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{{Short description|Tax on corporations}}

{{Taxation}}
A '''corporate tax''', also called '''corporation tax''' or '''company tax''' or '''corporate income tax''', is a type of [[direct tax]] levied on the income or capital of [[corporation]]s and other similar legal entities. The tax is usually imposed at the national level, but it may also be imposed at state or local levels in some countries. Corporate taxes may be referred to as [[income tax]] or [[capital tax]], depending on the nature of the tax.

The purpose of corporate tax is to generate revenue for the government by taxing the profits earned by corporations. The tax rate varies from country to country and is usually calculated as a percentage of the corporation's net income or capital. Corporate tax rates may also differ for domestic and foreign corporations.

Some countries have tax laws that require corporations to pay taxes on their worldwide income, regardless of where the income is earned. However, most countries have territorial tax systems, which only require corporations to pay taxes on income earned within the country's borders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 2025 Tax Debate: International Taxes Before and Since the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act {{!}} Bipartisan Policy Center |url=https://bipartisanpolicy.org/explainer/the-2025-tax-debate-international-taxes-before-and-since-the-tax-cuts-and-jobs-act/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240915064817/https://bipartisanpolicy.org/explainer/the-2025-tax-debate-international-taxes-before-and-since-the-tax-cuts-and-jobs-act/ |archive-date=2024-09-15 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=bipartisanpolicy.org |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

A country's corporate tax may apply to:
* [[Incorporation (business)|corporations incorporated]] in the country,
* corporations doing business in the country on income from that country,
* foreign corporations who have a [[permanent establishment]] in the country, or
* corporations deemed to be [[tax residence|resident for tax purposes]] in the country.

Company income subject to tax is often determined much like taxable income for individual taxpayers. Generally, the tax is imposed on net profits. In some jurisdictions, rules for taxing companies may differ significantly from rules for taxing individuals. Certain corporate acts or types of entities may be exempt from tax.

The [[tax incidence|incidence]] of corporate taxation is a subject of significant debate among economists and policymakers. Evidence suggests that some portion of the corporate tax falls on owners of capital, workers, and shareholders, but the ultimate incidence of the tax is an unresolved question.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Auerbach|first=Alan J.|date=January 2006|title=Who Bears the Corporate Tax? A Review of What We Know|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/tpe.20.20061903|journal=Tax Policy and the Economy|volume=20|pages=1–40|doi=10.1086/tpe.20.20061903|s2cid=6156389 |issn=0892-8649}}</ref>

==Economics==
{{expand section|date=April 2019}}
Economists disagree as to how much of the burden of the corporate tax falls on owners, workers, consumers, and landowners, and how the corporate tax affects economic growth and [[economic inequality]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://microeconomicinsights.org/benefits-corporate-tax-cuts-evidence-local-us-labour-markets/|title=Who benefits from corporate tax cuts? Evidence from local US labour markets|date=2017-11-02|work=Microeconomic Insights|access-date=|first1= Juan Carlos|last1= Suárez Serrato |first2= Owen|last2= Zidar|language=en-US}}</ref> More of the burden probably falls on capital in large open economies such as the US.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://nationalpost.com/opinion/stephen-gordon-corporate-tax-cuts-wont-work-in-the-u-s-the-same-way-they-did-here | title=Stephen Gordon: Corporate tax cuts won't work in the U.S. The same way they did here &#124; National Post| newspaper= National Post| date=2017-12-04| last1=Gordon| first1=Stephen}}</ref> Some studies place the burden more on labor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/ftpdocs/75xx/doc7503/2006-09.pdf |website=cbo.gov |title=International Burdens of the Corporate Income Tax }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD Thesis |doi=10.7282/T3765DZR |year= 2011 |last1=Liu |first1=Li |title=The economic effects of corporate income taxation |publisher=Rutgers University - Graduate School - New Brunswick }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Felix |first1=R. Alison |last2=Hines |first2=R. Alison |title=Corporate Taxes and Union Wages in the United States |date=2009 |journal=NBER Working Paper Series |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi= 10.3386/w15263 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to one study: "Regression analysis shows that a one-percentage-point increase in the marginal state corporate tax rate reduces wages 0.14 to 0.36 percent."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=R Alison |title=Do State Corporate Income Taxes Reduce Wages? |journal=Economic Review |publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City |volume=94 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=77–102 |url=https://www.kansascityfed.org/PUBLICAT/ECONREV/PDF/09q2felix.pdf }}</ref> There have been other studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Desai |first1=Mihir A. |last2=Foley |first2=C. Fritz |last3=Hines |first3=James R. |title=Labor and Capital Shares of the Corporate Tax Burden: International Evidence |citeseerx= 10.1.1.364.4867 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.budget.gov.ie/Budgets/2015/Documents/Literature_Review_Economic_Effects_Corporation.pdf |title=DRAFT |website= www.budget.gov.ie|date=24 September 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=R. Alison |title=Passing the burden: Corporate tax incidence in open economies |date=2007 |hdl=10419/95465 |journal= LIS Working Paper Series }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://voxeu.org/article/incidence-corporate-taxation-and-implications-tax-progressivity |title = The incidence of corporate taxation and its implications for tax progressivity|date = 2017-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link1=Wiji Arulampalam |last1=Arulampalam |first1=Wiji |last2= Devereux |first2= Michael P. |last3=Maffini |first3=Giorgia |title=The direct incidence of corporate income tax on wages |journal=European Economic Review |date=August 2012 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages= 1038–1054 |doi=10.1016/j.euroecorev.2012.03.003 |s2cid=1584850 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clausing |first1=Kimberly A. |title=Who Pays the Corporate Tax in a Global Economy? |date=October 16, 2012 |journal=National Tax Journal |volume=66 |issue=1 |ssrn=2213581 }}</ref>  According to the [[Adam Smith Institute]], "Clausing (2012), Gravelle (2010) and Auerbach (2005), the three best reviews we found, basically conclude that most of the tax falls on capital, not labour."<ref>{{cite report | last=Southwood | first=Ben | date=13 March 2014 | title=Who pays corporation tax? | publication-place=London | publisher=Adam Smith Institute | page=15 | url=https://www.adamsmith.org/s/CorpTax8.pdf#page=15}}</ref>

A 2022 meta-analysis found that the impact of corporate taxes on economic growth was exaggerated and that it could not be ruled out that the impact of corporate taxation on economic growth was zero.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gechert |first1=Sebastian |last2=Heimberger |first2=Philipp |date=2022 |title=Do corporate tax cuts boost economic growth? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014292122000885 |journal=European Economic Review |language=en |volume=147 |article-number=104157 |doi=10.1016/j.euroecorev.2022.104157 |issn=0014-2921}}</ref>

=== Economic policy ===
Regardless of who bears the burden, corporation tax has been used as a tool of economic policy, with the main goal being [[Stabilization policy|economic stabilization]]. In times of economic downturn, lowering the corporate tax rates is meant to encourage investment, while in cases of an overheating economy adjusting the corporate tax is used to slow investment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Stiglitz |first1=Joseph E. |title=Economics of the public sector |last2=Rosengard |first2=Jay K. |date=2015 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc |isbn=978-0-393-92522-7 |edition=Fourth |location=New York}}</ref>

Another use of the corporate tax is to encourage investments in some specific industries. One such case could be the current tax benefits afforded to the oil and gas industry. A less recent example was the effort to restore heavy industries in the US<ref name=":0" /> by enacting the 1981 [[Accelerated Cost Recovery System|Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS)]], which offered favorable depreciation allowances that would in turn lower taxes and increase cash flow, thus encouraging investment during the recession.

The agriculture industry, for example, could profit from the reassessment of their farming equipment. Under this new system, automobiles and breeding swine obtained a three year depreciation value; storage facilities, most equipment and breeding cattle and sheep became five year property; and land improvements were fifteen year property. The depreciation defined by ACRS was thus sizeably larger than under the previous tax system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Batte |first=Marvin T. |date=July 1985 |title=An Evaluation of the 1981 and 1982 Federal Income Tax Laws: Implications for Farm Size Structure |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1349323 |journal=North Central Journal of Agricultural Economics |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=9–19 |doi=10.2307/1349323|jstor=1349323 }}</ref>

==Legal framework==
{{needs more references section|date=July 2024}}
A corporate tax is a tax imposed on the net profit of a corporation that is taxed at the entity level in a particular jurisdiction. Net profit for corporate tax is generally the financial statement net profit with modifications, and may be defined in great detail within each country's tax system. Such taxes may include income or other taxes. The tax systems of most countries impose an [[income tax]] at the entity level on the certain type(s) of entities (company or [[corporation]]). The rate of tax varies by jurisdiction. The tax may have an alternative base, such as assets, payroll, or income computed in an alternative manner.

Most countries exempt certain types of corporate events or transactions from income tax. For example, events related to the formation or reorganization of the corporation, which are treated as capital costs. In addition, most systems provide specific rules for taxation of the entity and/or its members upon winding up or dissolution of the entity.

In systems where financing costs are allowed as reductions of the tax base ([[tax deductions]]), rules may apply that differentiate between classes of member-provided financing. In such systems, items characterized as [[interest]] may be deductible, perhaps subject to limitations, while items characterized as dividends are not. Some systems limit deductions based on simple formulas, such as a [[debt-to-equity ratio]], while other systems have more complex rules.

Some systems provide a mechanism whereby groups of related corporations may obtain benefit from losses, credits, or other items of all members within the group. Mechanisms include combined or consolidated returns as well as group relief (direct benefit from items of another member).

Many systems additionally tax shareholders of those entities on [[dividend]]s or other distributions by the corporation. A few systems provide for partial integration of entity and member taxation. This may be accomplished by "imputation systems" or [[franking credit]]s. In the past, mechanisms have existed for advance payment of member tax by corporations, with such payment offsetting entity level tax.

Many systems (particularly sub-country level systems) impose a tax on particular corporate attributes.  Such non-income taxes may be based on capital stock issued or authorized (either by number of shares or value), total equity, net capital, or other measures unique to corporations.

Corporations, like other entities, may be subject to [[withholding tax]] obligations upon making certain varieties of payments to others.  These obligations are generally not the tax of the corporation, but the system may impose penalties on the corporation or its officers or employees for failing to withhold and pay over such taxes. A company has been defined as a juristic person having an independent and separate existence from its shareholders. Income of the company is computed and assessed separately in the hands of the company. In certain cases, distributions from the company to its shareholders as dividends are taxed as income to the shareholders.

Corporations' [[property tax]], [[payroll tax]], [[withholding tax]], [[excise tax]], [[customs duties]], [[value added tax]], and other common taxes, are generally not referred to as "corporate tax".

===Definition of corporation===
{{Main|Corporation}}
Characterization as a [[corporation]] for tax purposes is based on the form of organization, with the exception of United States Federal<ref>See United States tax regulations at [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/aprqtr/pdf/26cfr301.7701-2.pdf 26 CFR 301.7701-2] and [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/aprqtr/pdf/26cfr301.7701-3.pdf -3].</ref> and most states income taxes, under which an entity may elect to be treated as a corporation and taxed at the entity level or taxed only at the member level.<ref name=26usc11>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/11 26 USC 11].</ref>  See [[Limited liability company]],  [[Partnership taxation]], [[S corporation]], [[Sole proprietorship]].

==Types==
Most jurisdictions, including the United Kingdom<ref>United Kingdom [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1988/ukpga_19880001_en_2 Income and Corporation Taxes Act of 1988] as amended (UK ICTA88) section 6</ref> and the United States,<ref name="26usc11" /> tax corporations on their income. The United States taxes most types of corporate income at 21%.<ref name=26usc11/>

The United States taxes corporations under the same framework of tax law as individuals, with differences related to the inherent natures of corporations and individuals or unincorporated entities. For example, individuals are not formed, amalgamated, or acquired, and corporations do not incur medical expenses except by way of compensating individuals.<ref>United States [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode26/usc_sup_01_26_10_A_20_1_30_B_40_VII.html itemized deductions for individuals] and [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode26/usc_sup_01_26_10_A_20_1_30_B_40_VIII.html special deductions for corporations].</ref>

Most systems tax both domestic and [[foreign corporation]]s. Often, domestic corporations are taxed on worldwide income while foreign corporations are taxed only on income from sources within the jurisdiction.

===Taxable income===
The United States defines taxable income for a corporation as all [[gross income]], i.e. sales plus other income minus cost of goods sold and tax exempt income less allowable [[tax deduction]]s, without the allowance of the [[standard deduction]] applicable to individuals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/63|title=26 U.S. Code § 63 - Taxable income defined|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

The United States' system requires that differences in principles for recognizing income and deductions differing from financial accounting principles like the timing of income or deduction, [[tax exemption]] for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions  be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f1120sm3.pdf |title=M-3 to Form 1120 |publisher=United States Internal Revenue Service }}</ref>

The United States taxes resident corporations, i.e. those organized within the country, on their worldwide income, and nonresident, foreign corporations only on their income from sources within the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode26/usc_sup_01_26_10_A_20_1_30_N_40_II_50_B.html |title=26 U.S. Code Subpart B - Foreign Corporations|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  Hong Kong taxes resident and nonresident corporations only on income from sources within the country.<ref name = ird>{{cite web|url=http://www.ird.gov.hk/eng/tax/bus_pft.htm#03 |title=Profits Tax |publisher=Ird.gov.hk |access-date=|website =Inland Revenue Department|date = 1 April 2022}}</ref>

==Rates==
{{Update section|date=January 2018}}
[[File:Share of Federal Revenue from Different Tax Sources (Individual, Payroll, and Corporate) 1950 - 2010.gif|upright=1.4|thumb|left|Share of U.S. federal revenue from different tax sources (individual, payroll, and corporate) 1950–2010]]

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin:0; font-size:85%;"
|-
|+ colspan = 4 | Comparison of corporate income taxes as a percentage of GDP for OECD countries, 2008<ref name=Bartlett>{{cite news|last=Bartlett|first=Bruce|title=Are Taxes in the U.S. High or Low?|url=https://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/are-taxes-in-the-u-s-high-or-low/|access-date=19 September 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=31 May 2011}}</ref>
|-
! Country !! Tax/GDP !! Country !! Tax/GDP
|-
| Norway      || 12.5|| Switzerland || 3.3
|-
| Australia   || 5.9   || Netherlands || 3.2
|-
| Luxembourg  || 5.1   || Slovakia || 3.1
|-
| New Zealand || 4.4   || Sweden      || 3.0
|-
| Czech Republic  || 4.2   || France      || 2.9
|-
| South Korea || 4.2   || Ireland     || 2.8
|-
| Japan       || 3.9   || Spain       || 2.8
|-
| Italy       || 3.7   || Poland      || 2.7
|-
| Portugal    || 3.6   || Hungary     || 2.6
|-
| UK || 3.6   || Austria     || 2.5
|-
| Finland     || 3.5   || Greece      || 2.5
|-
| Israel      || 3.5   || Slovenia    || 2.5
|-
| OECD avg.   || 3.5   || Germany     || 1.9
|-
| Denmark     || 3.4   || Iceland     || 1.9
|-
| Belgium     || 3.3   || Turkey      || 1.8
|-
| Canada      || 3.3   || US          || 1.8
|}

Corporate tax rates generally are the same for differing types of income, yet the US graduated its tax rate system where corporations with lower levels of income pay a lower rate of tax, with rates varying from 15% on the first $50,000 of income to 35% on incomes over $10,000,000, with phase-outs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/11|title=26 U.S. Code § 11 – Tax imposed|website=LII / Legal Information Institute |publisher=Cornell University |language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

The corporate income tax rates differ between US states and range from 2.5% to 11.5%.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=Garrett |title=Combined State and Federal Corporate Income Tax Rates in 2022 |url=https://taxfoundation.org/combined-federal-state-corporate-tax-rates-2022/ |website=Tax Foundation |access-date=8 March 2023 |date=27 September 2022}}</ref>

The Canadian system imposes tax at different rates for different types of corporations, allowing lower rates for some smaller corporations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/tax/businesses/topics/corporations/type-corporation.html|title=Type of corporation |last=Canada Revenue Agency|date=2015-03-25|language=en-ca|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

Tax rates vary by jurisdiction and some countries have sub-country level jurisdictions like provinces, cantons, prefectures, cities, or other that also impose corporate income tax like Canada, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, and the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peachwilkinson.com/taxing-terms-corporation-tax-explained/ |title=Corporation Tax Explained |publisher=Peach Wilkinson Accountants |access-date=2016-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006001538/http://www.peachwilkinson.com/taxing-terms-corporation-tax-explained/ |archive-date=2016-10-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some jurisdictions impose tax at a different rate on an alternative tax base.
{{clear|left}}

[[File:GDP per capita PPP vs CIT 2016.svg|thumb|[[Public finance|General government]] revenue, in % of GDP, from corporate income taxes. For this data, the [[variance]] of GDP per capita with purchasing power parity (PPP) is explained in 2 % by tax revenue. Years 2014–2017.]]

Examples of corporate tax rates for a few English-speaking jurisdictions include:
* Australia: 28.5%, however some specialized entities are taxed at lower rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ato.gov.au/businesses/content.asp?doc=/content/44266.htm&pc=001/003/019/001/006&mnu=&mfp=&st=&cy=1 |title=Company tax rates |publisher=Australian Taxation Office |date=2012-07-24 |access-date=2012-10-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709125243/http://www.ato.gov.au/businesses/content.asp?doc=%2Fcontent%2F44266.htm&pc=001%2F003%2F019%2F001%2F006&mnu=&mfp=&st=&cy=1 |archive-date=2013-07-09 }}</ref>
* Canada: Federal 11%, or federal 15% plus provincial 1% to 16%. The rates are additive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/crprtns/rts-eng.html |title=Corporation tax rates |publisher=Canada Revenue Agency |date=2012-04-03 |access-date=2012-10-08}}</ref>
* Hong Kong: 16.5%<ref name="ird" />
* Ireland: 12.5% on trading (business) income, and 25% on non-trading income<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revenue.ie/en/tax/ct/index.html |title=Corporation Tax |publisher=Revenue.ie |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2012-10-08}}</ref>
* New Zealand: 28%
* Singapore: 17% from 2010, however a partial exemption scheme may apply to new companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iras.gov.sg/irasHome/page04.aspx?id=410 |title=Tax rates & tax exemption schemes |publisher=IRAS |date=2012-02-17 |access-date=2012-10-08}}</ref>
* United Kingdom: 19% for 2017–2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/rates-and-allowances-corporation-tax/rates-and-allowances-corporation-tax|title= Rates and allowances for Corporation Tax |author=HM Revenue & Customs |website=GOV.UK|language=en|access-date=|date = 1 April 2022}}</ref>
* United States: Federal 21%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/11 |title=26 USC § 11 – Tax imposed &#124; LII / Legal Information Institute |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |access-date=2012-10-08}}</ref> States: 0% to 10%, deductible in computing federal taxable income. Some cities: up to 9%, deductible in computing federal taxable income. The Federal Alternative Minimum Tax of 20% is imposed on regular taxable income with adjustments.

===International corporate tax rates===
{{update|section|date=November 2021}}
Corporate tax rates vary widely by country, leading some corporations to shield earnings within offshore subsidiaries or to redomicile within countries with lower tax rates.

In comparing national corporate tax rates one should also take into account the taxes on dividends paid to shareholders. For example, the overall U.S. tax on corporate profits of 35% is less than or similar to that of European countries such as Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, which have lower corporate tax rates but higher taxes on dividends paid to shareholders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5k3wh96w246k.pdf?expires=1448516536&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=19E09DD7567FF1DA85E0EC999665FA0B|title=OECD iLibrary|date=15 July 2025 |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development}} {{Dead link|date=October 2018}}</ref>

Corporate tax rates across the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) are shown in the table.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Country !! Corporate income tax rate (2019)<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLE_II4|title=Table II.4. Overall statutory tax rates on dividend income|publisher=OECD}}</ref> !! Dividend Tax rate (2019)<ref name="auto"/> !! Integrated corporate tax rate (2019)<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| {{flag|Ireland}} || 12.5% || 51.0% || 57.1%
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}} || 27.5% || 40.3% || 56.7%
|-
| {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Corporate tax in Canada|Canada]] || 26.8% || 39.3% || 55.6%
|-
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Corporation tax in France|France]] || 32.0% || 34.0% || 55.1%
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}} || 22.0% || 42.0% || 54.8%
|-
| {{flag|Belgium}} || 29.6% || 30.0% || 50.7%
|-
| {{flag|Portugal}} || 31.5% || 28.0% || 50.7%
|-
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Corporate tax in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || 19.0% || 38.1% || 49.9%
|-
| {{flag|Israel}} || 23.0% || 33.0% || 48.4%
|-
| {{flag|Germany}} || 29.9% || 26.4% || 48.4%
|-
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Corporate tax in the United States|United States]] || 21.0% || 29.3% || 47.6%
|-
| {{flag|Australia}} || 30.0% || 24.3% || 47.0%
|-
| {{flag|Norway}} || 22.0% || 31.7% || 46.7%
|-
| {{flag|Austria}} || 25.0% || 27.5% || 45.6%
|-
| {{flag|Sweden}} || 21.4% || 30.0% || 45.0%
|-
| {{flag|Japan}} || 29.7% || 20.3% || 44.0%
|-
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Corporate tax in Italy|Italy]] || 24.0% || 26.0% || 43.8%
|-
| {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Corporate tax in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] || 25.0% || 25.0% || 43.8%
|-
| {{flag|Finland}} || 20.0% || 28.9% || 43.1%
|-
| {{flag|Spain}} || 25.0% || 23.0% || 42.3%
|-
| {{flag|Mexico}} || 30.0% || 17.1% || 42.0%
|-
| {{flag|Luxembourg}} || 24.9% || 21.0% || 40.7%
|-
| {{flag|Slovenia}} || 19.0% || 25.0% || 39.3%
|-
| {{flag|Greece}} || 28.0% || 15.0% || 38.8%
|-
| {{flag|Switzerland}} || 21.1% || 21.1% || 37.8%
|-
| {{flag|Iceland}} || 20.0% || 22.0% || 37.6%
|-
| {{flag|Chile}} || 25.0% || 13.3% || 35.0%
|-
| {{flag|Turkey}} || 22.0% || 17.5% || 35.0%
|-
| {{flag|Poland}} || 19.0% || 19.0% || 34.4%
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}} || 28.0% || 6.9% || 33.0%
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}} || 19.0% || 15.0% || 31.2%
|-
| {{flag|Lithuania}} || 15.0% || 15.0% || 27.8%
|-
| {{flag|Slovak Republic}} || 21.0% || 7.0% || 26.5%
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}} || 9.0% || 15.0% || 22.7%
|-
| {{flag|Estonia}} || 20.0% || 0.0% || 20.0%
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}} || 20.0% || 0.0% || 20.0%
|}

The corporate tax rates in other jurisdictions include:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Country !! Corporate income tax rate !! Dividend tax rate !! Integrated corporate tax rate
|-
| {{flag|Bulgaria}} || 10.0% || 5.0% || 14.5%
|-
| {{flag|India}} || {{ubli|22% (2019)|15% (for newly incorporated manufacturing companies)<ref>{{cite web |title=Corporate tax rates slashed as govt announces ₹1.45 lakh crore stimulus |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/govt-proposes-to-slash-corporate-tax-rates-1568954944900.html |website=Mint |access-date=20 September 2019 |language=en |date=20 September 2019}}</ref>}} || ||
|-
| {{flag|Russia}} || 20% (2015)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nalog.ru/html/sites/www.eng.nalog.ru/Tax%20Code%20Part%20Two.pdf|title=Tax Code of the Russian Federation, Part II, Chapter 25, Article 284}}</ref> || ||
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}} || 17%, with significant exemptions for resident companies (2015)<ref>Singapore Corporate Tax Guide</ref> || ||
|-
| {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} || 0 percent for taxable income up to AED 375,000 (December, 2022)
<ref name="mof.gov.ae">{{Cite web|url=https://mof.gov.ae/|title=الإمارات العربية المتحدة - وزارة المالية|website=Ministry of Finance - United Arab Emirates}}</ref>
|| 9 % for taxable income above AED 375,000 (December, 2022)
<ref name="mof.gov.ae"/>
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}} || 29 % for annual turnover above PKR 250 million. (December, 2024)
|| 15 % for active tax-payer (December, 2024) || 20% for annual turnover below PKR 250 million. (December, 2024)
|}

In October 2021 some 136 countries agreed to enforce a corporate tax rate of at least 15% from 2023 after the talks on a minimum rate led by OECD for a decade.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58847328 |title =Nations agree to 15% minimum corporate tax rate|work = BBC News|first = Daniel|last = Thomas|date = 8 October 2022}}</ref>

==Distribution of earnings==
Most systems that tax corporations also impose income tax on shareholders of corporations when earnings are distributed.<ref>See, e.g., [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/61 26 USC 61(a)(7)].</ref>  Such distribution of earnings is generally referred to as a [[dividend]].  The tax may be at reduced rates.  For example, the United States provides for reduced amounts of tax on dividends received by  individuals and by corporations.<ref>See [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/1 26 USC 1(h)(11)] for the reduced rate of tax for individuals, and [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/243 26 USC 243] (a)(1) and (c) for a deduction for dividends received by corporations.</ref>

The company law of some jurisdictions prevents corporations from distributing amounts to shareholders except as distribution of earnings.  Such earnings may be determined under company law principles or tax principles. In such jurisdictions, exceptions are usually provided with respect to distribution of shares of the company, for winding up, and in limited other situations.

Other jurisdictions treat distributions as distributions of earnings taxable to shareholders if earnings are available to be distributed, but do not prohibit distributions in excess of earnings.  For example, under the United States system each corporation must maintain a calculation of its earnings and profits (a tax concept similar to retained earnings).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/312|title=26 U.S. Code § 312 - Effect on earnings and profits|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  A distribution to a shareholder is considered to be from earnings and profits to the extent thereof unless an exception applies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/316|title=26 U.S. Code § 316 - Dividend defined|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  The United States provides reduced tax on dividend income of both corporations and individuals.

Other jurisdictions provide corporations a means of designating, within limits, whether a distribution is a distribution of earnings taxable to the shareholder or a [[return of capital]].

===Example===
The following illustrates the dual level of tax concept:

Widget Corp earns 100 of profits before tax in each of years 1 and 2.  It distributes all the earnings in year 3, when it has no profits.  Jim owns all of Widget Corp.  The tax rate in the residence jurisdiction of Jim and Widget Corp is 30%.
{| class="wikitable"
!Year 1  !!  !!Cumulative !!Pre-tax income !!Taxes
|-
|Taxable income ||style="align:right"|100 || ||style="align:right"|100 ||
|-
|Tax
|style="align:right"|30
|colspan="2"|
|style="align:right"|30&nbsp;&nbsp;
|-
|Net after tax
|style="align:right"|70
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
|
|-
|Jim's income & tax
|style="align:right"| 0
|
|-
!Year 2 || ||colspan="2"| ||
|-
|Taxable income ||style="align:right"|100|| ||style="align:right"|200 ||
|-
|Tax ||style="align:right"|30
|colspan="2"|
|style="align:right"|60&nbsp;&nbsp;
|-
|Net after tax
|style="align:right"|70
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
|
|-
|Jim's income & tax
|style="align:right" |0 ||
|-
!Year 3: || ||colspan="2"| ||
|-
|Distribution
|style="align:right"|140
|colspan="2"| ||
|-
|Jim's tax
|style="align:right"|42
|colspan="2"|
|style="align:right"|102&nbsp;&nbsp;
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px black;"|Net after Jim's tax
|  style="border-bottom:solid 1px black; text-align:right;"|98
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px black;" colspan="2"|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px black;"|
|-
!Totals || ||
!style="text-align:right;"|200
!style="text-align:right;"|102&nbsp;&nbsp;
|-
|colspan="4"|
!style="text-align:right;"|51%
|}

==Other corporate events==
Many systems provide that certain corporate events are not taxable to corporations or shareholders.  Significant restrictions and special rules often apply.  The rules related to such transactions are often quite complex.

===Formation===
Most systems treat the formation of a corporation by a controlling corporate shareholder as a nontaxable event.  Many systems, including the United States and Canada, extend this tax free treatment to the formation of a corporation by any group of shareholders in control of the corporation.<ref>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/351 26 USC 351].  For a discussion of U.S. principles, see Bittker & Eustice, below, Chapter 3.</ref>  Generally, in tax free formations the tax attributes of assets and liabilities are transferred to the new corporation along with such assets and liabilities.

Example:  John and Mary are United States residents who operate a business.  They decide to incorporate for business reasons.  They transfer the assets of the business to Newco, a newly formed Delaware corporation of which they are the sole shareholders, subject to accrued liabilities of the business in exchange solely for common shares of Newco.  Under United States principles, this transfer does not cause tax to John, Mary, or Newco.  If on the other hand Newco also assumes a bank loan in excess of the basis of the assets transferred less the accrued liabilities, John and Mary will recognize taxable gain for such excess.<ref>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/357 26 USC 357] and [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/aprqtr/pdf/26cfr1.357-2.pdf 26 CFR 1.367-1(b) Example].</ref>

===Acquisitions===
Corporations may merge or acquire other corporations in a manner a particular tax system treats as nontaxable to either of the corporations and/or to their shareholders.  Generally, significant restrictions apply if tax free treatment is to be obtained.<ref>See, e.g., [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/368 26 USC 368] defining events qualifying for reorganization treatment, including certain acquisitions.</ref>  For example, Bigco acquires all of the shares of Smallco from Smallco shareholders in exchange solely for Bigco shares.  This acquisition is not taxable to Smallco or its shareholders under U.S. or Canadian tax law if certain requirements are met, even if Smallco is then liquidated into or merged or amalgamated with Bigco.

===Reorganizations===
In addition, corporations may change key aspects of their legal identity, capitalization, or structure in a tax free manner under most systems.  Examples of reorganizations that may be tax free include mergers, amalgamations, liquidations of subsidiaries, share for share exchanges, exchanges of shares for assets, changes in form or place of organization, and recapitalizations.<ref>See [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/354 26 USC 354] for tax effect on shareholders of reorganizations as defined in  [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/368 26 USC 368].</ref>

==Interest deduction limitations==
Most jurisdictions allow a [[tax deduction]] for interest expense incurred by a corporation in carrying out its trading activities.  Where such interest is paid to related parties, such deduction may be limited.  Without such limitation, owners could structure financing of the corporation in a manner that would provide for a tax deduction for much of the profits, potentially without changing the tax on shareholders.  For example, assume a corporation earns profits of 100 before interest expense and would normally distribute 50 to shareholders.  If the corporation is structured so that deductible interest of 50 is payable to the shareholders, it will cut its tax to half the amount due if it merely paid a dividend.

A common form of limitation is to limit the deduction for interest paid to related parties to interest charged at arm's length rates on debt not exceeding a certain portion of the equity of the paying corporation.  For example, interest paid on related party debt in excess of three times equity may not be deductible in computing taxable income.

The United States, United Kingdom, and French tax systems apply a more complex set of tests to limit deductions.  Under the [[Corporate tax in the United States|U.S. system]], related party interest expense in excess of 50% of cash flow is generally not currently deductible, with the excess potentially deductible in future years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/163|title=26 U.S. Code § 163 - Interest|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

The classification of instruments as debt on which interest is deductible or as equity with respect to which distributions are not deductible can be complex in some systems.<ref>See, e.g., [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/385 26 USC 385]</ref> The [[Internal Revenue Service]] had proposed complex regulations under this section (see TD 7747, 1981-1 CB 141) which were soon withdrawn (TD 7920, 1983-2 CB 69).{{cn|date=September 2024}}

==Foreign corporation branches==
Most jurisdictions tax foreign corporations differently from domestic corporations.<ref>Contrast tax on domestic corporations under [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/11 26 USC 11] and [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/63 26 USC 63] with tax on foreign corporations under  [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode26/usc_sup_01_26_10_A_20_1_30_N_40_II_50_B.html 26 USC 881-885].</ref>  No international laws limit the ability of a country to tax its nationals and residents (individuals and entities).  However, treaties and practicality impose limits on taxation of those outside its borders, even on income from sources within the country.

Most jurisdictions tax foreign corporations on business income within the jurisdiction when earned through a branch or [[permanent establishment]] in the jurisdiction.  This tax may be imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation or at a different rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/882|title=26 U.S. Code § 882 - Tax on income of foreign corporations connected with United States business|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

Upon payment of [[dividend]]s, corporations are generally subject to [[withholding tax]] only by their country of incorporation.  Many countries impose a branch profits tax on foreign corporations to prevent the advantage the absence of dividend withholding tax would otherwise provide to foreign corporations.  This tax may be imposed at the time profits are earned by the branch or at the time they are remitted or deemed remitted outside the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/884|title=26 U.S. Code § 884 - Branch profits tax|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>

Branches of foreign corporations may not be entitled to all of the same deductions as domestic corporations.  Some jurisdictions do not recognize inter-branch payments as actual payments, and income or deductions arising from such inter-branch payments are disregarded.<ref>For example, the [[Internal Revenue Service]] states in its [https://www.irs.gov/publications/p515/ar02.html#en_US_publink1000224779 Publication 515], "The payee of a payment made to a disregarded entity is the owner of the entity."</ref>  Some jurisdictions impose express limits on tax deductions of branches.  Commonly limited deductions include management fees and interest.

Nathan M. Jenson argues that low corporate tax rates are a minor determinate of a multinational company when setting up their headquarters in a country.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Nathan M. |last1=Jenson |last2=Sinha |first2=S. S. |date=2008 |title=Can India Adopt Strategic Flexibility Like China Did? |journal=Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management |volume=9 |issue=2/3 |page=1 |doi=10.1007/BF03396539 }}</ref>

==Losses==
Most jurisdictions allow interperiod allocation or deduction of losses in some manner for corporations, even where such deduction is not allowed for individuals.  A few jurisdictions allow losses (usually defined as negative taxable income) to be deducted by revising or amending prior year taxable income.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/172|title=26 U.S. Code § 172 - Net operating loss deduction|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  Most jurisdictions allow such deductions only in subsequent periods.  Some jurisdictions impose time limitations as to when loss deductions may be utilized.

==Groups of companies==
Several jurisdictions provide a mechanism whereby losses or [[tax credits]] of one corporation may be used by another corporation where both corporations are commonly controlled (together, a group).  In the United States and Netherlands, among others, this is accomplished by filing a single tax return including the income and loss of each group member.  This is referred to as a consolidated return in the United States and as a fiscal unity in the Netherlands.  In the United Kingdom, this is accomplished directly on a pairwise basis called group relief.  Losses of one group member company may be "surrendered" to another group member company, and the latter company may deduct the loss against profits.

The United States has extensive regulations dealing with consolidated returns.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/26/1.1502-0|title=26 CFR 1.1502-0 - Effective dates.|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  One such rule requires matching of income and deductions on intercompany transactions within the group by use of "deferred intercompany transaction" rules.

In addition, a few systems provide a tax exemption for dividend income received by corporations.  The Netherlands system provides a "participation exception" to taxation for corporations owning more than 25% of the dividend paying corporation.

==Transfer pricing==
{{see also|Transfer pricing}}
A key issue in corporate tax is the setting of prices charged by related parties for goods, services or the use of property. Many jurisdictions have guidelines on transfer pricing which allow tax authorities to adjust transfer prices used. Such adjustments may apply in both an international and a domestic context.<ref>[https://tulpartax.com/importance-of-transfer-pricing-in-uae-tax-compliance/ Complexities of Transfer Pricing]</ref>


==Taxation of shareholders==
Most income tax systems levy tax on the corporation and, upon distribution of earnings (dividends), on the shareholder.  This results in a dual level of tax.  Most systems require that income tax be withheld on distribution of dividends to foreign shareholders, and some also require withholding of tax on distributions to domestic shareholders.  The rate of such [[withholding tax]] may be reduced for a shareholder under a [[tax treaty]].

Some systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income.  The United States has historically provided a [[dividends received deduction]] to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares.  For tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.<ref>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/1 26 USC 1(h)(11)].  Distributions from an [[S corporation]], Regulated Investment Company (mutual fund), or Real Estate Investment Trust are not treated as dividends.</ref>

Some systems currently attempt or in the past have attempted to [[Integration (tax)|integrate taxation]] of the corporation with taxation of shareholders to mitigate the dual level of taxation.  As a current example, Australia provides for a "franking credit" as a benefit to shareholders.  When an Australian company pays a dividend to a domestic shareholder, it reports the dividend as well as a notional tax credit amount.  The shareholder utilizes this notional credit to offset shareholder level income tax.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

A previous system was utilised in the United Kingdom, called the [[advance corporation tax]] (ACT).  When a company paid a dividend, it was required to pay an amount of ACT, which it then used to offset its own taxes.  The ACT was included in income by the shareholder resident in the United Kingdom or certain treaty countries, and treated as a payment of tax by the shareholder.  To the extent that deemed tax payment exceeded taxes otherwise due, it was refundable to the shareholder.

==Alternative tax bases==
Many jurisdictions incorporate some sort of alternative tax computation.  These computations may be based on assets, capital, wages, or some alternative measure of taxable income.  Often the alternative tax functions as a minimum tax.

[[Income tax in the United States|United States federal income tax]] incorporates an [[alternative minimum tax]].  This tax is computed at a lower tax rate (20% for corporations), and imposed based on a modified version of taxable income.  Modifications include longer depreciation lives assets under [[MACRS]], adjustments related to costs of developing natural resources, and an addback of certain tax exempt interest.  The U.S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of employees as a tax deduction and allowed full deduction of the cost of production assets upon acquisition.

Some jurisdictions, such as Swiss cantons and certain states within the United States, impose taxes based on capital.  These may be based on total equity per audited financial statements,<ref>Switzerland {{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}</ref> a computed amount of assets less liabilities<ref name="New York">New York</ref> or quantity of shares outstanding.<ref>Delaware</ref>  In some jurisdictions, capital based taxes are imposed in addition to the income tax.<ref name="New York"/>  In other jurisdictions, the capital taxes function as alternative taxes.

Mexico imposes an alternative tax on corporations, the IETU.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}  The tax rate is lower than the regular rate, and there are adjustments for salaries and wages, interest and royalties, and depreciable assets.

==Tax returns==
Most systems require that corporations file an annual income tax return.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/6012|title=26 U.S. Code § 6012 - Persons required to make returns of income|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  Some systems (such as the [[Tax return (Canada)|Canadian]], [[Tax return (United Kingdom)|United Kingdom]] and [[Tax return (United States)|United States]] systems) require that taxpayers self assess tax on the tax return.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/6151|title=26 U.S. Code § 6151 - Time and place for paying tax shown on returns|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref>  Other systems provide that the government must make an assessment for tax to be due.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}  Some systems require certification of tax returns in some manner by accountants licensed to practice in the jurisdiction, often the company's auditors.<ref>See, e.g., India {{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}</ref>

Tax returns can be fairly simple or quite complex.  The systems requiring simple returns often base taxable income on financial statement profits with few adjustments, and may require that audited financial statements be attached to the return.<ref>See, e.g., UK Form [http://www.hmrc.gov.uk/ctsa/ct600-2008.pdf CT600], which [http://www.hmrc.gov.uk/ct/managing/company-tax-return/returns/submit.htm requires the attachment] of audited or statutory accounts as filed with the [[Companies House]].</ref>  Returns for such systems generally require that the relevant financial statements be attached to a simple adjustment schedule.  By contrast, United States corporate tax returns require both computation of taxable income from components thereof and reconciliation of taxable income to financial statement income.

Many systems require forms or schedules supporting particular items on the main form.  Some of these schedules may be incorporated into the main form.  For example, the Canadian corporate return, [https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/forms-publications/forms/t2.html Form T-2], an eight-page form, incorporates some detail schedules but has nearly 50 additional schedules that may be required.

Some systems have different returns for different types of corporations or corporations engaged in specialized businesses.  The United States has 13 variations on the basic Form 1120<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irs.gov/app/picklist/list/formsInstructions.html?value=1120&criteria=formNumber&submitSearch=Find |title=Forms and Instructions (PDF) |publisher=Irs.gov |date=2012-07-17 |access-date=2012-10-08}}</ref> for [[S corporation]]s, insurance companies, [[Domestic international sales corporation]]s, foreign corporations, and other entities.  The structure of the forms and imbedded schedules vary by type of form.

Preparation of non-simple corporate tax returns can be time consuming.  For example, the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Service]] states in the [https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/i1120.pdf instructions for Form 1120] that the average time needed to complete form is over 56 hours, not including record keeping time and required attachments.

Tax return due dates vary by jurisdiction, fiscal or tax year, and type of entity.<ref>Examples:  U.S. corporations must file Federal income Form 1120 by the 15th day of the third month following the end of the tax year (March 15 for calendar years); but Form 1120-IC-DISC returns are not due until the 15th day of the ninth month; Canadian corporations must file T-2 by June 30.</ref>  In self-assessment systems, payment of taxes is generally due no later than the normal due date, though advance tax payments may be required.<ref>U.S. Corporations must pay estimated taxes for each quarter or face penalties under [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/6655 26 USC 6655].</ref>  Canadian corporations must pay estimated taxes monthly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/crprtns/pymnts/nstlmnts/ddts-eng.html |title=Instalment due dates |publisher=Cra-arc.gc.ca |date=2012-01-04 |access-date=2012-10-08}}</ref>  In each case, final payment is due with the corporation tax return.

==See also==
* {{format link|Income taxes in Canada#Corporate income taxes}}
* [[Corporate tax in the United States]]
* [[United Kingdom corporation tax]]
* [[Corporation tax in the Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Tax rates of Europe]]
* [[List of countries by tax rates]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
'''U.S.'''
* Bittker, Boris I. and Eustice, James S.: ''Federal Income Taxation of Corporations and Shareholders'':  paperback {{ISBN|978-0-7913-4101-8}}, [http://ria.thomsonreuters.com/EStore/detail.aspx?ID=WFCS subscription service]
* Kahn & Lehman. ''Corporate Income Taxation''
* Healy, John C. and Schadewald, Michael S.: ''Multistate Corporate Tax Course 2010'', CCH, {{ISBN|978-0-8080-2173-5}} (also available as a multi-volume guide, {{ISBN|978-0-8080-2015-8}})
* Hoffman, et al.: ''Corporations, Partnerships, Estates and Trusts'', {{ISBN|978-0-324-66021-0}}
* Momburn, et al.:  ''Mastering Corporate Tax'', Carolina Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-59460-368-6}}
* Watson, Garrett and William McBride, [https://files.taxfoundation.org/20210224151522/Evaluating-Proposals-to-Increase-the-Corporate-Tax-Rate-and-Levy-a-Minimum-Tax-on-Corporate-Book-Income1.pdf "Evaluating Proposals to Increase the Corporate Tax Rate and Levy a Minimum Tax on Corporate Book Income,"  ''FISCAL FACT'' (Tax Foundation, No. 751 Feb. 2021) ]

'''United Kingdom'''
* ''Tolley's Corporation Tax'', 2007-2008 {{ISBN|978-0-7545-3273-6}}
* Watterson, Juliana M.:  ''Corporation Tax 2009/2010'', Bloomsbury Professional, {{ISBN|978-1-84766-327-6}}

==External links==
'''Canada'''
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency.html CRA main website]
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/services/taxes/income-tax/corporation-income-tax.html CRA gateway for corporations]
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/forms-publications/forms/t2.html CRA gateway to T2 returns]

'''United Kingdom'''
* [http://www.hmrc.gov.uk/index.htm HMRC main website]
* [https://www.gov.uk/corporation-tax HMRC Introduction to Corporation Tax]

'''United States'''
* [https://www.irs.gov/ IRS main website]
* [https://www.irs.gov/corporations IRS gateway for corporations]
* [https://www.irs.gov/publications/p542 IRS Publication 542, Corporations]

{{Aspects of corporations}}
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