egyptian character of the Church in Egypt.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 180">Bagnall, pp. 180</ref> The persecution of Athanasius helped to create a type for the later [[Patriarch of Alexandria|patriarchs of Alexandria]], who were repeatedly portrayed as defenders of the truth against outsiders and non-Egyptians.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 180"/> The official schism occurred at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 AD. The council, which condemned, deposed, exiled and replaced the native Egyptian Patriarch of Alexandria [[Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria|Dioscorus I]], was rejected by the Egyptian delegation to the council, and by extension by the entirety of the native Egyptian population. As a result of the Council of Chalcedon, the [[Church of Alexandria]], which had jurisdiction over the entire country of Egypt, as well as all of continent of [[Africa]], was divided into a church that accepted the decrees of the council, and one that rejected them. The church that accepted the council, became known as the Chalcedonian church, and survives today as the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria]]. On the other hand, the church that rejected the council of Chalcedon, to whom the vast majority of the native Egyptians adhered, became the predecessor of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].

The process of identity-building for the native Egyptians emerged into view most clearly in the period after the reign of emperor [[Justinian I]] in the sixth century AD.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 179">Bagnall, pp. 179</ref> That process became the foundation for the evolution of a distinctive Egyptian character for the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]], with its distancing from the empire's official [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Chalcedonian Orthodoxy]] and its distinctive Greek character.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 179"/> Copts viewed their Church as one with direct doctrinal continuity with such Egyptian patristic giants as [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] and [[Cyril of Alexandria]], both of whom were Popes of the Church of Alexandria, and whose theology was the foundation of worldwide orthodox Christian belief.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 320">Bagnall, pp. 320</ref> Another important aspect of the Coptic community's self-perception was its ethnic and religious continuity with the community that produced the many local Egyptian [[Christian martyr|martyrs]].<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 321">Bagnall, pp. 321</ref>
[[File:StMarkCathAlex.jpg|thumb|right|[[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral (Alexandria)|St. Mark Coptic Cathedral]] in [[Alexandria]]]]
By the time of the [[Arab conquest of Egypt]] in 641 AD, the Copts had formed a distinct ethno-religious identity that was Egyptian and non-Chalcedonian, as opposed to the mainly Greek Byzantine Chalcedonian identity of the ruling [[Byzantine empire|empire]]. Under Arab Muslim rule, according to Bagnall and other historians, a combination of factors including heavy taxation, such as the [[jizya]] (a tax levied exclusively on non-Muslims under [[Sharia|Islamic Sharia law]]), avoidance of forced labor or conscription, fear of persecution, and the prospect of greater social and legal mobility led many Egyptians to gradually convert to Islam over the following centuries.
<ref name="Bagnall284">{{cite book |last=Bagnall |first=Roger S. |title=Egypt in Late Antiquity |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1993 |page=284}}</ref> Those Copts who converted to Islam were known as [[Mawla|Mawali]] (non-Arab Muslims), and they held a lower social and legal status than Arab Muslims during the early Islamic period. In early Islamic Egypt, "Arab" referred mainly to the ruling elite of Arab descent. Within the social hierarchy of the time, Coptic Christians classified as [[dhimmis]] occupied a lower legal and social status than both Arab Muslims and Mawali (non-Arab converts to Islam).<ref name="HoylandMawali">{{cite book |last=Hoyland |first=Robert G. |title=Christians and Others in the Umayyad State |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |chapter=4: Taxation and Persecution}}</ref><ref name="AtiyaStatus">{{cite book |last=Atiya |first=Aziz S. |title=A History of Eastern Christianity |publisher=Methuen & Co. |year=1968 |pages=104–106}}</ref> Over time, the term "Copt" came to exclusively identify Egyptians who maintained their Christian faith.<ref name="Bagnall284"/>

Under Islamic rule, Coptic identity continued to be defined against the backdrop of sound theology and Christology, in contrast to those of the Chalcedonians. However, with the presence of non-natives in the country, Coptic identity also began to stress the native Egyptian character of the Copts.<ref>Bagnall, pp. 319-321</ref> As Muslims, mainly Egyptian converts and less commonly Arabs, slowly started settling in the countryside, they provided an ''other'' against whom this identity became better defined.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 321"/> [[Coptic monasticism]] played a crucial role in the preservation of Coptic identity in Egypt. The Copts' Egyptian Christian identity was thus formulated. It was then with the spread of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] beyond the big cities that the Egyptian Church became known as "Coptic" and that native Egyptian Christians became known as "Copts", a semantic shift that occurred in the eighth and ninth centuries.<ref name="Bagnall, pp. 327">Bagnall, pp. 327</ref> Nonetheless, in their own native [[Coptic language]], Copts continue to refer to themselves today as '''ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ''' (the Egyptians), and to their Church as '''Ϯⲉⲕ̀ⲕⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ ⲛ̀ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ⲛ̀ⲟⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ''' (the Egyptian Orthodox Church).

In modern times, the question of Coptic identity was never raised before the rise of pan-Arabism under [[Nasser]] in the early 1950s. Up to that point, both Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians viewed themselves as only Egyptians without any Arab sentiment.<ref name="Deighton, H. S 1946 p. 519"/> The struggle to maintain this Egyptian identity began as Nasser and his regime tried to impose an Arab identity on the country, and attempted to erase all references to Egypt as a separate and unique entity.<ref name="nationalcopticassembly.com">{{cite web |url=http://nationalcopticassembly.com/showart.php?main_id=1724 |title= Reactions in the Egyptian Press To a Lecture Delivered by a Coptic Bishop In Hudson Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912130400/http://nationalcopticassembly.com/showart.php?main_id=1724 |archive-date=September 12, 2014 |url-status=usurped |website=Coptic Assembly of America |last= Khalil |first=Magdy}}</ref> Today, Copts and many Egyptian Muslims reject Arab nationalism, emphasizing indigenous Egyptian heritage and culture as well as their own unique ethnicity and genetic makeup, which are completely different from those of the Arabs.<ref name="nationalcopticassembly.com"/> [[Persecution of Copts|Persecution]] has become pivotal to the Copts' sense of identity.<ref name="Deighton, S 1946 p. 519">Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946)</ref>

==Genetics==
Following the Arab conquest of Egypt in the 7th century, the term "Copt" became associated with Egypt's native population, who were majority Christian at the time. Over time, the term "Copt" came to represent Egyptian Christians as distinct from Egyptians who had embraced Islam. While cultural and historical connections to [[ancient Egypt]] constitute a significant part of Coptic identity, modern Copts are part of the broader Egyptian population, shaped by various cultural influences and their Christian faith. Genetics have shown that both Egypt's Muslim and Christian populations are largely descended from the pre-Islamic Egyptian population.<ref name="Britannica">{{citation|title=Britannica: Copts|date=3 May 2024 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Copt|quote=The Copts are descendants of pre-Islamic Egyptians. When Egyptian Muslims later ceased to call themselves by the demonym, the term became the distinctive name of the Christian minority.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://copticchurch.org/about/thecopts/ | title=Who are the Copts of The Coptic Orthodox Church }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1750635219866137 | doi=10.1177/1750635219866137 | title=Icons of contention: The iconography of martyrdom and the construction of Coptic identity in post-revolutionary Egypt | date=2020 | last1=El Gendi | first1=Yosra | last2=Pinfari | first2=Marco | journal=Media, War & Conflict | volume=13 | pages=50–69 }}</ref><ref name="Colbert">{{Cite book|last=Held|first=Colbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyZhDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CMost+ethnic+Copts+are+Orthodox+in+religious+affiliation%E2%80%9C&pg=PT163|title=Middle East Patterns, Student Economy Edition: Places, People, and Politics|date=2018-10-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97307-9|language=en}}</ref><ref name="U.S. Bill"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd-UzQEACAAJ |title=A Sword over the Nile |date=June 2020 |publisher=Austin Macauley |isbn=978-1-64378-761-9}}</ref>

According to Y-DNA analysis on [[Copts in Sudan]], around 45% of Sudanese Copts carry the [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup J]]. The remainder mainly belong to the [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] clade (21%). Both paternal lineages are common among other local [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]-speaking populations (Beja, Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs), as well as the Nubians.<ref name="Hassan2008">{{cite journal
 | last1 = Hassan
 | first1 = Hisham Y.
 | display-authors = et al
 | title = Y-chromosome variation among Sudanese: Restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history
 | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology
 | date = 2008
 | volume = 137
 | issue = 3
 | pages = 316–323
 | url = https://www.academia.edu/6429130/Y_chromosome_variation_among_Sudanese_Restricted_gene_flow_concordance_with_language_geography_and_history
 | access-date = 8 July 2025
 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20876
 | pmid = 18618658
}}</ref>

 E1b1b/E3b reaches its highest frequencies among North Africans, Levantine Middle Easterners, and Ethiopid East Africans.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Trombetta, Beniamino|display-authors=et al|title=Phylogeographic refinement and large scale genotyping of human Y chromosome haplogroup E provide new insights into the dispersal of early pastoralists in the African continent|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|date=2015|volume=7|issue=7|pages=1940–1950|doi=10.1093/gbe/evv118|pmid=26108492|pmc=4524485}}</ref> The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts in Sudan are the European-linked [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] clade (15%), as well as the archaic African [[Haplogroup B-M60|B]] lineage (15%).<ref name="Hassan2008" /> Maternally, Copts in Sudan exclusively carry various descendants of the [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|macrohaplogroup N]]. This mtDNA clade is likewise closely associated with local Afroasiatic-speaking populations, including Berbers and Ethiopid peoples. Of the N derivatives borne by Copts, [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U6]] is most frequent (28%), followed by the [[Haplogroup T (mtDNA)|haplogroup T]] (17%).<ref name="HassanThesis">{{cite thesis
 | last = Mohamed
 | first = Hisham Yousif Hassan
 | title = Genetic Patterns of Y-chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Variation, with Implications to the Peopling of the Sudan
 | type = PhD thesis
 | publisher = University of Khartoum
 | date = 2009
 | url = https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u5g5ra5o1m1p8y5xyx7mm/Genetic-Patterns-of-Y-chromosome-and-Mitochondrial.pdf?rlkey=mp8abxd0ky103a551dleo7gzr&e=1&dl=0
 | access-date = 8 July 2025
}}</ref>

Genetic studies have shown the ancient Egyptians to be genetically intermediary between the populations of [[Southern Europe]] and [[Nubia]] (two frequently-used reference points).<ref>Klales, A. R. (2014). "Computed Tomography Analysis and Reconstruction of Ancient Egyptians Originating from the Akhmim Region of Egypt: A Biocultural Perspective". MA Thesis. University of Manitoba. [http://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/jspui/bitstream/1993/23992/1/Klales_Alexandra.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311124903/http://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/jspui/bitstream/1993/23992/1/Klales_Alexandra.pdf|date=2017-03-11}}</ref>

A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of Western Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in [[Northeast Africa]]. Known as the ''Coptic'' component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. In their analysis, Sudan's Copts formed a separated group in the [[principal component analysis|PCA]], a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afro-Asiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt, or Middle Eastern and North African populations. Copts in general shared the same main ancestral component with North African/Middle Eastern populations. The study affirms that Copts are recognized as the most ancient population of Egypt, as the Sudanese Copts did not display the later Arabian influence that is present among the modern Egyptian population.<ref name=Dobon2015-cae>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|page=8|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5.9996D|quote=The North African/Middle Eastern genetic component is identified especially in Copts. The Coptic population present in Sudan is an example of a recent migration from Egypt over the past two centuries. They are close to Egyptians in the PCA, but remain a differentiated cluster, showing their own component at k = 4 (Fig. 3). The Coptic component at k = 4 peaks highest among Copts and makes up most of their distribution while it is not predominant among Egyptians. K = 2 to K = 5 (Fig. 3) shows Egyptians distribution resemble Qatar more than Copts. Copts lack the influence found in Egyptians from Qatar, an Arabic population. It may suggest that Copts have a genetic composition that could resemble the ancestral Egyptian population, without the present strong Arab influence}}</ref>

A 2017 genome-wide study by Hollfelder et al. analyzed approximately 3.9 million SNPs from 18 different populations in Sudan and South Sudan, including members of the Coptic community. The Copts, identified as an ethnic group that migrated from Egypt to Sudan around 200 years ago were compared to Egyptians from Egypt using ADMIXTURE and principal component analyses. The Copts displayed a genetic profile closely resembling that of Egyptians. At lower numbers of clusters, both groups appeared admixed between Near Eastern/European and northeastern Sudanese populations. At higher resolution (K≥18), the Copts formed a distinct ancestry component also present in Egyptians.<ref name=hollfelder>{{Cite journal|last1=Hollfelder|first1=Nina|last2=Schlebusch|first2=Carina M.|last3=Günther|first3=Torsten|last4=Babiker|first4=Hiba|last5=Hassan|first5=Hisham Y.|last6=Jakobsson|first6=Mattias|date=2017-08-24|title=Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations|journal=PLOS Genetics|language=en|volume=13|issue=8|article-number=e1006976|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976|pmid=28837655|pmc=5587336|issn=1553-7404|doi-access=free}}{{CC-notice|by4|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1006976}}</ref>

The study found low genetic differentiation between the two groups (FST = 0.00236) as well as nearly identical levels of estimated European ancestry, 69.54% ± 2.57 in the Copts and 70.65% ± 2.47 in Egyptians. Formal D-statistics revealed no significant evidence of differential admixture from other groups into either population. Both also exhibited low genetic diversity and extended runs of homozygosity compared to other northeast African and Middle Eastern groups. The authors concluded that the Copts and Egyptians share a common population history, with the Copts remaining relatively isolated since their migration to Sudan.<ref name=hollfelder/>

A 2020 study investigating genetic correlations between Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians analyzed allele frequencies across nine autosomal STR loci (D3S1358, VWA, FGA, THO1, TPOX, CSF1PO, D5S818, D13S317, and D7S820) using DNA samples from 200 unrelated individuals, equally divided between the two groups. The samples were drawn from various locations across Egypt.<ref name=taha>{{Cite journal |last1=Taha |first1=Tarek |last2=Elzalabany |first2=Sagy |last3=Fawzi |first3=Sahar |last4=Hisham |first4=Ahmed |last5=Amer |first5=Khaled |last6=Shaker |first6=Olfat |date=1 August 2020 |title=Allele frequency comparative study between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0379073820302103 |url-status=live |journal=Forensic Science International |language=en |volume=313 |article-number=110348 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110348 |issn=0379-0738 |pmid=32521421 |s2cid=219586129 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603030945/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0379073820302103 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |access-date=14 April 2023|url-access=subscription }}"The genetic correlation of the two ethnic groups is investigated using alleles' frequencies statistics, forensic efficiency parameters and populations' homogeneity charts. Graphical methods were used to check the harmony between the two ethnic groups. The results support that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors."</ref> Using allele frequency statistics, forensic efficiency parameters, population homogeneity charts, and graphical analyses, the study evaluated the degree of genetic similarity between the two groups. The findings revealed strong genetic correlation and no significant differentiation, leading the authors to conclude that Egyptian Muslims and Christians genetically originate from the same ancestral population.<ref name=taha/>

==Prominent Copts==
{{Main|List of Copts}}
[[File:Boutros Boutros Ghali (1993).jpg|thumb|right|[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]]]
[[File:Naguib.jpg|thumb|Naguib Sawiris of the wealthy Sawiris family, purportedly the second-richest person in Egypt after his brother]]
Some famous Copts include:

* [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], sixth [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]].
* [[Charlotte Wassef]], Miss Universe 1935
* [[Dina Powell]], American Politician.
* [[Fayez Sarofim]], heir to the Sarofim family fortune.
* [[Halim El-Dabh]], musician and academic.
* [[Hani Azer]], prominent civil engineer.
* [[Jean Messiha]], Egyptian-French politician.
* [[Magdi Yacoub]], cardiothoracic surgeon.
* [[Marty Makary]], 26th [[Commissioner of Food and Drugs]]
* [[Mena Massoud]], actor.
* [[Naguib Sawiris]], billionaire and CEO of [[Orascom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Naguib Sawiris |url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/naguib-sawiris/ |access-date=2025-07-07 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Pahor Labib]], Egyptologist.
* [[Rami Malek]], actor.
* [[Samih Sawiris]], businessman, investor and billionaire.
* [[Sam Soliman]], boxer.
* [[Youssef Wahba]], twelfth Prime Minister of Egypt.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Egypt|Christianity}}
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Aegyptus]], in [[Greek mythology]]
* [[Coptic art]]
* [[Coptic Catholic Church]]
* [[Coptic diaspora]]
* [[Coptic identity]]
* [[Coptic language]]
* [[Coptic literature]]
* [[Copto-Arabic literature]]
* [[Coptic Museum]]
* [[Coptic Orthodox Church]]
* [[International Coptic Union]]
* [[List of Coptic saints]]
* [[Coptology]]
* [[Christianity in Egypt]]
* [[Christianity in Sudan]]
* [[Christianity in Libya]]
* [[List of Copts|List of prominent Copts worldwide]]
{{colend}}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Betts|first=Robert B.|title=Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study|year=1978|edition=2nd rev.|location=Athens|publisher=Lycabettus Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHstAQAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0-8042-0796-6}}
* Capuani, Massimo et al. ''Christian Egypt: Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Christian-Egypt-Monuments-Through-Millennia/dp/0814624065/ excerpt and text search]
* {{Cite book |last=Charles|first=Robert H.|author-link=Robert Charles (scholar)|title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text|year=2007|orig-date=1916|location=Merchantville, New Jersey|publisher=Evolution Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgZ-DOr77OQC|isbn=978-1-889758-87-9}}
* Courbage, Youssef and Phillipe Fargues. Judy Mabro (Translator) ''Christians and Jews Under Islam'', 1997.
* Ibrahim, Vivian. ''The Copts of Egypt: The Challenges of Modernisation and Identity'' (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 258 pages; examines historical relations between Coptic Christians and the Egyptian state and describes factionalism and activism in the community.
* Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide.'' Revised Ed. American University in Cairo Press, 1990.
* Meinardus, Otto Friedrich August. ''Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity'' (2010)
* {{cite book| editor-last=Thomas |editor-first=Martyn |title=Copts in Egypt: A Christian Minority Under Siege: Papers Presented at the First International Coptic Symposium, Zurich, September 23–25, 2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooAaaMdOwpAC|year=2006|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|isbn=978-3-85710-040-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|series=The Church in history|volume=2|location=Crestwood, New York|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88141-055-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ}}
* Van Doorn-Harder, Nelly. "Finding a Platform: Studying the Copts in the 19th and 20th Centuries" ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' (Aug 2010) 42#3 pp 479–482. Historiography
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Copt}}
* [http://directory.nihov.org/ Worldwide Coptic Directory]
* [http://www.coptsunited.com/ Copts United Newspaper]
* [http://www.coptic-cairo.com/ Coptic Cairo]
* [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5636.htm U.S. Department of State International Religious Freedom Report: Egypt]

{{Copts footer}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Afroasiatic peoples]]
[[Category:Copts| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North Africa]]
[[Category:Coptic Orthodox Church]]
[[Category:Coptic Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Egypt]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Sudan]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Libya]]
[[Category:Catholicism in Egypt]]
[[Category:Catholicism in Sudan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Egypt]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sudan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Libya]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:North African people]]
[[Category:Christian ethnoreligious groups]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Africa]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]