View source for Cossacks

{{Short description|Ethnic group of current Ukraine and Russia}}
{{Distinguish|Kazakhs|Cassock}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Cossacks}}
[[File:AmericanCossacks.jpg|thumb|An American Cossack family in the 1950s]]
[[File:Novosibirsk-Karimov.jpg|thumb|A [[Siberia]]n Cossack [[family]] in [[Novosibirsk]], after 2000]]
[[File:Cossacks in parade 2015.jpg|thumb|Cossacks marching in [[Red Square]] at the [[2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade|2015 Victory Day Parade]]]]

The '''Cossacks'''{{efn|{{unordered list| {{langx|be|казакi}} {{IPA|be|kazaˈkʲi|}}| {{langx|cs|kozáci}} {{IPA|cs|ˈkozaːtsɪ|}}| {{langx|et|Kasakad}} {{IPA|et|ˈkɑsɑkɑd|}}| {{langx|fi|Kasakat}} {{IPA|fi|ˈkɑsɑkɑt|}}| {{langx|hu|kozákok}} {{IPA|hu|ˈkozaːkok|}}| {{langx|orv|коза́ки}}| {{langx|pl|Kozacy}} {{IPA|pl|kɔˈzatsɨ|}}| {{langx|ru|казаки́}} or {{lang|ru|козаки́}} {{IPA|ru|kəzɐˈkʲi|}}| {{langx|sk|kozáci}} {{IPA|sk|ˈkɔzaːtsi|}}| {{langx|uk|козаки́}} {{IPA|uk|kozɐˈkɪ|}}}}}} are a predominantly [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]], [[Eastern Christian]] people, originating from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] of [[eastern Ukraine]] and [[southern Russia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kollmann |first1=Nancy Shields |title=The Russian Empire 1450–1801 |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-928051-3 |page=58 |edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1= O'Rourke|first1= Shane |chapter= Cossacks|date= 2011|encyclopedia= The Encyclopedia of War|publisher= American Cancer Society|language= en|doi= 10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow143|isbn= 978-1-4443-3823-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Magocsi|first=Paul Robert|title=A History of Ukraine|year=1996|pages=179–181|author-link=Paul Robert Magocsi}}</ref> Cossacks played an important role in defending the southern borders of [[Ukraine]] and [[Russia]], [[Cossack raids|countering]] the [[Crimean-Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|Crimean-Nogai raids]], alongside economically developing [[steppes|steppe regions]] north of the [[Black Sea]] and around the [[Azov Sea]].{{Sfn|Kondufor|1986|page=46}} Historically, they were a semi-[[nomad]]ic and semi-militarized people, who were allowed a great degree of self-governance in exchange for military service under the nominal [[suzerainty]] of various Eastern European states. Although numerous linguistic and religious groups came together to form the Cossacks, most of them coalesced and became [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]–speaking [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]].

The rulers of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Russian Empire]] endowed Cossacks with certain special privileges in return for the military duty to serve in the [[Irregular military|irregular troops]]: [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] were mostly infantry soldiers, using [[war wagon]]s,<ref>{{cite book |last1= Stasiewska |first1= Zofia|last2= Meller|first2= Stefan |title=Eryka Lassoty i Wilhelma Beauplana opisy Ukrainy |trans-title=Erich Lassota's and Wilhelm Beauplan's descriptions of Ukraine |location=Warsaw, PL |publisher=Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy |year=1972 |page=110 |language=pl}}</ref> while [[Don Cossacks]] were mostly cavalry soldiers. The various Cossack groups were organized along military lines, with large autonomous groups called [[Cossack host|hosts]]. Each host had a territory consisting of affiliated villages called [[stanitsa]]s.

They inhabited sparsely populated areas in the [[Dnieper]], [[Don (river)|Don]], [[Terek (river)|Terek]], and [[Ural (river)|Ural]] river basins, and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both Ukraine and parts of Russia.<ref name=ORourke_2000>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L0Zk3tUQ1M4C&q=cossacks+old+believers&pg=PA62 |title= Warriors and peasants: The Don Cossacks in late imperial Russia |isbn= 978-0-312-22774-6 |last1= O'Rourke |first1= Shane |year= 2000 |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |access-date= 2020-11-10 |archive-date= 2022-02-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220206071147/https://books.google.com/books?id=L0Zk3tUQ1M4C&q=cossacks+old+believers&pg=PA62 |url-status= live }}</ref>

The Cossack way of life persisted via both direct descendants and acquired ideals in other nations into the twentieth century, though the sweeping societal changes of the [[Russian Revolution]] disrupted Cossack society as much as any other part of Russia; many Cossacks migrated to other parts of Europe following the establishment of the [[Soviet Union]], while others remained and assimilated into the Communist state.  Cohesive Cossack-based units were organized and many fought for both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during [[World War II]].

After World War II, the Soviet Union disbanded the Cossack units within the [[Soviet Army]], leading to the suppression of many Cossack traditions during the rule of [[Joseph Stalin]] and his successors. However, during the [[Perestroika]] era in the late 1980s, descendants of Cossacks began to revive their national traditions. In 1988, the Soviet Union enacted a law permitting the re-establishment of former Cossack hosts and the formation of new ones. Throughout the 1990s, numerous regional authorities consented to delegate certain local administrative and policing responsibilities to these reconstituted Cossack hosts.

Between 3.5 and 5 million people associate themselves with the Cossack [[cultural identity]] across the world, even though the majority have little to no connection to the original Cossack people because cultural ideals and legacy changed greatly with time.<ref name="Cole2011"/><ref name="Tjoe2006"/> Cossack organizations operate in [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]].<ref name=Richard_Arnold_2019>{{Cite web|url= https://www.ponarseurasia.org/whose-cossacks-are-they-anyway-a-movement-torn-by-the-ukraine-russia-divide/ |title= Whose Cossacks Are They Anyway? A Movement Torn by the Ukraine-Russia Divide – PONARS Eurasia }}</ref><ref name=Eva_Hartog_2016>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/01/cossack-comeback-fur-flies-fake-groups-spark-identity-crisis |title=Cossack comeback: Fur flies as 'fake' groups spark identity crisis |newspaper=The Guardian |date=June 2016 |last1=Hartog |first1=Eva }}</ref>

== Etymology ==
[[File:Cossack Mamay 1890.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Cossack [[bandurist]], 1890|alt=]]

[[Max Vasmer]]'s etymological dictionary traces the name to the Tatar [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] word {{lang|sla|kazak}}, {{lang|sla-Latn|kozak}}, in which ''cosac'' meant 'free man' but also 'conqueror'.<ref>For a detailed analysis, see {{cite journal |author-link=Omeljan Pritsak |first1=Omeljan |last1=Pritsak |title=The Turkic Etymology of the Word Qazaq 'Cossack' |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |volume=28 |issue=1–4 |date=2006{{–}}2007 |pages=237–XII}}</ref> The ethnonym ''[[Kazakhs|Kazakh]]'' is from the same [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] root.<ref name=etymo>{{cite encyclopedia |entry-url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cossack |entry=Cossack |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003175721/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cossack |archive-date=2015-10-03 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cossack |title=Cossack |encyclopedia=Britannica |date=2015-05-28 |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924190103/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cossack |archive-date=2015-09-24 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Iaroslav |last1=Lebedynsky |title=Histoire des Cosaques |trans-title=History of the Cossacks |location=Lyon, FR |publisher=Terre Noire |year=1995 |page=38 |language=fr}}</ref>

In written sources, the name is first [[Attested language|attested]] in the ''[[Codex Cumanicus]]'' from the 13th&nbsp;century.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkPath=pages\C\O\Cossacks.htm |article=Cossacks |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukraine |access-date=13 August 2012 |title=Archived copy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805142514/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm |archive-date=5 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Max Vasmer |author-link=Max Vasmer |url=http://vasmer.narod.ru/p242.htm |script-title=ru:Этимологический словарь Фасмера: казаґк |trans-title=Etymological Dictionary: Kazagk |language=ru |work=narod.ru |page=242 |access-date=23 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721190849/http://vasmer.narod.ru/p242.htm |archive-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[English language|English]], ''Cossack'' is first attested in 1590.<ref name=etymo/>

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Cossacks}}

=== Early history ===
[[File:Ukraine-Dyke Pole.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Map of the [[Wild Fields]] in the 17th century (superimposed on modern borders)|alt=]]
The origins of the Cossacks are disputed. Originally, the term referred to semi-independent [[Tatars|Tatar]] groups (''[[kazakhs|qazaq]]'' or "free men") who inhabited the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]], north of the [[Black Sea]] near the [[Dnieper|Dnieper River]]. By the end of the 15th century, the term was also applied to Slavic peasants who had fled to the devastated{{By whom|date=December 2024}} regions along the lower Dnieper and [[Don (river)|Don River]]s, where they established their self-governing communities. Until at least the 1630s, these Cossack groups remained ethnically and religiously open to virtually anybody, although the Slavic element predominated.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} There were several major [[Cossack host]]s in the 16th century: near the Dnieper, Don, [[Volga]] and [[Ural (river)|Ural River]]s; the [[Greben Cossacks]] in [[Caucasus|Caucasia]]; and the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], mainly west of the Dnieper.<ref name="britannica"/>{{sfn|Witzenrath|2007|p=35—36}}

It is unclear when people other than the [[Brodnici]] and [[Berladnici]] (which had a Romanian origin with large Slavic influences)  began to settle in the lower reaches of major rivers such as the [[Don (river)|Don]] and the [[Dnieper]] after the demise of the [[Khazars]]. Their arrival was probably not before the 13th century, when the [[Mongols]] broke the power of the [[Cumans]], who had assimilated the previous population on that territory. It is known that new settlers inherited a lifestyle that long pre-dated their presence, including from that of the [[Cumans]] and the [[Circassia]]n Kassaks.<ref name="Shambarov">{{cite book |last1=Shambarov |first1=Valery |title=Kazachestvo Istoriya Volnoy Rusi |publisher=Algoritm Expo |location=Moscow |year=2007 |isbn=978-5-699-20121-1}}</ref> In contrast, Slavic settlements in southern Ukraine started to appear relatively early during Cuman rule, with the earliest, such as [[Oleshky]], dating back to the 11th century.

Early "Proto-Cossack" groups are generally reported to have come into existence within what is now [[Ukraine]] in the 13th century as the influence of Cumans grew weaker, although some have ascribed their origins to as early as the mid-8th century.<ref name="Galskow">Vasili Glazkov (Wasili Glaskow), ''History of the Cossacks'', p. 3, Robert Speller & Sons, New York, {{ISBN|0-8315-0035-2}} Vasili Glazkov claims that the data of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Iran]]ian and [[Arab]] historians support that. According to this view, by 1261, Cossacks lived in the area between the rivers [[Dniester]] and [[Volga]] as described for the first time in Russian chronicles.</ref> Some historians suggest that the Cossack people were of mixed ethnic origin, descending from [[East Slavs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Tatars|Tatar]]s, and others who settled or passed through the vast Steppe.<ref name="Newland1991">{{harvnb|Newland|1991}}</ref> Some [[Turkology|Turkologists]], however, argue that Cossacks are descendants of the native [[Cumans]] of [[Ukraine]], who had lived there long before the Mongol invasion.<ref name="Neumann132">{{cite book |last1=Neumann |first1=Karl Friedrich |title=Die völker des südlichen Russlands in ihrer geschichtlichen entwickelung |trans-title=The Peoples of Southern Russia in its Historical Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_XE1BAAAAIAAJ |year=1855 |publisher=B.G. Teubner |location=Leipzig |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_XE1BAAAAIAAJ/page/n143 132] |quote=The Cumans, who have been living in the land of the Kipchak since time immemorial, … are known to us as Turks. It is these Turks, no new immigrants from the areas beyond the Yaik, but true descendants of the ancient Scythians, who now again occur in world history under the name Cumans, … |access-date=2015-10-25 }}</ref> Some other just state that first Cossacks were [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin<ref>{{cite book |author1=Breyfogle, Nicholas |author2=Schrader, Abby |author3=Sunderland, Willard |title=Peopling the Russian Periphery: Borderland Colonization in ... |date=2007 |page=43}}</ref> according to [[Serhii Plokhy]] the first Cossacks were of Turkic rather than Slavic stock.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Serhii Plokhy |title=The Cossack Myth: History and Nationhood in the Age of Empires |date=2012 |page=31 |author1-link=Serhii Plokhy }}</ref> [[Christoph Baumer]] states that predecessor from the thirteenth century onward were mainly of Turkic stock, but from the sixteenth century the Cossack were increasingly joined by Slavs such as Russians and Poles, [[Balts|Baltic]] [[Lithuanians]] and people from today's Ukraine, thus becoming a Slav-Tatar ethnic hybrid.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Christoph Baumer |title=History of the Caucasus: Volume 2: In the Shadow of Great Powers |date=2023 |page=122}}</ref> Hypothesis of the non-Slavic origin of the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Zaporozhian]], [[Don Cossacks|Don]] and [[Kuban Cossacks]] is rejected by the low levels to absence of Caucasian and Asian component in the gene pool of these groups, with exception of the [[Terek Cossacks]] who lean towards some North Caucasian groups, likely as a result of the assimilation of these populations into Terek Host.<ref>{{Cite web |author=О. М. Утевская; М. И. Чухряева; Р. А. Схаляхо; Х. Д. Дибирова; И. Э. Теучеж; Anastasiya Agdzhoyan; Л. А. Атраментова; Е. В. Балановская; О. П. Балановский |language=ru |title=ПРОИСХОЖДЕНИЕ ОСНОВНЫХ ГРУПП КАЗАЧЕСТВА ПО ДАННЫМ О ПОЛИМОРФИЗМЕ Y-ХРОМОСОМЫ |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288323161 |website=researchgate.net |year=2015 |publisher=Odesa National University Herald Biology|page=66}}</ref>

As the grand duchies of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Moscow]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] grew in power, new political entities appeared in the region. These included [[Moldavia]] and the [[Crimean Khanate]]. In 1261, Slavic people living in the area between the [[Dniester]] and the [[Volga River|Volga]] were mentioned in [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] chronicles. Historical records of the Cossacks before the 16th century are scant, as is the history of the Ukrainian lands in that period.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

As early as the 15th century, a few individuals ventured into the [[Wild Fields]], the southern frontier regions of Ukraine separating Poland-Lithuania from the Crimean Khanate. These were short-term expeditions, to acquire the resources of what was a naturally rich and fertile region teeming with cattle, wild animals, and fish. This lifestyle, based on [[subsistence agriculture]], hunting, and either returning home in the winter or settling permanently, came to be known as the Cossack way of life.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Magocsi |first1=Paul Robert |title=Ukraine: An illustrated history |year=2007 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |page=84}}</ref> [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe]] caused considerable devastation and depopulation in this area. The [[List of Mongol and Tatar attacks in Europe|Tatar raids]] also played an important role in the development of the Cossacks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Subtelny, Orest |year=1988 |via=Google Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&pg=PA105 |title=Ukraine: A history |pages=105–106 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |access-date=2018-05-13 |archive-date=2020-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729182451/https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&pg=PA105 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Minahan, James |year=2000 |via=Google Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC&pg=PA216 |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A historical dictionary of European national groups |page=216 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-313-30984-7 |access-date=2018-05-13 |archive-date=2020-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804104801/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC&pg=PA216 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Breyfogle, Nicholas |author2=Schrader, Abby |author3=Sunderland, Willard |year=2007 |via=Google Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0FlVD_oGjQC&pg=PA43 |title=Peopling the Russian Periphery: Borderland colonization in Eurasian history |page=43 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-11288-3 |access-date=2018-05-13 |archive-date=2020-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919030047/https://books.google.com/books?id=d0FlVD_oGjQC&pg=PA43 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Sahansahname 130b.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Ottoman Turks in battle against the Cossacks, 1592]]

In the 15th century, Cossack society was described as a loose [[federation]] of independent communities, which often formed local armies and were entirely independent from neighboring states such as Poland, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and the Crimean Khanate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |edition=6th, out of print |article=Cossacks |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2001–2004}}</ref> According to [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky]], the first mention of Cossacks dates back to the 14th century, although the reference was to people who were either Turkic or of undefined origin.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Mykhailo Hrushevsky |author=Hrushevsky, M. |title=Illustrated History of Ukraine |publisher=BAO |location=Donetsk |year=2003 |isbn=966-548-571-7}}</ref> Hrushevsky states that the Cossacks may have descended from the long-forgotten [[Antes people|Antes]], or from groups from the Berlad territory of the [[Brodnici]] in present-day [[Romania]], then a part of the Grand Duchy of Halych. There, the Cossacks may have served as self-defence formations, organized to defend against raids conducted by neighbors.

The first international mention of Cossacks was in 1492, when [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean]] Khan [[Meñli I Giray]] complained to Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Alexander Jagiellon]] that his Cossack subjects from Kiev and Cherkasy had pillaged a Crimean Tatar ship: the duke ordered his "Ukrainian" (meaning borderland) officials to investigate, execute the guilty, and give their belongings to the khan.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Serhii |last=Plokhy |title=The gates of Europe: a history of Ukraine |date=2015 |publisher=Basic |isbn=978-1-5416-7564-3 |oclc=1333156632}}</ref>{{Rp|page=76}} Sometime in the 16th century, there appeared the old Ukrainian ''Ballad of Cossack Holota'', about a Cossack near [[Kiliya, Ukraine|Kiliya]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ukrlib.com.ua/narod/printout.php?id=14&bookid=0 |script-title=uk:Дума про козака Голоту – Народні думи |trans-title=Ballad about Cossack Holota |series=National ballads |language=uk |work=ukrlib.com.ua |access-date=23 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005210908/http://www.ukrlib.com.ua/narod/printout.php?id=14&bookid=0 |archive-date=5 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Николай ПУНДИК (Одесса) |url=http://telegrafua.com/country/14013/print/ |script-title=ru:Кто ты, Фесько Ганжа Андыбер? |website=Telegrafua.com |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209200255/http://telegrafua.com/country/14013/print/ |archive-date=2016-02-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 16th century, these Cossack societies merged into two independent territorial organizations, as well as other smaller, still-detached groups:
* The Cossacks of [[Zaporizhzhia (region)|Zaporizhzhia]], centered on the lower bends of the Dnieper, in the territory of modern Ukraine, with the fortified capital of [[Zaporozhian Sich]]. They were given significant autonomous privileges, operating as an autonomous state (the Zaporozhian Host) within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, by a treaty with Poland in 1649.
*The Don Cossack State, on the River Don. Its capital was initially Razdory, then it was moved to [[Cherkassk]], and later to [[Novocherkassk]].

There are also references to the less well-known [[Tatars|Tatar]] Cossacks, including the [[Nağaybäklär]] and [[Meshchera language|Meshchera]]-speaking [[Volga Finns]], of whom Sary Azman was the first Don [[ataman]]. These groups were assimilated by the Don Cossacks, but had their own irregular [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] and Meshchera Host up to the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.razdory-museum.ru/cossacks.html |script-title=ru:Донское казачество |website=Razdory-museum.ru |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003122732/http://www.razdory-museum.ru/cossacks.html |archive-date=2015-10-03 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Kalmyks|Kalmyk]] and [[Buryats|Buryat]] Cossacks also deserve mention{{clarify|date=April 2022}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kalm.ru/en/cossacks.html |publisher=Republic of Kalmykia |title=Cossacks |website=Kalm.ru |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209200310/http://www.kalm.ru/en/cossacks.html |archive-date=2016-02-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Later history ===

The Zaporizhian [[Sich]] became a [[vassal]] [[polity]] of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] during feudal times. Under increasing pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the mid-17th century the Sich declared an independent [[Cossack Hetmanate]]. The Hetmanate was initiated by a rebellion under [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] against Polish and Catholic domination, known as the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]]. Afterwards, the [[Treaty of Pereyaslav]] (1654) brought most of the Cossack state under Russian rule.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y8GNIp42ysC |via=Google Books |title=From Tak to Yes: Understanding the east Europeans |first1=Yale |last1=Richmond |publisher=Intercultural Press |year=1995 |page=294 |access-date=2015-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425202655/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y8GNIp42ysC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=2016-04-25 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-877864-30-8 }}</ref> The Sich, with its lands, became an autonomous region under the Russian protectorate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://historydoc.edu.ru/catalog.asp?cat_ob_no=15249&ob_no=16146 |script-title=ru:Андрусовское перемирие. 30&nbsp;января 1667 |website=Historydoc.edu.ru |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004003218/http://historydoc.edu.ru/catalog.asp?cat_ob_no=15249&ob_no=16146 |archive-date=2015-10-04 }}</ref>

The Don Cossack Army, an autonomous military state formation of the Don Cossacks under the citizenship of the Moscow State in the Don region in 1671–1786, began a systematic conquest and colonization of lands to secure the borders on the [[Volga]], the whole of [[Siberia]] (see [[Yermak Timofeyevich]]), and the [[Ural (river)|Yaik (Ural)]] and [[Terek (river)|Terek River]]s. Cossack communities had developed along the latter two rivers well before the arrival of the Don Cossacks.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Andrew |last1=Gordeyev |title=The History of Cossacks |location=Moscow |year=1992}}</ref>

[[File:The Cossack - The man the Prussian fears (The War Illustrated Aug-Dec 1914).png|thumb|Portrait of a Terek or Kuban Cossack during [[World War I]] (''The Cossack - The man the Prussian fears'' - [[The War Illustrated]], 1914)|150px]]By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the [[Russian Empire]] occupied effective buffer zones on its borders. The expansionist ambitions of the Empire relied on ensuring Cossack loyalty, which caused tension given their traditional exercise of freedom, democracy, self-rule, and independence. Cossacks such as [[Stenka Razin]], [[Kondraty Bulavin]], [[Ivan Mazepa]] and [[Yemelyan Pugachev]] led major anti-imperial wars and revolutions in the Empire in order to abolish [[slavery]] and harsh bureaucracy, and to maintain independence. The Empire responded with executions and tortures, the destruction of the western part of the Don Cossack Host during the [[Bulavin Rebellion]] in 1707–1708, the destruction of [[Baturyn]] after Mazepa's rebellion in 1708,{{efn|See, for example, [[Executions of Cossacks in Lebedin]].}} and the formal dissolution of the Lower Dnieper Zaporozhian Host after [[Pugachev's Rebellion]] in 1775. After the Pugachev rebellion, the Empire renamed the Yaik Host, its capital, the Yaik Cossacks, and the Cossack town of Zimoveyskaya in the Don region to try to encourage the Cossacks to forget the men and their uprisings. It also formally dissolved the Lower Dnieper Zaporozhian Cossack Host, and destroyed their fortress on the Dnieper (the Sich itself). This may in part have been due to the participation of some Zaporozhian and other Ukrainian exiles in Pugachev's rebellion. During his campaign, Pugachev issued manifestos calling for restoration of all borders and freedoms of both the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Lower Dnieper (Nyzovyi in Ukrainian) Cossack Host under the joint protectorate of Russia and the Commonwealth.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had been transformed into a special military estate ([[Social estates in the Russian Empire|''sosloviye'']]), "a military class". The [[Little Russia|Malorussian]] Cossacks (the former [[Registered Cossacks]] also known as "Town Zaporozhian Host") were excluded from this transformation, but were promoted to membership of various civil estates or classes (often Russian nobility), including the newly created civil estate of Cossacks.

Under a semi-feudal system retained until the end of the Russian Empire, Cossack families received grants of land which they retained free of taxation, provided that commitments to perform military service were met.  Typically a single father or son from each registered family would serve several years full-time with his Host before becoming a reservist liable for recall only in the event of emergency or general mobilisation. When joining his regiment a Cossack was required to bring his own horse, uniform clothing, and basic weaponry (sabres and lances) although the larger and more affluent Hosts might assist in sourcing these essentials. The Russian central government provided only firearms plus food and accommodation. Lacking horses, the poor served in the Cossack infantry and artillery. In the navy alone, Cossacks served with other peoples as the Russian navy had no Cossack ships and units.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Cossack service was considered rigorous.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

Cossack forces played an important role in Russia's wars of the 18th–20th&nbsp;centuries, including the [[Great Northern War]], the [[Seven Years' War]], the [[Crimean War]], the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[Caucasus War]], many [[Russo-Persian Wars]], many [[Russo-Turkish Wars]], and the [[World War I|First World War]]. In the late 19th and early 20th&nbsp;centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks extensively to perform police service. Cossacks also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders, as had been the case in the Caucasus War.

During the [[Russian Civil War]], [[Don River (Russia)|Don]] and [[Kuban Cossacks]] were the first people to declare open war against the [[Bolsheviks]]. In 1918, Russian Cossacks declared their complete independence, creating two independent states, the [[Don Republic]] and the [[Kuban People's Republic]], and the [[Ukrainian State|revived Hetmanate]] emerged in Ukraine. Cossack troops formed the effective core of the anti-Bolshevik [[White Army]], and Cossack republics became centers for the anti-Bolshevik [[White movement]]. With the victory of the [[Red Army]], Cossack lands were subjected to [[decossackization]] and the [[Holodomor]] famine. As a result, during the Second World War, their loyalties were divided and both sides had Cossacks fighting in their ranks.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], the Cossacks made a systematic return to Russia. Many took an active part in [[post-Soviet conflicts]]. In the [[Russian Census (2002)|2002 Russian Census]], 140,028&nbsp;people reported their [[ethnic group|ethnicity]] as Cossack.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=17 |title=Russian Official Census |year=2002 |quote=Cossacks and Pomory are accounted in the records as separate ethnic subgroups of Russians. |access-date=2019-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006125801/http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=17 |archive-date=2014-10-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are Cossack organizations in Russia, [[Kazakhstan]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], and the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kazaksusa.com |script-title=ru:Конгресс Казаков в Америке: Рассеяны но не расторгнуты |website=Kazaksusa.com |access-date=2012-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626152414/http://www.kazaksusa.com/ |archive-date=2012-06-26 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kazarla.ru|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020015215/http://kazarla.ru/|archive-date=2007-10-20 |script-title=ru:Этническое казачье объединение Казарла |website=Kazarla.ru |access-date=2012-08-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fstanitsa.ru |script-title=ru:Вольная Станица |website=Fstanitsa.ru |access-date=2012-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815114900/http://fstanitsa.ru/ |archive-date=2012-08-15 }}</ref>

== Ukrainian Cossacks ==
===Zaporozhian Cossacks===
{{Main|Zaporozhian Cossacks}}
[[File:Запорожский казак. 1884.jpg|thumb|Zaporozhian Cossack by [[Konstantin Makovsky]], 1884]]
The Zaporozhian Cossacks lived on the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] below the [[Dnieper Rapids]] (Ukrainian: ''za porohamy''), also known as the [[Wild Fields]]. The group became well known, and its numbers increased greatly between the 15th and 17th centuries. The Zaporozhian Cossacks played an important role in European [[geopolitics]], participating in a series of conflicts and alliances with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Zaporozhians gained a reputation for their raids against the Ottoman Empire and its [[vassal]]s, although they also sometimes plundered other neighbors. Their actions increased tension along the southern border of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Low-level warfare took place in those territories for most of the period of the Commonwealth (1569–1795).

====Emergence====
Prior to the formation of the Zaporozhian [[Sich]], Cossacks had usually been organized by [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] [[boyar]]s, or princes of the nobility, especially various [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuanian]] [[starosta]]s. Merchants, peasants, and runaways from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]], and Moldavia also joined the Cossacks.

The first recorded ''sich'' prototype was formed by the starosta of [[Cherkasy]] and [[Kaniv]], [[Dmytro Vyshnevetsky]], who built a fortress on the island of Little [[Khortytsia]] on the banks of the Lower [[Dnieper]] in 1552.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CY%5CVyshnevetskyDmytro.htm|title=Vyshnevetsky, Dmytro|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2020-02-11|archive-date=2020-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201135227/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CY%5CVyshnevetskyDmytro.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The Zaporozhian Host adopted a lifestyle that combined the ancient Cossack order and habits with those of the [[Knights Hospitaller]].

The Cossack structure arose, in part, in response to the struggle against Tatar raids. Socio-economic developments in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were another important factor in the growth of the Ukrainian Cossacks. During the 16th century, serfdom was imposed because of the favorable conditions for grain sales in Western Europe. This subsequently decreased the locals' land allotments and freedom of movement. In addition, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government attempted to impose Catholicism, and to [[Polonization|Polonize]] the local Ukrainian population. The basic form of resistance and opposition by the locals and burghers was flight and settlement in the sparsely populated steppe.<ref name="Cossacks">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm|title=Cossacks|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2020-02-11|archive-date=2015-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720181731/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Relations with surrounding states====

The major powers tried to exploit Cossack military power for their own purposes. In the 16th century, with the area of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth extending south, the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] were mostly, if tentatively, regarded by the Commonwealth as their subjects.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Ure, John |title=The Cossacks: An Illustrated History |location=London |publisher=Gerald Duckworth}}</ref> Foreign and internal pressure on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to the government making concessions to the Zaporozhian Cossacks. King [[Stephen Báthory]] granted them certain rights and freedoms in 1578, and they gradually began to create their foreign policy. They did so independently of the government, and often against its interests, as for example with their role in Moldavian affairs, and with the signing of a treaty with [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Rudolf II]] in the 1590s.<ref name="Cossacks"/> [[Registered Cossacks]] formed a part of the Commonwealth army until 1699.

[[File:Kremenets Mountains, Piatnitski (Cossack) cemetery, 27.08.2007 01.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Cossack cross]]es on a cemetery near [[Kremenets]], Ukraine]]
Around the end of the 16th century, increasing Cossack aggression strained relations between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. Cossacks had begun raiding Ottoman territories during the second part of the 16th century. The Polish government could not control them, but was held responsible as the men were nominally its subjects. In retaliation, [[Tatars]] living under Ottoman rule launched raids into the Commonwealth, mostly in the southeast territories. Cossack pirates responded by raiding wealthy trading port-cities in the heart of the Ottoman Empire, as these were just two days away by boat from the mouth of the [[Dnieper]] river. In 1615 and 1625, Cossacks razed suburbs of [[Constantinople]], forcing the [[Ottoman Sultan]] to flee his palace.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geocities.com/unavy/aCossack1.html |title=Cossack Navy 16th–17th Centuries |website=Geocities |access-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020001446/http://geocities.com/unavy/aCossack1.html |archive-date=20 October 2009}}</ref> In 1637, the Zaporozhian Cossacks, joined by the [[Don Cossacks]], captured the strategic Ottoman fortress of [[Azov]], which guarded the Don.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Brian L. |last1=Davies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5-CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |via=Google Books |title=Warfare, State, and Society on the Black Sea Steppe |year=2007 |pages=89–90 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-55283-2 |access-date=2018-05-13 |archive-date=2020-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729181622/https://books.google.com/books?id=i5-CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Zaporizhian Cossacks became particularly strong in the first quarter of the 17th century under the leadership of hetman [[Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny]], who launched successful campaigns against the Tatars and Turks. Tsar [[Boris Fyodorovich Godunov|Boris Godunov]] had incurred the hatred of Ukrainian Cossacks by ordering the Don Cossacks to drive away from the Don all the Ukrainian Cossacks fleeing the failed uprisings of the 1590s. This contributed to the Ukrainian Cossacks' willingness to fight against him.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dunning, Chester S. L.|title=Russia's first civil war: the Time of Troubles and the founding of the Romanov dynasty|date=2001|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|isbn=0-271-02074-1|oclc=185670712}}</ref> In 1604, 2,000 Zaporizhian Cossacks fought on the side of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and their proposal for the Tsar ([[False Dmitry I|Dmitri I]]), against the Muscovite army.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dunning, Chester S. L.|title=Russia's first civil war: the Time of Troubles and the founding of the Romanov dynasty|date=2001|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|isbn=0-271-02074-1|oclc=185670712|quote="The bulk of the rebels supporting Dmitrii were cossacks, petty gentry, lower status military servitors, and townsmen […] It is well known that Tsar Dmitrii maintained good relations with the Zaporizhian cossacks"}}</ref> By September 1604, Dmitri I had gathered a force of 2,500 men, of whom 1,400 were Cossacks. Two thirds of these "cossacks", however, were in fact Ukrainian civilians, only 500 being professional Ukrainian Cossacks.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dunning|first1=Chester S. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NUYtSJaO8cC&q=polish-muscovite+war+1605|title=Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty|date=2010|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-04371-5|language=en|quote="to gather a force of approximately twenty five hundred men, about eleven hundred of whom were cavalry and infantry forces drawn from men into the service to the magnates and approximately fourteen hundred of whom were so called "cossacks". About two thirds of the latter group were, in fact, Ukrainians, and only about five hundred of Dmitrii's "cossacks" were true Ukrainian Cossacks."|access-date=2020-11-10|archive-date=2022-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206071159/https://books.google.com/books?id=9NUYtSJaO8cC&q=polish-muscovite+war+1605|url-status=live}}</ref> On July 4, 1610, 4,000 Ukrainian Cossacks fought in the [[Battle of Klushino]], on the side of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. They helped to defeat a combined Muscovite-Swedish army and facilitate the occupation of Moscow from 1610 to 1611, riding into Moscow with [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/kluszyn.htm|title=Kluszyn 1610, Battle between Polish Commonwealth and Russia (Moscovy)|website=www.kismeta.com|access-date=2020-02-14|archive-date=2013-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515185814/http://www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/kluszyn.htm}}</ref>

The final attempt by [[Sigismund III Vasa|King Sigismund]] and [[Władysław IV Vasa|Wladyslav]] to seize the throne of Muscovy was launched on April 6, 1617. Although Wladyslav was the nominal leader, it was [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]] who commanded the Commonwealth forces. By October, the towns of [[Dorogobuzh]] and [[Vyazma]] had surrendered. But a defeat, when the counterattack on Moscow by Chodkiewicz failed between Vyasma and [[Mozhaysk]], prompted the Polish-Lithuanian army to retreat. In 1618, Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny continued his campaign against the Tsardom of Russia on behalf of the Cossacks and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Numerous Russian towns were sacked, including [[Livny]] and [[Yelets]]. In September 1618, with Chodkiewicz, Konashevych-Sahaidachny laid siege to Moscow, but peace was secured.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://opinie.wp.pl/polacy-rzadzili-na-kremlu-syna-zygmunta-iii-wazy-obwolano-carem-6126018565142145a|title=Polacy rządzili na Kremlu. Syna Zygmunta III Wazy obwołano carem|last1=S.A|first1=Wirtualna Polska Media|date=2014-02-03|website=opinie.wp.pl|language=pl|access-date=2020-02-14|quote="For Poland, the Dymitriads found their end only at the turn of 1618 and 1619 of the truce contained in Dywilno. As a result of an earlier march of hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, supported by a Cossack army of 20,000, the capital of Russia was threatened again. At the same time, troops of Lisowczyk and Cossacks spread terror, ravaging nearby towns. Faced with the country's poor internal situation, Moscow could not afford to repeat the devastating struggle. Tsar Michał I Romanow decided to end the war."|archive-date=2020-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728230325/https://opinie.wp.pl/polacy-rzadzili-na-kremlu-syna-zygmunta-iii-wazy-obwolano-carem-6126018565142145a|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Peterson, Gary Dean.|title=Warrior kings of Sweden: the rise of an empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries|date=2007|publisher=McFarland & Co|isbn=978-0-7864-2873-1|oclc=237127678|quote="The treaty came none to soon for Russia as later that year Poland led a campaign led by Wladyslaw and supported by the Dnieper Cossacks that carried all the way to the gates of Moscow. A truce followed and an exchange of prisoners."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm|title=Cossacks|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2020-02-14|quote="When Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny not only spread their fame through his successful campaigns against the Tatars and the Turks and his aid to the Polish army at Moscow in 1618"|archive-date=2015-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720181731/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Верстовий стовп з Мошориного.jpg|thumb|One of the unique granite columns with which the Cossacks marked their territory]]
Consecutive treaties between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth called for the governments to keep the Cossacks and Tatars in check, but neither enforced the treaties strongly. The Polish forced the Cossacks to burn their boats and stop raiding by sea, but the activity did not cease entirely. During this time, the [[Habsburg monarchy]] sometimes covertly hired Cossack raiders against the Ottomans, to ease pressure on their own borders. Many Cossacks and Tatars developed longstanding enmity due to the losses of their raids. The ensuing chaos and cycles of retaliation often turned the entire southeastern Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth border into a low-intensity war zone. It catalyzed escalation of Commonwealth–Ottoman warfare, from the [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]] (1593–1617) to the [[Battle of Cecora (1620)]], and campaigns in the [[Polish–Ottoman War (1633–34)|Polish–Ottoman War]] of 1633–1634.

====Conflict with Poland====

Cossack numbers increased when the warriors were joined by [[peasantry|peasants]] escaping [[serf]]dom in Russia and dependence in the Commonwealth. Attempts by the ''[[szlachta]]'' to turn the Zaporozhian Cossacks into peasants eroded the formerly strong Cossack loyalty towards the Commonwealth. The government constantly rebuffed Cossack ambitions for recognition as equal to the ''szlachta''. Plans for transforming the Polish–Lithuanian two-nation Commonwealth into a [[Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth]] made little progress, due to the unpopularity among the Ruthenian ''szlachta'' of the idea of Ruthenian Cossacks being equal to them and their elite becoming members of the ''szlachta''. The Cossacks' strong historic allegiance to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] also put them at odds with officials of the [[Roman Catholic]]-dominated Commonwealth. Tensions increased when Commonwealth policies turned from relative tolerance to suppression of the Eastern Orthodox Church after the [[Union of Brest]]. The Cossacks became strongly anti-Roman Catholic, an attitude that became synonymous with anti-Polish.<ref name="Plokhy2001">{{cite book |author=Serhii Plokhy |author-link=Serhii Plokhii |title=The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCzzxNisc1MC&pg=PR4 |access-date=1 August 2015 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-924739-4 |page=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624122655/https://books.google.com/books?id=NCzzxNisc1MC&pg=PR4 |archive-date=24 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wilson2002">{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Andrew |title=The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4f324_LVBL4C&pg=PA62 |access-date=1 August 2015 |year=2002 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-09309-4 |pages=62, 143 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527050350/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f324_LVBL4C&pg=PA62 |archive-date=27 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the Ottoman-Polish and Polish-Muscovite warfare ceased, the official Cossack register was again reduced. The registered Cossacks (''reiestrovi kozaky'') were isolated from those who were excluded from the register, and from the Zaporizhian Host. This, together with intensified socioeconomic and national-religious oppression of the other classes in Ukrainian society, led to many Cossack uprisings in the 1630s. The nobility, which had obtained legal ownership of vast expanses of land on the Dnipro from the Polish kings, attempted to impose feudal dependency on the local population. Landowners utilized the locals in war, by raising the Cossack registry in times of hostility, and then radically decreasing it and forcing the Cossacks back into serfdom in times of peace.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine|title=Ukraine {{!}} History, Geography, People, & Language|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-02-11|archive-date=2020-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124023022/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine|url-status=live}}</ref> This institutionalized method of control bred discontent among the Cossacks. By the end of the 16th century, they began to revolt, in the uprisings of [[Kosiński uprising|Kryshtof Kosynsky]] (1591–1593), [[Nalyvaiko Uprising|Severyn Nalyvaiko]] (1594–1596), [[Hryhory Loboda|Hryhorii Loboda]] (1596), [[Marko Zhmaylo|Marko Zhmailo]] (1625), [[Taras Fedorovych]] (1630), [[Ivan Sulyma]] (1635), [[Pavlyuk uprising|Pavlo Pavliuk]] and Dmytro Hunia (1637), and [[Ostryanyn uprising|Yakiv Ostrianyn]] and Karpo Skydan (1638). All were brutally suppressed and ended by the Polish government. [[Cossack rebellions]] eventually culminated in the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], led by the hetman of the Zaporizhian Sich, [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm|title=Cossacks|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2020-02-17|archive-date=2015-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720181731/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossacks.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Under Russian rule====

[[File:Zaporozhian Cossacks Officer in 1720.JPG|thumb|An officer of the Zaporozhian Cossacks in 1720]]

The Zaporozhian Sich had its own authorities, its own [[Zaporizhian Sich|"Lower" Zaporozhian Host]], and its own land.
In 1775, the Lower Dnieper Zaporozhian Host was destroyed. Later, its high-ranking Cossack leaders were exiled to Siberia,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zM6XT8LP69sC&q=cossack+leaders+exiled+to+siberia+in+1775&pg=PA51 |title=The History of Ukraine |last1=Kubicek |first1=Paul |year=2008 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-34920-1 |language=en |access-date=2020-11-10 |archive-date=2022-02-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206071148/https://books.google.com/books?id=zM6XT8LP69sC&q=cossack+leaders+exiled+to+siberia+in+1775&pg=PA51 |url-status=live }}</ref> its last chief, [[Petro Kalnyshevsky]], becoming a prisoner of the [[Solovetsky Islands]]. Some Cossacks moved to the [[Danube Delta]] region, where they established [[Danubian Sich|a new sich]] under Ottoman rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lib.ru/HISTORY/FRUMENKOW/uzniki_monastyrya.txt_with-big-pictures.html |script-title=ru:Георгий Георгиевич Фруменков. Узники соловецкого монастыря |website=Lib.ru |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209200330/http://lib.ru/HISTORY/FRUMENKOW/uzniki_monastyrya.txt_with-big-pictures.html |archive-date=2016-02-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> To prevent further defection of Cossacks, the Russian government restored the special Cossack status of the majority of Zaporozhian Cossacks. This allowed them to unite in the Host of Loyal Zaporozhians, and later to reorganize into other hosts, of which the [[Black Sea Cossack Host|Black Sea Host]] was most important. Because of land scarcity resulting from the distribution of Zaporozhian Sich lands among landlords, they eventually moved on to the [[Krasnodar krai|Kuban region]].

The majority of Danubian Sich Cossacks moved first to the Azov region in 1828, and later joined other former Zaporozhian Cossacks in the Kuban region. Groups were generally identified by faith rather than language in that period,{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} and most descendants of Zaporozhian Cossacks in the Kuban region are bilingual, speaking both Russian and [[Balachka]], the local Kuban dialect of central [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]. Their folklore is largely Ukrainian.{{efn|This is also true of the Don Cossacks of the Lower Don, where the local dialect is related to Ukrainian. Many Ukrainian peasants joined the Terek Cossacks in the 1820s–30s, influencing local dialects. But among the Terek Cossacks, the Grebensky (Row) Cossacks, who had deep [[Adyghe people|Adyghe]] roots through intermarriage, still speak an old northern Russian Viatka dialect which likely has connections to the old dialects of the [[White Sea]] shores. The Middle Don dialects are related to northern Russian dialects, the Belarusian language, and the [[Volyn Oblast|Volyn]] dialects of Ukrainian. The Volyn dialects are close to Belarusian dialects, only the Upper Don dialects being from southern Russia.}} The predominant view of ethnologists and historians is that its origins lie in the common culture dating back to the Black Sea Cossacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ngkub.ru/news/old_265 |script-title=ru:Есть ли на Кубани мова? |trans-title=Is there "(Ukrainian) language" in Kuban? |language=ru |website=Ngkub.ru |date=22 October 2009 |access-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606012617/http://ngkub.ru/news/old_265 |archive-date=6 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Bogdan Zolotarevsky |url=http://www.ukrterra.com.ua/developments/history/modern/zolotarevsky-kub.htm |script-title=ru:Кубань – Украина: вопросы истории и политики |trans-title=Kuban – Ukraine: Historical and political questions |language=ru |publisher=Institute of Social Studies |year=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522141817/http://www.ukrterra.com.ua/developments/history/modern/zolotarevsky-kub.htm |archive-date=22 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Tatiana Stepanovna Malykhina |url=http://pedsovet.org/component/option,com_mtree/task,viewlink/link_id,99614/Itemid,118/ |script-title=ru:Кубанская балачка |trans-title=Kuban balachka (language) |language=ru |work=pedsovet.org |date=11 January 2013 |access-date=5 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312001452/http://pedsovet.org/component/option,com_mtree/task,viewlink/link_id,99614/Itemid,118/ |archive-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Cossack Hetmanate===
{{main|Cossack Hetmanate}}

====Formation of the Cossack class in the Hetmanate====

[[File:Pic I V Ivasiuk Mykola Bohdan Khmelnytskys Entry to Kyiv.jpg|thumb|left|350px|''[[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]'s entry to Kyiv'' by [[Mykola Ivasyuk]], end of the 19th century]]
The waning loyalty of the Cossacks, and the ''[[szlachta]]'s'' arrogance towards them, resulted in several Cossack uprisings against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century. Finally, the King's adamant refusal to accede to the demand to expand the [[Registered Cossack|Cossack Registry]] prompted the largest and most successful of these: the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], that began in 1648. Some Cossacks, including the Polish ''szlachta'' in Ukraine, converted to Eastern Orthodoxy, divided the lands of the Ruthenian ''szlachta'', and became the [[Starshina#Ukraine|Cossack ''szlachta'']]. The uprising was one of a series of catastrophic events for the Commonwealth, known as [[The Deluge (Polish history)|The Deluge]], which greatly weakened the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and set the stage for its disintegration 100 years later.

Influential relatives of the Ruthenian and Lithuanian ''szlachta'' in Moscow helped to create the Russian–Polish alliance against Khmelnitsky's Cossacks, portrayed as rebels against order and against the private property of the Ruthenian Orthodox ''szlachta''. Don Cossacks' raids on [[Crimea]] left Khmelnitsky without the aid of his usual Tatar allies. From the Russian perspective, the rebellion ended with the 1654 [[Treaty of Pereyaslav]], in which, in order to overcome the Russian–Polish alliance against them, the Khmelnitsky Cossacks pledged their loyalty to the [[Russian Tsar]]. In return, the Tsar guaranteed them his protection; recognized the Cossack ''[[starshyna]]'' (nobility), their property, and their autonomy under his rule; and freed the Cossacks from the Polish sphere of influence and the land claims of the Ruthenian ''szlachta''.<ref name="EB_Pereyaslav">"In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland and forsaken by his Tatar allies, Khmelnytsky asked the tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection ... the details of the union were negotiated in Moscow. The Cossacks were granted a large degree of autonomy, and they, as well as other social groups in Ukraine, retained all the rights and privileges they had enjoyed under Polish rule." {{cite encyclopedia| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica| year=2006| article=Pereyaslav agreement| url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Pereyaslav-Agreement| title=Archived copy| access-date=2015-08-07| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924185022/https://www.britannica.com/event/Pereyaslav-Agreement| archive-date=2015-09-24| url-status=live}}</ref>

Only some of the Ruthenian ''szlachta'' of the [[Chernigov]] region, who had their origins in the Moscow state, saved their lands from division among Cossacks and became part of the Cossack ''szlachta''. After this, the Ruthenian ''szlachta'' refrained from plans to have a Moscow Tsar as king of the Commonwealth, its own [[Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki]] later becoming king. The last, ultimately unsuccessful, attempt to rebuild the Polish–Cossack alliance and create a Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth was the 1658 [[Treaty of Hadiach]]. The treaty was approved by the Polish king and the [[Sejm]], and by some of the Cossack ''starshyna'', including [[hetman]] [[Ivan Vyhovsky]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dvornik |first1=Francis |title=The Slavs in European History and Civilization |year=1962 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Jersey |isbn=978-0-8135-0799-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/slavsineuropeanh0000dvor_f9h0 }}</ref> The treaty failed, however, because the ''starshyna'' were divided on the issue, and it had even less support among rank-and-file Cossacks.

====Relations with neighbours====
{{See also|Description of Ukraine}}
As a result of the mid-17th century Khmelnytsky Uprising, the Zaporozhian Cossacks briefly established an independent state, which later became the autonomous [[Cossack Hetmanate]] (1649–1764). It was placed under the [[suzerainty]] of the Russian Tsar from 1667 but was ruled by local hetmans for a century. The principal political problem of the hetmans who followed the [[Pereyaslav Council|Pereyeslav Agreement]] was defending the autonomy of the Hetmanate from Russian/Muscovite centralism. The hetmans [[Ivan Vyhovsky]], [[Petro Doroshenko]] and [[Ivan Mazepa]] attempted to resolve this by separating Ukraine from Russia.<ref name="auto"/>

Relations between the Hetmanate and their new sovereign began to deteriorate after the autumn of 1656, when the Muscovites, going against the wishes of their Cossack partners, signed an armistice with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in [[Vilnius]]. The Cossacks considered the Vilnius agreement a breach of the contract they had entered into at Pereiaslav. For the Muscovite tsar, the Pereiaslav Agreement signified the unconditional submission of his new subjects; the Ukrainian hetman considered it a conditional contract from which one party could withdraw if the other was not upholding its end of the bargain.<ref name="auto1">{{Citation|last1=Plokhy|first1=Serhii|title=The Battle of Konotop 1659|chapter=Konotop 1659: exploring alternatives in East European history|pages=11–19|publisher=Ledizioni|isbn=978-88-6705-050-5|doi=10.4000/books.ledizioni.374|year=2012|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The Ukrainian hetman Ivan Vyhovsky, who succeeded Khmelnytsky in 1657, believed the Tsar was not living up to his responsibility. Accordingly, he concluded a treaty with representatives of the Polish king, who agreed to re-admit Cossack Ukraine by reforming the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to create a third constituent, comparable in status to that of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The [[Treaty of Hadiach|Union of Hadiach]] provoked a war between the Cossacks and the Muscovites/Russians that began in the fall of 1658.<ref name="auto1"/>

[[File:Stanisław Masłowski (1853-1926), Cossacs, ca 1900, drawing, 29 x 36,5 cm.jpeg|thumb|left|''Kozacy'' (Cossacks), [[drawing]] by [[Stanisław Masłowski]], {{circa|1900}} ([[National Museum in Warsaw]])]]
In June 1659, the two armies met near the town of [[Konotop]]. One army comprised Cossacks, Tatars, and Poles, and the other was led by a top Muscovite military commander of the era, Prince [[Aleksey Trubetskoy]]. After terrible losses, Trubetskoy was forced to withdraw to the town of [[Putyvl]] on the other side of the border. The battle is regarded as one of the Zaporizhian Cossacks' most impressive victories.<ref name="auto1"/>

In 1659, [[Yurii Khmelnytsky]] was elected hetman of the Zaporizhian Host/Hetmanate, with the endorsement of Moscow and supported by common Cossacks unhappy with the conditions of the Union of Hadiach. In 1660, however, the hetman asked the Polish king for protection, leading to the period of Ukrainian history known as [[The Ruin (Ukrainian history)|The Ruin]].<ref name="auto1"/>

====Suppression of Cossack autonomy in the Russian Empire====

Historian Gary Dean Peterson writes: "With all this unrest, Ivan Mazepa of the Ukrainian Cossacks was looking for an opportunity to secure independence from Russia and Poland".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peterson, Gary Dean.|title=Warrior kings of Sweden: the rise of an empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries|date=2007|publisher=McFarland & Co|isbn=978-0-7864-2873-1|oclc=237127678}}</ref> In response to Mazepa's alliance with [[Charles XII of Sweden]], [[Peter the Great|Peter I]] ordered the sacking of the then capital of the Hetmanate, [[Baturyn]]. The city was burnt and looted, and 11,000 to 14,000 of its inhabitants were killed. The destruction of the Hetmanate's capital was a signal to Mazepa and the Hetmanate's inhabitants of severe punishment for disloyalty to the Tsar's authority.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/excavations-at-baturyn-in-2016-2017-ceramic-decorations-of-the-hetmans-palaces-and-offices/|title=Excavations at Baturyn in 2016-2017: ceramic decorations of the hetman's palaces and offices|last1=Mezentsev|first1=Volodymyr|website=The Ukrainian Weekly|date=27 October 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-17|archive-date=2020-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217143143/http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/excavations-at-baturyn-in-2016-2017-ceramic-decorations-of-the-hetmans-palaces-and-offices/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Zaporizhian Sich at [[Chortomlyk Sich|Chortomlyk]], which had existed since 1652, was also destroyed by Peter I's forces in 1709, in retribution for decision of its otaman [[Kost Hordiyenko]], to ally with Mazepa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CZ%5CA%5CZaporozhianSich.htm|title=Zaporozhian Sich|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2020-02-17|archive-date=2018-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623033138/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CZ%5CA%5CZaporozhianSich.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Under Russian rule, the Cossack nation of the Zaporozhian Host was divided into two autonomous republics of the Russian Tsardom: the [[Cossack Hetmanate]], and the more independent [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhia]]. These organizations gradually lost their autonomy, and were abolished by [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]] in the late 18th century. The Hetmanate became the governorship of [[Little Russia]], and Zaporizhia was absorbed into [[New Russia]].

===Black Sea, Azov and Danubian Sich Cossacks===
{{see also|Black Sea Cossack Host|Azov Cossack Host|Danube Cossack Host}}
[[File:Józef Brandt - Wesele kozackie.jpg|thumb|Cossack wedding, by [[Józef Brandt]]]]
With the destruction of the Zaporizhian Sich, a number of Ukrainian-speaking Eastern Orthodox Zaporozhian Cossacks fled to the territory under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Together with [[Nekrasov Cossacks|Cossacks of Greater Russian origin]], as well as the vast majority of [[Old Believers]] and other people from "Greater Russia" ([[Moscovia (region)|Muscovy]]), they settled in the area of the [[Danube]] river, and founded a new Sich. Many Ukrainian peasants and adventurers later joined the [[Danubian Sich]]. While [[Ukrainian folklore]] remembers the Danubian Sich, other new siches of Loyal Zaporozhians on the [[Bug River|Bug]] and Dniester rivers did not achieve such fame. Other Cossacks settled on the [[Tisza|Tisa]] river in the [[Austrian Empire]], also forming a new Sich.

During the Cossack sojourn under Turkish rule, a new host was founded that numbered around 12,000 people by the end of 1778. Cossack settlement on the Russian border was approved by the Ottoman Empire after the Cossacks officially vowed to serve the [[Abdul Hamid I|sultan]]. Yet internal conflict, and the political maneuvering of the Russian Empire led to splits among the Cossacks. Some of the runaway Cossacks returned to Russia, where the Russian army used them to form new military bodies that also incorporated Greeks, Albanians and Crimean Tatars. After the [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)|Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1792]], most of these Cossacks were absorbed into the [[Black Sea Cossack Host]] together with Loyal Zaporozhians. Most of the remaining Cossacks who had stayed in the Danube Delta returned to Russia in 1828. They settled in the area north of the [[Sea of Azov|Azov Sea]], becoming known as the [[Azov Cossack Host|Azov Cossacks]]. The majority of Zaporizhian Cossacks who had remained loyal to Russia despite the destruction of Sich became known as [[Black Sea Cossack Host|Black Sea Cossacks]]. Both Azov and Black Sea Cossacks were resettled to colonize the [[Kuban steppe]], a crucial foothold for Russian expansion in the [[Caucasus]]. In 1860, more Cossacks were resettled to the [[North Caucasus]], and merged into the [[Kuban Cossacks|Kuban Cossack Host]].

== Russian Cossacks ==
[[File:Russparis.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Imperial Russian Cossacks (left) in Paris in 1814]]
The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian town-fortresses located on the border with the steppe, and stretching from the [[Volga region|middle Volga]] to [[Ryazan]] and [[Tula, Russia|Tula]], then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via [[Pereiaslav|Pereyaslavl]]. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts.

These people, constantly facing the [[Golden Horde|Tatar]] warriors on the steppe frontier, received the Turkic name ''Cossacks'' (''Kazaks''), which was then extended to other free people in Russia. Many [[Cumans]], who had assimilated [[Khazars]], retreated to the [[Principality of Ryazan]] (Grand Duchy of Ryazan) after the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasion]]. The oldest mention in the annals is of Cossacks of the Russian principality of Ryazan serving the principality in the battle against the Tatars in 1444. In the 16th century, the Cossacks (primarily of Ryazan) were grouped in military and trading communities on the open steppe, and began to migrate into the area of the Don.<ref>[[Vasily Klyuchevsky]], ''The course of Russian History'', volume 2</ref>

[[File:Места проживания казаков.jpg|thumb|left|Distribution of Cossacks in Russia, eastern Ukraine and northern Kazakhstan]] 
Cossacks served as border guards and protectors of towns, forts, settlements, and trading posts. They performed policing functions on the frontiers, and also came to represent an integral part of the [[Imperial Russian Army|Russian army]]. In the 16th century, to protect the borderland area from [[Tatar invasions]], Cossacks carried out sentry and patrol duties, guarding against [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatars]] and nomads of the [[Nogai Horde]] in the [[steppe]] region.

[[File:PG - Semireche Cossack.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Semirechye Cossacks|Semirechye Cossack]], [[Jetisu|Semirechye]], 1911]]

The most popular weapons of the Cossack cavalrymen were the [[sabre]], or ''[[shashka]]'', and the long [[spear]].

From the 16th to 19th centuries, Russian Cossacks played a key role in the expansion of the Russian Empire into Siberia (particularly by [[Yermak Timofeyevich]]), the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Cossacks also served as guides to most Russian expeditions of civil and military geographers and surveyors, traders, and explorers. In 1648, the Russian Cossack [[Semyon Dezhnyov]] discovered a passage between North America and Asia. Cossack units played a role in many wars in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, including the [[History of the Russo-Turkish wars|Russo-Turkish Wars]], the [[Russo-Persian Wars]], and the annexation of Central Asia.

Western Europeans had a lot of contact with Cossacks during the [[Seven Years' War]], and had seen Cossack patrols in Berlin.<ref>Angus Konstam. ''Russian army of the Seven Years' War''. Osprey Publishing (October 15, 1996) {{ISBN|1-85532-587-X}} {{ISBN|978-1-85532-587-6}}</ref> During [[Napoleon's Invasion of Russia]], Cossacks were the Russian soldiers most feared by the French troops. Napoleon himself stated, "Cossacks are the best light troops among all that exist. If I had them in my army, I would go through all the world with them."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.napoleon-series.org/reviews/military/c_cossackhurrah.html |series=Napoleon Series Reviews |title=Cossack Hurrah! |website=Napoleon-series.org |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918183540/http://www.napoleon-series.org/reviews/military/c_cossackhurrah.html |archive-date=2015-09-18 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cossacks also took part in the [[Partisan (military)|partisan]] war deep inside French-occupied Russian territory, attacking communications and supply lines. These attacks, carried out by Cossacks along with Russian light cavalry and other units, were one of the first developments of [[guerrilla warfare]] tactics and, to some extent, special operations as we know them today. Several thousands of Cossacks were commended by [[Pyotr Bagration]] during the French invasion of Russia behind [[Bug (river)|Bug]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-23 |title=French invasion of Russia {{!}} Napoleon, Battles, & Casualties {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/French-invasion-of-Russia |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Don Cossacks===
{{Main|Don Cossacks}}
[[File:Донской козакъ 1821 года.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.9|A Cossack from the Don area, 1821, illustration from [[Fyodor Solntsev]], 1869]]
The [[Don Cossack]] Host ({{langx |ru|Всевеликое Войско Донское}}, ''Vsevelikoye Voysko Donskoye'') was either an independent or an autonomous democratic republic, located in present-day Southern Russia. It existed from the end of the 16th century until the early 20th century. There are two main theories of the origin of the Don Cossacks. Most respected historians support the migration theory, according to which they were Slavic colonists. The various autochthonous theories popular among the Cossacks themselves do not find confirmation in genetic studies. The gene pool comprises mainly the East Slavic component, with a significant Ukrainian contribution. There is no influence of the [[peoples of the Caucasus]]; and the steppe populations, represented by the [[Nogais]], have only limited impact.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=M. I. Chukhryaeva |author2=I. O. Ivanov |author3=S. A. Frolova |author4=S. M. Koshel |author5=O. M. Utevska |author6=R. A. Skhalyakho |author7=A. T. Agdzhoyan |author8=Yu. V. Bogunova |author9=E. V. Balanovska |author10=O. P. Balanovsky |title=The Haplomatch Program for Comparing Y-Chromosome STR-Haplotypes and Its Applicationto the Analysis of the Origin of Don Cossacks |journal=Russian Journal of Genetics |date=2016 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=521–529 |doi=10.1134/S1022795416050045 |s2cid=845996 }}</ref>

The majority of Don Cossacks are either Eastern Orthodox or Christian [[Old Believers]] (старообрядцы).<ref name=ORourke_2000/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.face-music.ch/inform/oldbeliever_siberia_en.html |title=Old Believer – Raskolniks |website=face-music.ch |access-date=23 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922072552/http://www.face-music.ch/inform/oldbeliever_siberia_en.html |archive-date=22 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Prior to the [[Russian Civil War]], there were numerous religious minorities, including [[Muslims]], [[Subbotniks]], and Jews.{{efn|After the Caucasus war, both Russian Imperial policy and internal problems caused some Muslims, Subbotniks, [[Molokan]]e, Jews, and various Christian minorities—both Cossack and non-Cossack—to move away from the Don area, usually to the newly conquered frontier areas or abroad. Many Muslim Cossacks moved to Turkey, because of a lack of Muslim brides in their villages. The Don Host resisted this policy and retained its minorities, as in the case of some Muslim Cossacks, and of [[Rostov-on-Don]] non-Cossack Jews.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lechaim.ru/ARHIV/148/gutman.htm |script-title=ru:Евреи Среди Казаков |website=Lechaim.ru |access-date=2015-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209200413/http://www.lechaim.ru/ARHIV/148/gutman.htm |archive-date=2016-02-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Kuban Cossacks===
{{Main|Kuban Cossacks}}
[[File:Kubanskie kazaki 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Kuban Cossacks armed with [[Kindjal]]s & [[Khirimi]]s, late 19th century]]
[[Kuban Cossacks]] are Cossacks who live in the [[Kuban]] region of Russia. Although many Cossack groups came to inhabit the Western [[North Caucasus]], most of the Kuban Cossacks are descendants of the [[Black Sea Cossack Host]] (originally the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]]), and the [[Caucasus Line Cossack Host]].

A distinguishing feature is the ''[[Czupryna|Chupryna]]'' or ''Oseledets'' hairstyle, a [[Mohawk hairstyle|roach]] haircut popular among some Kubanians. This tradition traces back to the [[Zaporizhian Sich]].

===Terek Cossacks===
{{Main|Terek Cossacks}}
The [[Terek Cossack]] Host was created in 1577 by free Cossacks resettling from the Volga to the Terek River. Local Terek Cossacks joined this host later. In 1792, the host was included in the Caucasus Line Cossack Host, from which it separated again in 1860, with [[Vladikavkaz]] as its capital. In 1916, the population of the host was 255,000, within an area of 1.9 million [[Obsolete Russian units of measurement|desyatinas]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

===Yaik Cossacks===
{{Main|Ural Cossacks}}
[[File:Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG|thumb|left|Ural Cossacks skirmish with [[Kazakhs]] (the Russians originally called the Kazakhs 'Kirgiz')]]
[[File:DedPogadaev.jpg|thumb|Yaik (Orenburg) Cossacks from Sakmara settlement; Alexander Mertemianovich Pogadaev standing at left, 1912]]
[[File:Russian-Cossacks-on-March.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Ural Cossacks, {{circa|1799}}]]
The [[Ural Cossack]] Host was formed from the Ural Cossacks, who had settled along the [[Ural River]]. Their alternative name, Yaik Cossacks, comes from the river's former name, changed by the government after [[Pugachev's Rebellion]] of 1773–1775. The Ural Cossacks spoke Russian, and identified as having primarily Russian ancestry, but also incorporated many [[Tatars]] into their ranks.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Wixman|first1 = Ronald|title = The peoples of the USSR: an ethnographic handbook| page = 51|publisher = M.E. Sharpe|date = 1984|isbn = 978-0-87332-203-4}}</ref> In 1577, twenty years after Moscow had conquered the Volga from Kazan to [[Astrakhan]],<ref name="Donnelly1968">{{cite book |last1=Donnelly |first1=Alton S. |title=The Russian Conquest of Bashkiria 1552–1740 |year=1968 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-00430-4}}</ref> the government sent troops to disperse pirates and raiders along the Volga. Among them was [[Yermak Timofeyevich]]. Some escaped to flee southeast to the Ural River, where they joined the Yaik Cossacks. In 1580, they captured [[Saraichik]]. By 1591, they were fighting on behalf of the government in Moscow. Over the next century, they were officially recognized by the imperial government.

===Razin and Pugachev Rebellions===
As a largely independent nation, the Cossacks had to defend their liberties and democratic traditions against the ever-expanding [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]], succeeded by the Russian Empire. Their tendency to act independently of the Tsardom of Russia increased friction. The Tsardom's power began to grow in 1613, with the ascension of [[Mikhail Romanov]] to the throne following the [[Time of Troubles]]. The government began attempting to integrate the Cossacks into the Russian Tsardom by granting elite status and enforcing military service, thus creating divisions among the Cossacks themselves as they fought to retain their traditions. The government's efforts to alter their traditional nomadic lifestyle resulted in the Cossacks being involved in nearly all the major disturbances in Russia over 200 years, including the rebellions led by [[Stepan Razin]] and [[Yemelyan Pugachev]].<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|59}}

[[File:surikov1906.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|''Stenka Razin Sailing in the [[Caspian Sea]]'', by [[Vasily Surikov]], 1906]]

As [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] regained stability, discontent grew within the serf and peasant populations. Under [[Alexis of Russia|Alexis Romanov]], Mikhail's son, the [[Code of 1649]] divided the Russian population into distinct and fixed hereditary categories.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|52}} The Code increased tax revenue for the central government and put an end to nomadism, to stabilize the social order by fixing people on the same land and in the same occupation as their families. Peasants were tied to the land, and townsmen were forced to take on their fathers' occupations. The increased tax burden fell mainly on the peasants, further widening the gap between the poor and wealthy. Human and material resources became limited as the government organized more military expeditions, putting even greater strain on the peasants. War with Poland and Sweden in 1662 led to a fiscal crisis, and rioting across the country.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|58}} Taxes, harsh conditions, and the gap between social classes drove peasants and serfs to flee. Many went to the Cossacks, knowing that the Cossacks would accept refugees and free them.

The Cossacks experienced difficulties under Tsar Alexis as more refugees arrived daily. The Tsar gave the Cossacks a [[subsidy]] of food, money, and military supplies in return for acting as border defense.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|60}} These subsidies fluctuated often; a source of conflict between the Cossacks and the government. The war with Poland diverted necessary food and military shipments to the Cossacks as fugitive peasants swelled the population of the [[Cossack host]]. The influx of refugees troubled the Cossacks, not only because of the increased demand for food but also because their large number meant the Cossacks could not absorb them into their culture by way of the traditional apprenticeship.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|91}} Instead of taking these steps for proper assimilation into Cossack society, the runaway peasants spontaneously declared themselves Cossacks and lived alongside the true Cossacks, laboring or working as barge-haulers to earn food.

Divisions among the Cossacks began to emerge as conditions worsened and Mikhail's son Alexis took the throne. Older Cossacks began to settle and become prosperous, enjoying privileges earned through obeying and assisting the [[Muscovite Russia|Muscovite system]].<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|90–91}}<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|62}} The old Cossacks started giving up the traditions and liberties that had been worth dying for, to obtain the pleasures of an elite life. The lawless and restless runaway peasants who called themselves Cossacks looked for adventure and revenge against the nobility that had caused them suffering. These Cossacks did not receive the government subsidies that the old Cossacks enjoyed, and had to work harder and longer for food and money.

====Razin's Rebellion====
[[File:Ivan Bilibin 129.jpg|thumb|[[Stepan Razin|Stenka Razin]], by [[Ivan Bilibin]]]]

The divisions between the elite and the lawless led to the formation of a Cossack army, beginning in 1667 under [[Stenka Razin]], and ultimately to the failure of Razin's rebellion.

Stenka Razin was born into an elite Cossack family, and had made many diplomatic visits to Moscow before organizing his rebellion.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|66–67}} The Cossacks were Razin's main supporters, and followed him during his first Persian campaign in 1667, plundering and pillaging Persian cities on the [[Caspian Sea]]. They returned in 1669, ill and hungry, tired from fighting, but rich with plundered goods.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|95–97}} [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] tried to gain support from the old Cossacks, asking the [[ataman]], or Cossack chieftain, to prevent Razin from following through with his plans. But the ataman was Razin's godfather, and was swayed by Razin's promise of a share of expedition wealth. His reply was that the elite Cossacks were powerless against the band of rebels. The elite did not see much threat from Razin and his followers either, although they realized he could cause them problems with the Muscovite system if his following developed into a rebellion against the central government.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|95–96}}

Razin and his followers began to capture cities at the start of the rebellion, in 1669. They seized the towns of [[Tsaritsyn]], [[Astrakhan]], [[Saratov]], and [[Samara, Russia|Samara]], implementing democratic rule and releasing peasants from slavery as they went.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|100–105}} Razin envisioned a united Cossack republic throughout the southern steppe, in which the towns and villages would operate under the democratic, Cossack style of government. Their sieges often took place in the runaway peasant Cossacks' old towns, leading them to wreak havoc there and take revenge on their old masters. The elder Cossacks began to see the rebels' advance as a problem, and in 1671 decided to comply with the government in order to receive more subsidies.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|112}} On April&nbsp;14, ataman Yakovlev led elders to destroy the rebel camp. They captured Razin, taking him soon afterward to Moscow to be executed.

Razin's rebellion marked the beginning of the end of traditional Cossack practices. In August 1671, Russian envoys administered the [[oath of allegiance]] and the Cossacks swore loyalty to the [[tsar]].<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|113}} While they still had internal [[autonomy]], the Cossacks became Russian subjects, a transition that was a dividing point again in [[Pugachev's Rebellion]].

====Pugachev's Rebellion====
[[File:Don-kosack.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Don Cossack in the early 1800s]]

For the Cossack [[elite]], noble status within the empire came at the price of their old liberties in the 18th century. Advancing agricultural settlement began to force the Cossacks to give up their traditional [[nomadic]] ways and adopt new forms of government. The government steadily changed the entire culture of the Cossacks. [[Peter the Great]] increased Cossack service obligations, and mobilized their forces to fight in far-off wars. Peter began establishing non-Cossack troops in fortresses along the [[Ural River|Yaik River]]. In 1734, construction of a government fortress at [[Orenburg]] gave Cossacks a subordinate role in border defense.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|115}} When the Yaik Cossacks sent a delegation to Peter with their grievances, Peter stripped the Cossacks of their autonomous status, and subordinated them to the [[College of War|War College]] rather than the College of Foreign Affairs. This consolidated the Cossacks' transition from border patrol to military servicemen. Over the next fifty years, the central government responded to Cossack grievances with arrests, [[flogging]]s, and exiles.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|116–117}}

Under [[Catherine the Great]], beginning in 1762, the Russian peasants and Cossacks again faced increased taxation, heavy military conscription, and grain shortages, as before Razin's rebellion. [[Peter III of Russia|Peter III]] had extended freedom to former church serfs, freeing them from obligations and payments to church authorities, and had freed other peasants from serfdom, but Catherine did not follow through on these reforms.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Jack P.|editor1-last=Greene |editor2-first= Robert|editor2-last= Forster|chapter =Pugachev's Rebellion|title = Preconditions of Revolution in Early Modern Europe|first1= Marc|last1= Raeff|publisher =The Johns Hopkins Press |date= 1975|page= 170}}</ref> In 1767, the Empress refused to accept grievances directly from the peasantry.<ref>Raeff, ''Pugachev's Rebellion'', p. 172.</ref> Peasants fled once again to the lands of the Cossacks, in particular the Yaik Host, whose people were committed to the old Cossack traditions. The changing government also burdened the Cossacks, extending its reach to reform Cossack traditions. Among ordinary Cossacks, hatred of the elite and central government rose. In 1772, a six–month open rebellion ensued between the Yaik Cossacks and the central government.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|116–117}}

[[File:Pugachev.jpg|left|thumb|[[Yemelyan Pugachev]] in prison]]

[[Yemelyan Pugachev]], a low-status [[Don Cossack]], arrived in the Yaik Host in late 1772.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|117}} There, he claimed to be Peter&nbsp;III, playing on the Cossack belief that Peter would have been an effective ruler but for his assassination in a plot by his wife, Catherine&nbsp;II.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|120}} Many Yaik Cossacks believed Pugachev's claim, although those closest to him knew the truth. Others, who may have known of it, did not support Catherine&nbsp;II due to her disposal of Peter&nbsp;III, and also spread Pugachev's claim to be the late emperor.

The first of three phases of Pugachev's Rebellion began in September 1773.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|124}} Most of the rebels' first prisoners were Cossacks who supported the elite. After a five-month siege of [[Orenburg]], a military college became Pugachev's headquarters.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|126}} Pugachev envisioned a Cossack [[tsardom]], similar to Razin's vision of a united Cossack republic. The peasantry across Russia stirred with rumors and listened to the [[manifesto]]s Pugachev issued. But the rebellion soon came to be seen as an inevitable failure. The Don Cossacks refused to help the final phase of the revolt, knowing that military troops were closely following Pugachev after lifting the siege of Orenburg, and following his flight from defeated [[Kazan]].<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|127–128}} In September 1774, Pugachev's own Cossack lieutenants turned him over to the government troops.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|128}}

Opposition to centralization of political authority led the Cossacks to participate in Pugachev's Rebellion.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|129–130}} After their defeat, the Cossack elite accepted government reforms, hoping to secure status within the nobility. The ordinary Cossacks had to follow and give up their traditions and liberties.

=== In the Russian Empire ===
[[File:Surikov Pokoreniye Sibiri Yermakom.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|''Conquest of Siberia by [[Yermak Timofeyevich]]'', painting by [[Vasily Surikov]]]]

Cossack relations with the [[Tsardom of Russia]] were varied from the outset. At times they supported Russian military operations, at other times they rebelled against the central power. After one such uprising at the end of the 18th century, Russian forces destroyed the [[Zaporozhian Host]]. Many of the Cossacks who had remained loyal to the Russian Monarch and continued their service later moved to the Kuban. Others, choosing to continue a mercenary role, escaped control in the large [[Danube Delta]]. The service of the Cossacks in the Napoleonic wars led them to be celebrated as Russian folk heroes, and throughout the 19th century a "powerful myth" was promoted by the government that portrayed the Cossacks as having a special and unique bond to the Emperor.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|pages=164–166|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref> This image as the Cossacks as the ultra-patriotic defenders of not only Russia, but also of the House of Romanov was embraced by many ordinary Cossacks, making them into a force for conservatism.<ref name=":0"/>

By the 19th century, the [[Russian Empire]] had annexed the territory of the Cossack Hosts, and controlled them by providing privileges for their service such as exemption from taxation and allowing them to own the land they farmed. At this time, the Cossacks served as military forces in many wars conducted by the Russian Empire. Cossacks were considered excellent for scouting and reconnaissance duties, and for ambushes. Their tactics in open battle were generally inferior to those of regular soldiers, such as the [[Dragoon]]s. In 1840, the Cossack hosts included the Don, Black Sea, [[Astrakhan Cossacks|Astrakhan]], Little Russia, Azov, Danube, Ural, Stavropol, Mesherya, [[Orenburg Cossacks|Orenburg]], [[Siberian Cossacks|Siberian]], Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, Sabaikal, Yakutsk, and Tartar ''[[Cossack host|voiskos]]''. In the 1890s, the [[Ussuri Cossacks|Ussuri]], [[Semirechye Cossacks|Semirechensk]], and [[Amur Cossacks]] were added; the last had a regiment of elite mounted rifles.<ref name=KnotelKnotelSieg_1980>{{cite book |last1=Knotel |first1=Richard |last2=Knotel |first2=Herbert |last3=Sieg |first3=Herbert |title=Uniforms of the World: A Compendium of Army, Navy and Air Force Uniforms 1700–1937 |year=1980 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |page=394}}</ref>

Increasingly as the 19th century went on, the Cossacks served as a mounted para-military police force in all of the various provinces of the vast Russian Empire, covering a territory stretching across Eurasia from what is now modern Poland to the banks of the river Amur that formed the Russian-Chinese border.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|page=166|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref> The police forces of the Russian Empire, especially in rural areas, were undermanned owing to the low wages while the officers of the Imperial Russian Army disliked having their units deployed to put down domestic unrest, which was viewed as destructive of morale and possibly an incentive to mutiny.<ref name=":1"/> For the government, deploying Cossacks as a para-military police force was the best solution as the Cossacks were viewed as one of the social groups most loyal to the House of Romanov while their isolation from local populations was felt to make them immune to revolutionary appeals.<ref name=":1"/> Traditionally, Cossacks were viewed in Russia as dashing, romantic horsemen with a rebellious and wild aura about them, but their deployment in the role of a mounted police force gave them a "novel" image as a rather violent and thuggish institution fiercely committed to upholding the social order.<ref name=":1"/> This change from an irregular cavalry force that fought against the enemies of Russia, such as the Ottoman Empire and France, to a repressive gendarmerie deployed against the subjects of the Empire caused much disquiet within the various Hosts, as it was contrary to the heroic ethos of frontier warfare that the Cossacks cherished.<ref name=":1"/>

In 1879, the Shah of Iran, [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Nasir al-Din]], who had been impressed with the equestrian skills and distinctive uniforms of the Cossacks while on a visit to Russia the previous year, requested that the Emperor Alexander II sent some Cossacks to train a Cossack force for himself.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|pages=160–161|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref> Alexander granted his request and later in 1879 a group of 9 Cossacks led by Kuban Cossack Colonel [[Aleksey Domantovich]] arrived in Tehran to train the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]].<ref name=":2"/> The shah very much liked the colorful uniforms of the Cossacks and Domantovich devised uniforms for one regiment of the brigade based on the uniforms of the Kuban Cossack Host and another regiment had its uniform based on the Terek Cossack Host.<ref name=":2"/> The uniforms of the Cossacks were based on the flamboyant costumes of the peoples of the Caucasus, and what in Russia were viewed as exotic and colorful uniforms were viewed in Iran as a symbol of Russianness.<ref name=":2"/> Nasir al-Din, who was widely regarded as a deeply superficial and shallow man, was not interested in having his Cossack Brigade be an effective military force, and for him merely seeing his brigade ride before him while dressed in their brightly colored uniforms was quite enough.<ref name=":2"/> Over the shah's indifference, Domantovich and his Cossacks worked hard on training the Cossack Brigade, which became the only disciplined unit in the entire Persian Army, and thus of considerable importance in maintaining the shah's authority.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|pages=160–162|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref>

[[File:Neft.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Cossack patrol near [[Baku]] oil fields, 1905]]

By the end of the 19th century, Cossack communities enjoyed a privileged tax-free status in the [[Russian Empire]], although they had a 20-year military service commitment (reduced to 18 years from 1909). They were on active duty for five years, but could fulfill their remaining obligation with the reserves. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Cossacks numbered 4.5 million.<!-- Is this total population, or warriors? --> They were organized as independent regional hosts, each comprising a number of regiments. The need for the government to call up Cossack men to serve either with the Army or a mounted police force caused many social and economic problems, which compounded by the growing impoverishment the communities of the Hosts.<ref name=":1"/>

Treated as a separate and elite community by the Tsar, the Cossacks rewarded his government with strong loyalty. His administration frequently used Cossack units to suppress domestic disorder, especially during the [[Revolution of 1905|Russian Revolution of 1905]]. The Imperial Government depended heavily on the perceived reliability of the Cossacks. By the early 20th century, their decentralized communities and semi-feudal military service were coming to be seen as obsolete. The Russian Army Command, which had worked to professionalize its forces, considered the Cossacks less well disciplined, trained, and mounted than the [[hussar]]s, [[dragoon]]s, and [[lancer]]s of the regular [[cavalry]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Cossacks |author=Seaton, Albert |publisher=Random House |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-85045-116-0}}</ref> The Cossack qualities of initiative and rough-riding skills were not always fully appreciated. As a result, Cossack units were frequently broken up into small detachments for use as scouts, messengers, or picturesque escorts.

====Cossacks between 1900 and 1917====
[[File:Stanisław Masłowski, Świt 1906 (Wiosna 1905).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Wiosna roku 1905'' ([[Revolution of 1905|Spring of 1905]]) by [[Stanisław Masłowski]], 1906 – Orenburg Cossacks patrol at [[Ujazdów Avenue|Ujazdowskie Avenue]] in [[Warsaw]] ([[National Museum in Warsaw]])]]

In 1905, the Cossack hosts experienced deep mobilization of their menfolk amid the fighting of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in Manchuria and the outbreak of [[1905 Russian Revolution|revolution]] within the Russian Empire. Like other peoples of the empire, some Cossack [[stanitsa]]s voiced grievances against the regime by defying mobilization orders, or by making relatively liberal political demands. But these infractions were eclipsed by the prominent role of Cossack detachments in stampeding demonstrators and restoring order in the countryside. Subsequently, the wider population viewed the Cossacks as instruments of reaction. [[Tsar Nicholas II]] reinforced this concept by issuing new charters, medals, and bonuses to Cossack units in recognition for their performance during the Revolution of 1905.<ref name=ORourke_2007>{{cite book |first1=Shane |last1=O'Rourke |title=The Cossacks |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2007 |pages=194–201}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=McNeal |title=Tsar and Cossack, 1855-1914 |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |year=1987}}</ref>{{rp|81–82}}

In September 1906, reflecting the success of the Cossacks in putting down the Revolution of 1905, ''Polkovnik'' (Colonel) [[Vladimir Liakhov]] was sent to Iran to command the train and lead the Persian Cossack Brigade.<ref name=":5">{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|page=164|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref> Liakhov had led a Cossack squad in putting down the revolution in the Caucasus, and following the outbreak of the Constitutional Revolution in Iran he was sent to Tehran to recognize the Cossack Brigade as a force for power to the shah.<ref name=":5"/> The Persian Cossack Brigade had not been paid for months and proved to be dubious loyalty to the House of Qajar during the Constructional revolution while its Russian officers were uncertain what to do with Russia itself in revolution.<ref name=":5"/> Liakhov, a vigorous, able, and reactionary officer firmly committed to upholding absolute monarchies whatever in Russia or Iran, transformed the Persian Cossack Brigade into a mounted para-military police force rather than as a combat force.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|pages=164–167|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref> Liakhov was close to the new Shah, Mohammed Ali, who ascended to the Peacock Throne in January 1907, and it was due to the shah's patronage that Liakhov transformed the Persian Cossack Brigade into the main bulwark of the Iranian state.<ref name=":5"/> In June 1908, Liakhov led the Cossack Brigade in bombarding the ''Majlis'' (Parliament) while being appointed military governor of Tehran as the shah attempted to do away with the constitution his father had been forced to grant in 1906<ref>{{cite book |last=Cronin|first=Stephanie|chapter=Deserters, convicts, Cossacks, and revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian service, 1800-1920|pages=167–168|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800|editor=Stephanie Cronin|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-62433-6}}</ref> Reza Khan, who became the first Iranian to command the Cossack Brigade led the coup d'état in 1921 and in 1925 deposed the Qajars to found a new dynasty.

After the outbreak of [[World War I]] in August 1914, Cossacks became a key component in the cavalry of the Imperial Russian Army. The mounted Cossacks made up 38&nbsp;regiments, plus some infantry battalions and 52&nbsp;horse artillery batteries. Initially, each Russian cavalry division included a regiment of Cossacks in addition to regular units of [[hussar]]s, [[lancer]]s, and [[dragoon]]s. By 1916, the Cossacks' wartime strength had expanded to 160 regiments, plus 176 independent [[sotnia]]s (squadrons) employed as detached units.<ref>{{cite book |title=Russian Hussar |author=Littauer, Vladimir |publisher=The Long Riders' Guild Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59048-256-8 |pages=296–297}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=DiMarco, Louis |title=War Horse |location=Yardley |publisher=Westholme Publishing |year=2008 |page=310}}</ref>

The importance of cavalry in the frontlines faded after the opening phase of the war settled into a stalemate. During the remainder of the war, Cossack units were dismounted to fight in trenches, held in reserve to exploit a rare breakthrough, or assigned various duties in the rear. Those duties included rounding up deserters, providing escorts to war prisoners, and razing villages and farms in accordance with Russia's [[scorched earth]] policy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Seaton |first1=Albert |title=The Horsemen of the Steppes |date=1985 |publisher=The Bodley Head |location=London |pages=205–216}}</ref>

==Cossacks after the Russian Revolution==

===February Revolution, 1917 ===

====In Greater Russia====
At the outbreak of the disorder on 8&nbsp;March 1917 that led to the [[February 1917 Revolution|overthrow of the tsarist regime]], approximately 3,200&nbsp;Cossacks from the Don, Kuban, and Terek Hosts were stationed in Petrograd. Although they comprised only a fraction of the 300,000&nbsp;troops in the proximity of the Russian capital, their general defection on the second day of unrest (10 March) enthused raucous crowds and stunned the authorities and remaining loyal units.<ref name=ORourke_2000/>{{rp|212–215}}

In the aftermath of the February Revolution, the Cossacks hosts were authorized by the War Ministry of the [[Russian Provisional Government]] to overhaul their administrations. Cossack assemblies (known as ''krugs'' or, in the case of the Kuban Cossacks, a ''[[rada]]'') were organized at regional level to elect atamans and pass resolutions. At national level, an all-Cossack congress was convened in Petrograd. This congress formed the Union of Cossack Hosts, ostensibly to represent the interests of Cossacks across Russia.

During the course of 1917, the nascent Cossack governments formed by the ''krugs'' and atamans increasingly challenged the Provisional Government's authority in the borderlands. The various Cossack governments themselves faced rivals, in the form of national councils organized by neighboring minorities, and of [[Soviet (council)|soviets]] and ''zemstvos'' formed by non-Cossack Russians, especially the so-called "outlanders" who had immigrated to Cossack lands.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mueggenberg |first1=Brent |title=The Cossack Struggle Against Communism, 1917-1945 |year=2019 |publisher=McFarland & Company |location=Jefferson |isbn=978-1-4766-7948-8 |pages=32–36}}</ref>

====In Ukraine====

Similarly to the events in imperial Cossack hosts, a revival of Cossack self-organization also took place in Ukraine, inspired by the traditions of the Zaporozhian Sich and Cossack Hetmanate. In April 1917 a congress in [[Zvenyhorodka]], [[Kyiv Governorate]], established [[Free Cossacks]] as a volunteer militia in order "to defend the liberties of the Ukrainian people" and maintain civil order.

The revived Cossack structure in Ukraine was organized according to the territorial principle, with villages providing companies of volunteers, which were grouped into a [[kurin]] (battalion) on the [[volost]] level, subordinate to a regiment led by [[polkovnyk]], which was itself part of a ''kish'' (division) led by an Ottoman. All officers of Free Cossacks were elected, and funds were provided from taxation. Most volunteers of the organization were peasants, but industrial workers did also enlist themselves, especially in cities.

During 1917 the Free Cossack movement spread around Kyiv, [[Volhynia]], [[Kherson Governorate|Kherson]], [[Poltava Governorate|Poltava]] and [[Chernigov Gubernia|Chernihiv]] governorates. At the All-Ukrainian Congress of Free Cossacks in [[Chyhyryn]] on 16–20 October 1917 [[Pavlo Skoropadskyi]] was elected otaman of the movement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Free Cossacks |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/F/R/FreeCossacks.htm}}</ref>

=== Bolshevik uprising and Civil War, 1917–1922 ===

====Cossack autonomies in Don, Kuban and North Caucasus====

Soon after the [[Bolsheviks]] seized power in Petrograd on 7–8&nbsp;November 1917, most Cossack atamans and their government refused to recognize the legitimacy of the new regime. The Don Cossack ataman, [[Aleksey Kaledin]], went as far as to invite opponents of the Bolsheviks to the Don Host.<ref>Kenez, Peter, ''Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971) 59.</ref> But the position of many Cossack governments was far from secure, even within the boundaries of their hosts. In some areas, [[Soviet (council)|soviets]] formed by outlanders and soldiers rivaled the Cossack government, and ethnic minorities also tried to acquire a measure of self-rule. Even the Cossack communities themselves were divided, as the atamans tended to represent the interests of prosperous landowners and the officer corps. Poorer Cossacks, and those serving in the army, were susceptible to Bolshevik propaganda promising to spare "toiling Cossacks" from land appropriation.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|50–51}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Bunyan, James |author2=Fisher, H. H. |title=The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–18 |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1965 |pages=80–81, 407–409}}</ref>

The unwillingness of rank-and-file Cossacks to vigorously defend the Cossack government enabled the [[Red Army]] to occupy the vast majority of Cossack lands by late spring of 1918. But the Bolsheviks' policy of requisitioning grain and foodstuffs from the countryside to supply Russia's starving northern cities quickly fomented revolt among Cossack communities. These Cossack rebels elected new atamans and made common cause with other [[Anti-communism|anticommunist]] forces, such as the [[Volunteer Army]] in [[South Russia (1919–1920)|South Russia]]. Subsequently, the Cossack homelands became bases for the [[White movement]] during the [[Russian Civil War]].<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|53–63}}

Throughout the civil war, Cossacks sometimes fought as an independent ally, and other times as an auxiliary, of White armies. In South Russia, the [[Armed Forces of South Russia]] (AFSR) under [[Anton Denikin|General Anton Denikin]] relied heavily on conscripts from the Don and Kuban Cossack Hosts to fill their ranks. Through the Cossacks, the White armies acquired experienced, skilled horsemen that the Red Army was unable to match until late in the conflict.<ref name=Kenez_1977>{{cite book |author=Kenez, Peter |title=Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920: The Defeat of the Whites |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year=1977 |pages=19–21}}</ref> But the relationship between Cossack governments and the White leaders was frequently acrimonious. Cossack units were often ill-disciplined, and prone to bouts of looting and violence that caused the peasantry to resent the Whites.<ref name=Kenez_1977/>{{rp|110–139}} In Ukraine, Kuban and Terek Cossack squadrons carried out [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire|pogroms]] against Jews, despite orders from Denikin condemning such activity.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|127–128}} Kuban Cossack politicians, wanting a semi-independent state of their own, frequently agitated against the AFSR command.<ref name=Kenez_1977/>{{rp|112–120}} In the [[Russian Far East]], anticommunist Transbaikal and Ussuri Cossacks undermined the rear of Siberia's White armies by disrupting traffic on the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] and engaging in acts of banditry that fueled a potent insurgency in that region.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Bisher, Jamie |title=White Terror: Cossack warlords of the trans-Siberian |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |pages=163–170}}</ref>

As the Red Army gained the initiative in the civil war during late 1919 and early 1920, Cossack soldiers, their families, and sometimes entire stanitsas retreated with the Whites. Some continued to fight with the Whites in the conflict's waning stages in [[Crimea]] and the Russian Far East. As many as 80,000–100,000&nbsp;Cossacks eventually joined the defeated Whites in exile.<ref>G. O. Matsievsky, "Political Life of the Cossacks in Emigration: Tendencies and Features," ''Modern Studies of Social Problems'', 2013, No 3 (23), 3.</ref>

Although the Cossacks were sometimes portrayed by Bolsheviks and, later, émigré historians, as a monolithic [[counterrevolutionary]] group during the civil war, there were many Cossacks who fought with the Red Army throughout the conflict, known as [[Red Cossacks]]. Many poorer Cossack communities also remained receptive to the communist message. In late 1918 and early 1919, widespread desertion and defection among Don, Ural, and Orenburg Cossacks fighting with the Whites produced a military crisis that was exploited by the Red Army in those sectors.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|50–51, 113–117}} After the main White armies were defeated in early 1920, many Cossack soldiers switched their allegiance to the Bolsheviks, and fought with the Red Army against the Poles and in other operations.<ref>{{cite book |author=Babel, Isaac |title=1920 Diary |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1995 |pages=28–29, 63–65}}</ref>

On 22 December 1917, the [[Sovnarkom|Council of People's Commissars]] effectively abolished the Cossack estate by ending their military service requirements and privileges.<ref name=ORourke_2000/>{{rp|230}} After the widespread anticommunist rebellions among Cossacks in 1918, the Soviet regime's approach hardened in early 1919, when the Red Army occupied Cossack districts in the Urals and northern Don. The Bolsheviks embarked on a policy of "[[de-Cossackization]]", intended to end the Cossack threat to the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet regime]]. This was pursued through resettlement, widespread executions of Cossack veterans from the White armies, and favoring the outlanders within the Cossack hosts. Ultimately, the de-Cossackization campaign led to a renewed rebellion among Cossacks in Soviet-occupied districts and produced a new round of setbacks for the Red Army in 1919.<ref name=ORourke_2000/>{{rp|246–251}}

When the victorious Red Army again occupied Cossack districts in late 1919 and 1920, the Soviet regime did not officially reauthorize the implementation of de-Cossackization. There is, however, disagreement among historians as to the degree of Cossack's persecution by the Soviet regime. For example, the Cossack hosts were broken up among new provinces or [[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union|autonomous republics]]. Some Cossacks, especially in areas of the former Terek host, were resettled so their lands could be turned over to natives displaced from them during the initial Russian and Cossack colonization of the area. At the local level, the stereotype that Cossacks were inherent counterrevolutionaries likely persisted among some Communist officials, causing them to target, or discriminate against, Cossacks despite orders from Moscow to focus on class enemies among Cossacks rather than the Cossack people in general.<ref name=ORourke_2000/>{{rp|260–264}}

====Ukrainian State====
{{main|Ukrainian State}}

Until January 1918, the Free Cossacks of Ukraine were subordinate to the Ukrainian [[General Secretariat]] of Internal Affairs. With the beginning of the [[Ukrainian-Soviet War]], their units were incorporated into the [[Ukrainian People's Army|regular army]]. However, after a number of battles against the Bolsheviks, Free Cossacks were disarmed in compliance with orders of the German command, whose troops had occupied Ukraine in March–April 1918 after the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine-Central Powers)|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Free Cossacks |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/F/R/FreeCossacks.htm}}</ref>

On 29 April 1918 Pavlo Skoropadskyi, the earlier leader of Free Cossacks, was proclaimed [[Hetman of Ukraine]] at a congress of the conservative All-Ukrainian Union of Landowners. This coup was backed by generals of German and Austrian armies which were occupying Ukraine at that time. The previously democratic [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] was replaced with the [[Ukrainian State|Hetmanate]], the [[Central Rada]] and the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian People's Republic were abolished, with all their powers, as well as command over the military, being transferred to Skoropadskyi, and private land ownership was reinstated. Local administration was entrusted to commissioners personally appointed by the hetman.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hetman government |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CE%5CHetmangovernment.htm}}</ref>

To achieve legitimacy among the Ukrainian population, the Skoropadskyi styled his regime as a continuation of Ukrainian Cossack traditions of the 17-18th centuries. The hetman's government included representatives of old Cossack nobility ([[starshyna]]), most prominently [[Fedir Lyzohub]] (head of the Conucil of Ministers) and [[Dmytro Doroshenko]] (Minister of Foreign Affairs). Skoropadskyi himself supported the idea of reviving the Cossack class in Ukraine as a privileged social group personally loyal to the hetman. However, his initiative was viewed with skepticism by his ministers, and the law on re-establishment of Cossack administration in Ukraine was adopted only in October 1918, shortly before the hetman's resignation, and never realized.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ukrainian State |url=http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?Z21ID=&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Ukrainska_Derzhava}}</ref>

During Skoropadskyi's tenure in power the Ukrainian State developed diplomatic ties with Cossack entities in the [[Kuban People's Republic|Kuban]] and [[Don Republic|Don region]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hetman government|url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CE%5CHetmangovernment.htm}}</ref>

=== Cossacks in the Soviet Union, 1922–1945 ===

Rebellions in the former Cossack territories erupted occasionally during the interwar period. In 1920–1921, disgruntlement with continued Soviet grain-requisitioning activities provoked a series of revolts among Cossack and outlander communities in [[South Russia (1919–1920)|South Russia]]. The former Cossack territories of South Russia and the Urals also experienced a devastating [[Soviet famine of 1921|famine in 1921–1922]]. In 1932–1933, another famine, known as the [[Holodomor]], devastated Ukraine and some parts of South Russia, causing a population decline of about 20–30%. While urban areas were less affected, the decline was even higher in the rural areas, populated largely by Cossacks. [[Robert Conquest]] estimates the number of famine-related deaths in the [[Northern Caucasus]] at about one million.<ref name="Harvest">{{cite book |year=1986 |title=The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-505180-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/harvestofsorrows00conq/page/306 306] |url=https://archive.org/details/harvestofsorrows00conq/page/306 }}</ref> Government officials expropriated grain and other produce from rural Cossack families, leaving them to starve and die.<ref name="Bibliotekar.ru">{{cite web |url=http://www.bibliotekar.ru/golodomor/33.htm |script-title=ru:Голод 1932–1933 годов, рассказы очевидцев. Голод в Казахстане, Поволжье, Северном Кавказе и Украине. Голодомор |website=Bibliotekar.ru |access-date=13 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502133535/http://www.bibliotekar.ru/golodomor/33.htm |archive-date=2 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many families were forced from their homes in the severe winter and froze to death.<ref name="Bibliotekar.ru"/> [[Mikhail Sholokhov]]'s letters to [[Joseph Stalin]] document the conditions and widespread deaths, as do eyewitness accounts.<ref name="Bibliotekar.ru"/> Besides starvation, the [[collectivization]] and [[dekulakization]] campaigns of the early 1930s threatened Cossacks with deportation to [[Gulag|labor camps]], or outright execution by Soviet security organs.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|206–219}}

In April 1936, the Soviet regime began to relax its restrictions on Cossacks, allowing them to serve openly in the Red Army. Two existing cavalry divisions were renamed as Cossack divisions, and three new Cossack cavalry divisions were established. Under the new Soviet designation, anyone from the former Cossack territories of the North Caucasus provided they were not [[Circassians]] or other ethnic minorities, could claim Cossack status.

[[File:Konstantin Nedorubov (monument in Volgograd).JPG|thumb|Konstantin I. Nedorubov: Don Cossack, Hero of the Soviet Union, full Knight of the [[Order of St. George]]. Aged 52 when WWII began, he did not qualify for the regular draft and volunteered in the 41st Don Cossack Cavalry division. He was awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]] for his fight against Nazi invaders, credited in particular with killing some 70 Nazi combatants during the 1942 defence of Maratuki village.]]

In [[World War II]], during the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion]] of the [[Soviet Union]], many Cossacks continued to serve in the Red Army. Some fought as cavalry in the Cossack divisions, such as the 17th Kuban Cossack Cavalry Corps and the famous [[Lev Dovator]] Corps, later awarded the honorific designation "guard" in recognition of its performance.<ref name=ORourke_2000/>{{rp|276–277}} Other Cossacks fought as [[Partisan (military)|partisans]], although the partisan movement did not acquire significant traction during the German occupation of the traditional Cossack homelands in the North Caucasus.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cooper, Matthew |title=The Nazi War Against Soviet Partisans |location=New York |publisher=Stein and Day |year=1979 |pages=100–105}}</ref>

The [[4th Guards Cavalry Corps|4th Guards Cossacks Cavalry Corps]] took part in the [[Moscow Victory Parade of 1945]] on [[Red Square]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.slavakubani.ru/p-service/military-service/history-units/kubanskie-kazaki-uchastniki-parada-pobedy-v-moskve-24-iyunya-1945-goda/|title=Кубанские казаки - участники парада Победы в Москве 24 июня 1945 года|access-date=2020-07-07|archive-date=2020-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707140319/http://www.slavakubani.ru/p-service/military-service/history-units/kubanskie-kazaki-uchastniki-parada-pobedy-v-moskve-24-iyunya-1945-goda/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Anticommunist Cossacks in exile and World War II, 1920–1945 ===

====Russian Cossack emigration====

The Cossack emigration consisted largely of relatively young men who had served, and retreated with, the White armies. Although hostile to communism, the Cossack émigrés remained broadly divided over whether their people should pursue a separatist course to acquire independence or retain their close ties with a future post-Soviet Russia. Many quickly became disillusioned with life abroad. Throughout the 1920s, thousands of exiled Cossacks voluntarily returned to Russia through repatriation efforts sponsored by France, the [[League of Nations]], and even the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book |author=Robinson, Paul |title=The White Army in Exile |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2002 |pages=41–42, 75}}</ref>

The Cossacks who remained abroad settled primarily in [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], France, [[Xinjiang]], and [[Manchuria]]. Some managed to create farming communities in Yugoslavia and Manchuria, but most eventually took up employment as laborers in construction, agriculture, or industry. A few showcased their lost culture to foreigners by performing stunts in circuses or serenading audiences in choirs.

Cossacks who were determined to carry on the fight against communism frequently found employment with foreign powers hostile to Soviet Russia. In Manchuria, thousands of Cossacks and White émigrés enlisted in the army of that region's warlord, [[Zhang Zuolin]]. After Japan's [[Kwantung Army]] occupied Manchuria in 1932, the ataman of the [[Baikal Cossacks|Transbaikal Cossacks]], [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]], led collaboration efforts between Cossack émigrés and the Japanese military.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephan, John |title=The Russian Fascists |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1978 |pages=35–48}}</ref>
 
In the initial phase of [[Operation Barbarossa|Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union]], Cossack émigrés were initially barred from political activity or travelling into the occupied Eastern territories. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] had no intention of entertaining the political aspirations of the Cossacks, or any minority group, in the USSR. As a result, collaboration between Cossacks and the [[Wehrmacht]] began in ad hoc manner through localized agreements between German field commanders and Cossack defectors from the Red Army. Hitler did not officially sanction the recruitment of Cossacks and lift the restrictions imposed on émigrés until the second year of the Nazi-Soviet conflict. During their brief occupation of the North Caucasus region, the Germans actively recruited Cossacks into detachments and local self-defense [[militia]]s. The Germans even experimented with a self-governing district of Cossack communities in the Kuban region. When the Wehrmacht withdrew from the [[North Caucasus]] region in early 1943, tens of thousands of Cossacks retreated with them, either out of conviction or to avoid Soviet reprisals.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|229–239, 243–244}}

In 1943, the Germans formed the [[1st Cossack Cavalry Division]], under the command of [[Helmuth von Pannwitz|General Helmuth von Pannwitz]]. While its ranks mostly comprised deserters from the Red Army, many of its officers and [[Non-commissioned officer|NCOs]] were Cossack émigrés who had received training at one of the cadet schools established by the White Army in Yugoslavia. The division was deployed to occupied Croatia to fight [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito's]] [[Partisans (Yugoslavia)|Partisans]]. There, its performance was generally effective, although at times brutal. In late 1944, the 1st&nbsp;Cossack Cavalry Division was admitted into the [[Waffen-SS]], and enlarged into the [[XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps]].<ref name=Newland_1991/>{{rp|110–126, 150–169}}

In late 1943, the [[Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories]] and Wehrmacht headquarters issued a joint proclamation promising the Cossacks independence once their homelands were "liberated" from the Red Army.<ref name=Newland_1991>{{cite book |last1=Newland |first1=Samuel J. |title=Cossacks in the German Army, 1941–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8ideJ9KDh0C |year=1991 |location=Portland |publisher=Routledge; Frank Cass |isbn=978-0-7146-3351-0 |access-date=2015-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521171654/https://books.google.com/books?id=J8ideJ9KDh0C |archive-date=2016-05-21 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|140}} The Germans followed this up by establishing the Cossack Central Administration, under the leadership of the former Don Cossack ataman, [[Pyotr Krasnov]]. Although it had many attributes of a government-in-exile, the Cossack Central Administration lacked any control over foreign policy or the deployment of Cossack troops in the Wehrmacht. In early 1945, Krasnov and his staff joined a group of 20,000–25,000&nbsp;Cossack refugees and irregulars known as "Cossachi Stan". This group, then led by Timofey Domanov, had fled the North Caucasus alongside the Germans in 1943 and was moved between [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] in Ukraine, [[Navahrudak]] in Belarus, and [[Tolmezzo]], Italy.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|252–254}}
 
In early May 1945, in the closing days of WWII, both Domanov's "Cossachi Stan" and Pannwitz's XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps retreated into Austria, where they surrendered to the British. Many Cossack accounts collected in the two volume work ''The Great Betrayal'' by [[Vyacheslav Naumenko]] allege that British officers had given them, or their leaders, a guarantee that they would not be forcibly repatriated to the Soviet Union,<ref>{{cite book |author=Naumenko, Vyacheslav |title=Great Betrayal |translator=Dritschilo, William |year=2015 |location=New York |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publisher; Slavic Publishing House |orig-date=1962}}</ref> but there is no hard evidence that such a promise was made. At the end of the month, and in early June 1945, the majority of Cossacks from both groups were transferred to Red Army and [[SMERSH]] custody at the Soviet demarcation line in Judenburg, Austria. This episode is known as the [[Betrayal of the Cossacks]], and resulted in sentences of hard labour or execution for the majority of the repatriated Cossacks.<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019/>{{rp|263–289}}

====Ukrainian Hetman movement====

After his abdication on 14 December 1918, Ukrainian hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi emigrated to Germany. From there he led the so-called Hetman movement ({{langx|uk|Гетьманський рух}}), which consisted of a number of Ukrainian [[conservatism|conservative]] [[monarchism|monarchist]] organizations from different groups of [[Ukrainian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Skoropadsky, Pavlo |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CK%5CSkoropadskyPavlo.htm}}</ref> Most prominent of these organizations were the Ukrainian Union of Agrarians-Statists ({{langx|uk|Український союз хліборобів-державників}}) founded in [[Vienna]] by [[Vyacheslav Lypynsky]]i and [[Serhiy Shemet]], and the United Hetman Organization ({{langx|uk|Союз гетьманців державників}}) active in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]]. In his "Letters to Brothers Agrarians", published in 1926, Lypynskyi elaborated the idea of an independent, [[oligarchy|classocratic]], pan-Ukrainian "toilers' monarchy" without political parties, ruled by hetman and his dynasty with the help of an agrarian aristocracy and the co-operation of the productive classes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ukrainian Union of Agrarians-Statists |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianUnionofAgrarians6Statists.htm}}</ref> In Canada and the United States the Hetman movement emerged from the pre-[[WW1]] [[Plast|Sich scouting societies]] and was implicitly supported by the [[Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church]]. The movement supported the re-establishment of the Hetman state of Pavlo Skoropadskyi and devoted a lot of energy to military training of Ukrainian émigrés for the future liberation of their homeland, going as far as to acquire a number of airplanes. In 1940 the Canadian branch of the organization became one of the founders of the [[Ukrainian Canadian Congress]]. The North American Hetman movement reached the height of its influence around 1937–1938, when it was visited by [[Danylo Skoropadsky]]i, the hetman's son and successor. However, the organizations lost their influence during [[WW2]] and in the following years due to internal splits and government investigations into their activity.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Hetman Organization |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CN%5CUnitedHetmanOrganization.htm}}</ref>

=== Modern times ===
Following the war, Cossack units, and the cavalry in general, were rendered obsolete and released from the Soviet Army. In the post-war years, many Cossack descendants were thought of as simple peasants, and those who lived in one of the [[autonomous republic]]s usually gave way to the local minority and migrated elsewhere.

[[File:Kuban Cossack Choir, Viktor Sorokin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Kuban Cossack Choir]] in 2016]]
The principal Cossack émigré leader after 1945 was [[Nikolai Nazarenko]], the self-proclaimed president of the World Federation of the Cossack National Liberation Movement of Cossackia, who enjoyed a prominence in New York as the organizer of the annual Captive Nations parade held every July. In 1978, Nazarenko dressed in his Don Cossack uniform led the Captive Days day parade in New York city, and told a journalist: "Cossackia is a nation of 10 million people. In 1923 the Russians officially abolished Cossackia as a nation. Officially, it no longer exists...America should not spend billions supporting the Soviets with trade. We don't have to be afraid of the Russian army because half of it is made up of Captive Nations. They can never trust the rank and file".<ref name="McKenzie">{{cite news |last1=McKenzie |first1=Hal |title=Marching in the Brotherhood of the Oppressed |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1978-pt18/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1978-pt18-2-2.pdf |publisher=New York World |date=17 July 1978 |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619070920/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1978-pt18/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1978-pt18-2-2.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The journalist Hal McKenzie described Nazarenko as having "cut a striking figure with his white fur cap, calf-length coat with long silver-sheathed dagger and ornamental silver cartridge cases on his chest".<ref name="McKenzie" /> Nazarenko was also the president of Cossack American Republican National Federation, which in turn was part of the National Republican Heritage Groups Council, and he attracted much controversy in the 1980s owing to his wartime career and certain statements he made about Jews. The American journalist Christoper Simpson in his 1988 book ''Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War'' called Nazarenko a leading Republican activist who made "explicit pro-Nazi, anti-semitic" statements in his speeches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=Christopher |title=Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War. |date=1988 |publisher=Grove Atlantic |location=New York |isbn=1-55584-106-6 |page=274}}</ref>

During the [[Perestroika]] era of the Soviet Union of the late 1980s, many descendants of the Cossacks became enthusiastic about reviving their national traditions. In 1988, the Soviet Union passed a law allowing the reestablishment of former hosts and creation of new ones. The ataman of the largest, the Almighty Don Host, was granted Marshal rank and the right to form a new host. Simultaneously, many attempts were made to increase Cossack's impact on Russian society, and throughout the 1990s many regional authorities agreed to hand over some local administration and policing duties to the Cossacks.

According to the [[Russian Census (2002)|2002 Russian Census]], 140,028 people self-identified as ethnic Cossacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rusnations.ru/etnos/cossack/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910114701/http://www.rusnations.ru/etnos/cossack/ |archive-date=2012-09-10 |script-title=ru:Казаки: общие сведения |trans-title=Cossacks: general information |language=ru |website=rusnations.ru |year=2006}}</ref> Between 3.5 and 5 million people associate themselves with the Cossack identity in post-Soviet Russia and around the world.<ref name="Cole2011">{{cite book |editor-last=Cole |editor-first=Jeffrey E. |editor-link=Jeffrey Cole |title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C&pg=PA80 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-302-6 |page=80 |access-date=2015-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629163038/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C&pg=PA80 |archive-date=2016-06-29 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Tjoe2006">{{cite journal |title=Cossack Identity in the New Russia: Kuban Cossack Revival and Local Politics |last1=Toje |first1=Hege |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |volume=58 |issue=7 |date=November 2006 |pages=1057–1077 |issn=0966-8136 |jstor=20451288 |doi=10.1080/09668130600926306|s2cid=143473682 }}</ref>

[[File:Zaporozhian Cossacks movement, 1990.JPG|thumb|250px|Ukrainians in Cossack dress during the celebrations of Zaporozhian Sich anniversary, in [[Zaporizhzhia]], 1990]]
In Ukraine the national revival of late 1980s led to the appreciation of Cossack history and culture as symbols of the Ukrainian nation. Cossack symbols and songs were widely used in mass events and demonstrations, particularly during the celebration of the [[500th anniversary of the Zaporozhian Sich]] in 1990. A number of Ukrainian Cossack organizations emerged during that time.

Cossacks have taken an active part in many of the conflicts that have taken place since the disintegration of the Soviet Union. These include the [[War of Transnistria]],<ref>Hughes, James and Sasse, Gwendolyn: ''Ethnicity and territory in the former Soviet Union: regions in conflict.'' Taylor & Francis, 2002, p. 107. {{ISBN|0-7146-8210-1}}</ref> [[Georgian–Abkhazian conflict]], [[Georgian–Ossetian conflict]], [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Казаки на страже Карабаха: вчера и сегодня|url=https://www.armmuseum.ru/news-blog/kazaki-v-armenii?format=amp|access-date=2021-05-22|website=www.armmuseum.ru|archive-date=2021-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519020522/https://www.armmuseum.ru/news-blog/kazaki-v-armenii?format=amp|url-status=live}}</ref> [[2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict|2016 Nagorno-Karabakh war]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Number|date=2019-11-03|title=Армянское казачество на страже многовековой армяно-российской дружбы - интервью|url=http://dalma.news/ru/armyanskoe-kazachestvo-na-strazhe-mnogovekovoy-armyano-rossiyskoy-druzhby-intervyu/|access-date=2021-05-22|website=Dalma News|language=ru-RU|archive-date=2021-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519020512/http://dalma.news/ru/armyanskoe-kazachestvo-na-strazhe-mnogovekovoy-armyano-rossiyskoy-druzhby-intervyu/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[First Chechen War]], [[Second Chechen War]], and the [[2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine]] and both the subsequent [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|War in Donbas]] and the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2014/11/donetsk-ukraine-leadership.html |author=Sabra Ayres |title=Opportunists take advantage of eastern Ukraine leadership confusion |agency=Al Jazeera |date=26 November 2014 |access-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824174233/http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2014/11/donetsk-ukraine-leadership.html |archive-date=24 August 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/05/world/europe/cossacks-face-reprisals-as-rebel-groups-clash-in-eastern-ukraine.html |author=Andrew E. Kramer |title=Cossacks face grim reprisals from onetime allies in eastern Ukraine |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=4 August 2015 |access-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806120828/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/05/world/europe/cossacks-face-reprisals-as-rebel-groups-clash-in-eastern-ukraine.html |archive-date=6 August 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Culture and organization ==
In early times, an ataman (later called [[hetman]]) commanded a Cossack band. He was elected by the Host members at a Cossack ''[[rada]],'' as were the other important officials: the judge, the scribe, the lesser officials, and the clergy. The ataman's symbol of power was a ceremonial mace, a ''[[Bulawa|bulava]]''. Today, Russian Cossacks are led by atamans, and Ukrainian Cossacks by hetmans.

[[File:Kozak na stanowisku.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''Cossack on duty'' (portrayal of 16th–17th century), painting by [[Józef Brandt]]]]

After the Polish–Russian [[Treaty of Andrusovo]] split Ukraine along the Dnieper River in 1667, Ukrainian Cossacks were known as Left-bank and Right-bank Cossacks. The ataman had [[executive power]]s, and in wartime was the supreme commander in the field. [[Legislature|Legislative power]] was given to the Band Assembly (''Rada''). The senior officers were called ''starshyna''. In the absence of written [[law]]s, the Cossacks were governed by the "Cossack Traditions" – the common, unwritten law.

Cossack society and government were heavily militarized. The nation was called a host (''vois'ko'', or ''viys'ko'', translated as "army"). The people and territories were subdivided into [[regiment]]al and company districts, and village posts (''polky'', ''sotni'', and ''stanytsi''). A unit of a Cossack troop could be called a [[Kurin]]. Each Cossack settlement, alone or in conjunction with neighboring settlements, formed military units and regiments of light cavalry or, in the case of Siberian Cossacks, mounted infantry. They could respond to a threat on very short notice.

A high regard for education was a tradition among the Cossacks of Ukraine. In 1654, when [[Macarius III Ibn al-Za'im]], the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], traveled to Moscow through Ukraine, his son, [[Paul of Aleppo|Deacon Paul Allepscius]], wrote the following report:
{{blockquote|All over the land of Rus', i.e., among the Cossacks, we have noticed a remarkable feature which made us marvel; all of them, with the exception of only a few among them, even the majority of their wives and daughters, can read and know the order of the church-services as well as the church melodies. Besides that, their priests take care and educate the orphans, not allowing them to wander in the streets ignorant and unattended.<ref>Лощиц, Юрий. Сковорода. Vol. 13. Мол. гвардия, 1972. p. 17.</ref>}}

===Groupings===
Russian Cossacks are divided into two broad groups: the Stepnoy (Ru:Степной), those of the Steppes, and the Kavkas (Ru:Кавкас), those of the Caucasus. In 1917 the Caucasians were divided into two hosts, the Kuban and the Terek; while the Steppe were divided into 8 hosts, the Don (the largest), Siberia, Orenburg, Astrakhan, Trans-Baikal, Semiretchi, Amur, and Ussurki voiskos.

=== Settlements ===
Russian Cossacks founded numerous settlements (''[[stanitsa]]s'') and fortresses along troublesome borders. These included the forts Verny ([[Almaty]], [[Kazakhstan]]) in south Central Asia; [[Grozny]] in North Caucasus; Fort Alexandrovsk ([[Fort Shevchenko]], Kazakhstan); [[Krasnovodsk]] ([[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Turkmenbashi]], [[Turkmenistan]]); Novonikolayevskaya stanitsa ([[Bautino]], Kazakhstan); [[Blagoveshchensk]]; and towns and settlements along the [[Ural River|Ural]], [[Ishim River|Ishim]], [[Irtysh]], [[Ob River|Ob]], [[Yenisei River|Yenisei]], [[Lena River|Lena]], [[Amur River|Amur]], [[Anadyr River|Anadyr]] ([[Chukchi Peninsula|Chukotka]]), and [[Ussuri River]]s. A group of [[Albazin Cossacks]] settled in [[China]] as early as 1685.

Cossacks interacted with nearby peoples and exchanged cultural influences (the Terek Cossacks, for example, were heavily influenced by the culture of North Caucasian tribes). They also frequently intermarried with local non-Cossack settlers and local inhabitants, regardless of race or origin, sometimes setting aside religious restrictions.{{efn|name=Kaznakov_quote|"Сопредельные с ними (поселенцами – Ред.) по 'Горькой линии' казаки ... поголовно обучались Киргизскому наречию и переняли некоторые, впрочем, безвредные привычки кочевого народа."<br/>
"''Among [settlers nearby] the 'Gor'kaya Liniya' Cossacks ... everyone learnt Kyrgys' language and adopted some customs, though harmless, of the nomadic people''."<ref name=Kaznakov_1875>{{cite report |script-title=ru:Генерал-губернатор Казнаков в докладе Александру&nbsp;III |trans-title=Report of Governor-General Kaznakov to Tzar Alexander&nbsp;III |author=Kaznakov |year=1875}}</ref>}} [[War bride]]s brought from distant lands were also common in Cossack families. General Bogaevsky, a commander in the Russian [[Volunteer Army]], mentions in his 1918 memoir that one of his Cossacks, Sotnik Khoperski, was a native Chinese who had been brought back as a child from Manchuria during the [[Russian-Japanese War]] of 1904–1905 and adopted and raised by a Cossack family.<ref>Богаевский А.П. Ледяной поход. Воспоминания 1918 г.</ref>

Cossacks initially relied on raiding, herding, fishing and hunting, despising agriculture as lowly. After the defeat of Stenka Razin in 1672, the Cossacks began transitioning to agriculture, but this would remain a secondary concern for Cossacks until the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=S. O'Rourke |title=Warriors and Peasants: The Don Cossacks in Late Imperial Russia |date=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-59974-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=William Penn Cresson |title=The Cossacks |date=2016 |publisher=Wentworth |isbn=978-1-329-91984-6}}</ref>

===Family life===
[[File:Novosibirsk-Karimov.jpg|thumb|Siberian Cossack family in [[Novosibirsk]], after 2000]]

Historically, when Cossack men fought in permanent wars far from home, women took over the role of family leaders. Women were also called upon to physically defend their villages and towns from enemy attacks. In some cases, they raided and disarmed neighboring villages composed of other ethnic groups. [[Leo Tolstoy]] described such Cossack female chauvinism in his novel, [[The Cossacks (novel)|''The Cossacks'']]. Relations between the sexes within the ''stanitsas'' were relatively egalitarian. The American historian Thomas Barrett wrote "The history of Cossack women complicates general notions of patriarchy within Russian society".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barrett |first1=Thomas |title=At the Edge of Empire: The Terek Cossacks and the North Caucasus Frontier, 1700-1860 |date=1999 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |location=New York |isbn=0-8133-3671-6 |page=131}}</ref>

When the Malorossian Cossack regiments were disbanded, those Cossacks who were not promoted to nobility, or did not join other estates, were united into a [[Malorossian Cossacks|civil Cossack estate]]. [[Sergei Korolev]]'s mother was the daughter of a leader of the civil estate of the Zaporozhian Sich.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://yablor.ru/blogs/12-yanvarya-1907-goda-rodilsya-sergey-pavlovich-ko/169210 |script-title=ru:12 января 1907 года родился Сергей Павлович Корольов |trans-title=On 12 January 1907 Sergei Pavlovich Korolev was born |language=ru |website=Yablor.ru |date=12 January 2010 |access-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003224458/http://yablor.ru/blogs/12-yanvarya-1907-goda-rodilsya-sergey-pavlovich-ko/169210 |archive-date=3 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Popular image===
[[File:1900 - Kozachka by Vasylkivsky.tif|thumb|Portrait of a Cossack woman by Ukrainian artist [[Serhii Vasylkivsky]]]]
Cossacks have long appealed to [[Romanticism|romantics]] as idealizing freedom and resistance to external authority, and their military exploits against their enemies have contributed to this favorable image. For others, Cossacks are a symbol of repression, for their role in suppressing popular uprisings in the Russian Empire, during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of 1648–1657, and in [[pogrom]]s, including those perpetrated by the Terek Cossacks during the Russian revolution and by various Cossack atamans in Ukraine in 1919, among them atamans [[Danylo Terpylo|Zeleny]], [[Nykyfor Hryhoriv|Hryhoriv]], and [[Ivan Semesenko|Semosenko]].<ref name="heifetz">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/slaughterofjewsi00heifuoft |title=The Slaughter of the Jews in Ukraine in 1919 |publisher=Thomas Seltzer, Inc. |author=Heifetz, Elias |year=1921 |pages=65–66, 139 |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112005602/https://archive.org/details/slaughterofjewsi00heifuoft |archive-date=2013-11-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Stanislaw Maslowski (1853-1926), Cossacks Dance, 1883.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|''Cossacks Dance – [[Kozachok]]'' by [[Stanisław Masłowski]], [[oil painting|oil]] on canvas 1883<ref>Reproduction first published in "Album malarzy polskich", 1885, vol. 11, M. Robiczek Publ., [[Warsaw]]</ref>]]
[[File:Kozacka piesn.jpg|thumb|left|Ostap Kindrachuk, Ukrainian Cossack, playing the [[bandura]] in traditional dress]]

Literary reflections of Cossack culture abound in [[Russian literature|Russian]], [[Ukrainian literature|Ukrainian]], and [[Polish literature]], particularly in the works of [[Nikolai Gogol]] (''[[Taras Bulba]]''), [[Taras Shevchenko]], [[Mikhail Sholokhov]] ([[And Quiet Flows the Don]]), [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] (''[[With Fire and Sword]]''). One of [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s first novellas, ''[[The Cossacks (novel)|The Cossacks]]'', depicts their autonomy and estrangement from Moscow and from centralized rule. Many of [[Isaac Babel]]'s stories (for instance, those in [[Red Cavalry]]) depict Cossack soldiers, and were based on Babel's experiences as a war correspondent attached to the [[1st Cavalry Army]].

Polish Romantic literature also commonly dealt with Cossack themes. Some of the Polish writers of this period (for instance, [[Michał Czajkowski]] and [[Józef Bohdan Zaleski]]) were known as "Cossacophiles" who wholeheartedly celebrated the Cossack history and lifestyle in their works. Others, such as [[Henryk Rzewuski]] and [[Michał Grabowski]], were more critical in their approach.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grabowicz |first1=George |title=Between History and Myth: Perceptions of the Cossack Past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian Romantic Literature |url=http://lab.chass.utoronto.ca/rescentre/slavic/ukr/Cossacks/Grabowicz-Cossack%20Past.pdf |website=University of Toronto |publisher=Slavica Publishers |access-date=24 June 2020 |archive-date=26 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626131723/http://lab.chass.utoronto.ca/rescentre/slavic/ukr/Cossacks/Grabowicz-Cossack%20Past.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the literature of Western Europe, Cossacks appear in [[Lord Byron|Byron's]] poem "[[Mazeppa (poem)|Mazeppa]]", [[Alfred Tennyson|Tennyson's]] "[[The Charge of the Light Brigade (poem)|The Charge of the Light Brigade]]", and [[Richard Connell]]'s short story "[[The Most Dangerous Game]]". In many{{quantify|date=January 2015}} stories by adventure writer [[Harold Lamb]], the main character is a Cossack.

During the Imperial period, Cossacks acquired an image as the ferocious defenders of the antisemitic Russian state. Still, during the Soviet era, Jews were encouraged to admire Cossacks as the antitheses of the "parasitic" and "feeble dwellers of the shtetl."{{r|estraikh}} A number of Yiddish writers, including [[Khaim Melamud]], {{ill|Shmuel Gordon|ru|Гордон, Самуил Вульфович}}, {{ill|Viktor Fink|ru|Финк, Виктор Григорьевич}}, and {{ill|Shmuel Godiner|ru|Годинер, Самуил Давидович|he|שמואל ניסן גודינר}}, presented fictionalized accounts of peaceful Jewish-Cossack coexistence, while efforts were made by the pro-Soviet press to present Khmelnytsky as a heroic figure and Cossacks as liberators from the Nazis.{{r|estraikh}}

Historiography interprets Cossackdom in imperial and colonial terms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Plokhy |first1=Serhii |author-link1=Serhii Plokhii |title=The Cossack Myth: History and Nationhood in the Age of Empires |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFCM2Ai0FBcC |series=New Studies in European History |edition=Reprint |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |page=357 |isbn=978-1-107-02210-2 |access-date=2015-01-27 |quote=...&nbsp;the Russian used by the Ukrainian elite of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries ... was strongly influenced by the military and bureaucratic terminology of the period (the hallmark of the Cossack elite's imperial experience) ... The increasing influence of Russian ... gave evidence of the new cultural situation in the Hetmanate, which had all the hallmarks of a colonial setting. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517173423/https://books.google.com/books?id=LFCM2Ai0FBcC |archive-date=2015-05-17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khodarkovsky |first1=Michael |title=Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti51WfA68RYC |series=Indiana-Michigan series in Russian and East European studies |edition=Reprint |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21770-7 |access-date=2015-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405143208/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ti51WfA68RYC |archive-date=2015-04-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Ukraine, where Cossackdom represents historical and cultural heritage, some people have begun attempting to recreate the images of Ukrainian Cossacks. Traditional Ukrainian culture is often tied in with the Cossacks, and the Ukrainian government actively supports{{when|date=January 2015}} these attempts.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} The traditional Cossack ''[[bulawa|bulava]]'' serves as a symbol of the Ukrainian presidency, and the island of [[Khortytsia]], the origin and center of the [[Zaporozhian Sich]], has been restored. The video game [[Cossacks: European Wars]] is a Ukrainian-made game series influenced by Cossack culture.

Cossacks are also mentioned outside Europe. The Japanese anime [[The Doraemons]], part of the larger [[Doraemon]] anime series, has a Cossack character, Dora-nichov, who is from Russia.

===Music===
The official military march of Russian Cossacks units is ''Cossacks in Berlin'', composed by [[Dmitry Pokrass]] and Daniil Pokrass, with lyrics being made by Caesar Solodar. Solodar was present when Field Marshal [[Wilhelm Keitel]] signed the act of surrender to Allied forces. That same day, he left for Moscow and by the evening of 9 May, the song was written.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sovmusic.ru/text.php?fname=edutpobe|title=SovMusic.ru - Казаки в Берлине|access-date=2020-07-07|archive-date=2020-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707081156/http://sovmusic.ru/text.php?fname=edutpobe|url-status=live}}</ref> The lyrics detail an interaction between a Cossack and a girl from Berlin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2//Multimedia/ww2/comments/war_cheering/Cossacks.txt |title=Archived copy |access-date=2020-07-08 |archive-date=2021-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125192317/http://armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2/Multimedia/ww2/comments/war_cheering/Cossacks.txt |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://xn--80abjd7bf.xn--80acgfbsl1azdqr.xn--p1ai/%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0/%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8/%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8 |title=Казаки в Берлине - Песни военных лет и о войне - Медиа - 75-летие Победы |access-date=2020-07-08 |archive-date=2020-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708014149/https://xn--80abjd7bf.xn--80acgfbsl1azdqr.xn--p1ai/%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0/%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8/%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The S. Tvorun arrangement of the [[Zaporizhian March]] (known as the ''Cossack march'') is one of the main marches of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]], replacing ''[[Farewell of Slavianka]]'' in 1991 as the official sendoff music for army recruits. The [[Kuban Cossack Choir]] is a leading [[Ethnic Russian music|folkloric]] ensemble that reflects the dances and folklore of the Kuban Cossack.

The second movement of [[Mily Balakirev]]'s Second Symphony is marked "Scherzo alla Cosacca", which means "scherzo in the style of the Cossacks".

===Ranks===
{{main|Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation#Cossack ranks and insignia}}
[[File:Kuban patch.jpg|thumb|Modern Kuban Cossack armed forces patch of the Russian military]]
The Russian Empire organized its Cossacks into several ''voiskos'' (hosts), which lived along the Russian border and internal borders between Russian and non-Russian peoples. Each host originally had its own leadership, ranks, regalia, and uniforms. By the late 19th century, ranks were standardized following the example of the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. The ranks and insignia were kept after the 1988 law allowing the hosts to reform, and the 2005 law legally recognizing the hosts as a combat service. They are given below as per all military tickets that are standard for the Russian Army.

{| class="wikitable" style="width:50%;"
|-
!Modern Cossack rank
!Equivalent modern Russian Army
!Equivalent foreign rank
|-
| Kazak
| [[Ryadovoy]]
| [[Private (rank)|Private]]
|-
| Prikazny
| [[Gefreiter#Yefreytor in Russia and the post-Soviet states|Yefreitor]]
| [[Lance Corporal]]
|-
| Mladshy Uryadnik
| [[Junior sergeant#Russia|Mladshy Serzhant]]
| [[Corporal]]
|-
| Uryadnik
| Serzhant
| [[Sergeant]]
|-
| Starshy Uryadnik
| [[Sergeant#Russia|Starshy Serzhant]]
| [[Senior Sergeant]]
|-
| Mladshy Vakhmistr
| 
|[[Warrant officer|Junior Warrant Officer]]
|-
| Vakhmistr
| [[Praporshchik]]
| [[Warrant Officer]]
|-
| Starshy Vakhmistr
| [[Starshy praporshchik|Starshy Praporshchik]]
| [[Senior Warrant Officer]]
|-
| Podkhorunzhy
| Mládshiy Leytenánt
| [[Junior Lieutenant]]
|-
| [[Khorunzhy]]
| [[Lieutenant#Russia|Leytenant]]
| [[Lieutenant]]
|-
| [[Sotnik]]
| [[Senior lieutenant#Russian Federation|Starshy Leytenant]]
| [[Senior Lieutenant]]
|-
| Podyesaul
| Kapitan
| [[Captain]]
|-
| [[Yesaul]]
| [[Major (rank)|Mayor]]
| [[Major (rank)|Major]]
|-
| Voiskovy Starshyna
| [[Podpolkovnik]]
| [[Lieutenant-Colonel]]
|-
| Kazachy Polkovnik
| [[Polkovnik]]
| [[Colonel]]
|-
| Kazachy General*
| General
| [[General]]
|-
| [[Ataman]]
|
| [[Commander]]
|}
<small><nowiki>*</nowiki>Rank presently absent in the Russian Army<br/>
<nowiki>*</nowiki>The application of the ranks Polkovnik and General is only stable for small hosts. Large hosts are divided into divisions, and consequently the Russian Army sub-ranks [[Major general#Russia|General-mayor]], [[Lieutenant General#Lieutenant general ranks by country|General-leytenant]] and General-polkovnik are used to distinguish the atamans' hierarchy of command, the supreme ataman having the highest rank available. In this case, the shoulder insignia has a dedicated one-, two- and three-star alignment, as is normal in the Russian Army. Otherwise, it will be blank.</small>

As with the ranks Polkovnik and General, the Colonel ranks are only stable for small hosts, being given to atamans of regional and district status. The smallest unit, the ''[[stanitsa]]'', is commanded by a Yesaul. If the region or district lacks any other ''stanitsa''s, the rank Polkovnik is applied automatically, but with no stars on the shoulder. As the hosts continue to grow, starless shoulder patches are becoming increasingly rare.

In addition, the supreme ataman of the largest [[Don Cossack Host]] is officially titled [[Marshal#Military|Marshal]], and so wears insignia derived from the [[Marshal#Marshal ranks by country|Russian/Soviet Marshal ranks]], including the diamond Marshal Star. This is because the Don Cossack [[Ataman|Supreme Ataman]] is recognized as the official head of all Cossack armies, including those outside the present Russian borders. He also has the authority to recognize and dissolve new hosts.

=== Uniforms ===
[[File:Orenburg cossack.jpg|thumb|Cossack officer from [[Orenburg]], with [[shashka]], early 1900s]]
[[File:Siberian Cossack 190x.jpg|thumb|[[Siberian Cossack]] {{circa|1890s}}]]

Cossacks were expected to provide their own uniforms. While these were sometimes manufactured in bulk by factories owned by the individual host, families often handed down garments or made them within the household. Accordingly, individual items might vary from those laid down by regulation, or be of obsolete pattern. Each host had distinctive uniform colourings. Similar uniforms are in service today amongst the Cossacks of Russia.

For most hosts, the basic uniform consisted of the standard loose-fitting [[tunics]] and wide trousers typical of Russian regular troops from 1881 to 1908,<ref>{{cite book |first1=A. |last1=Ivanov|page=[https://archive.org/details/russojapanesewar00ivan/page/n46 45] |title=The Russo-Japanese War 1904–05 |url=https://archive.org/details/russojapanesewar00ivan |url-access=limited |isbn=978-1-84176-708-6 |date=2004-07-25|publisher=Bloomsbury USA }}</ref> and shown in the two photographs opposite. In marked contrast the two Caucasian hosts (Kuban and Terek) wore the very long, open-fronted, ''[[cherkesska]]'' coats with ornamental cartridge loops and coloured ''beshmet''s (waistcoats). These have come to epitomize the popular image of the Cossacks. Most hosts wore [[Papakha|fleece hats]] with coloured cloth tops in full dress, and round caps with or without peaks for ordinary duties. These caps were worn sharply slanted to one side by the rank-and-file of Cossack regiments, over hair trimmed longer than that of ordinary Russian soldiers. The two Caucasian hosts wore high fleece caps on most occasions, together with black felt cloaks (''burke'') in bad weather.<ref name=Shenk>{{cite book |last1=Shenk |first1=Colonel V. K. |year=1910–1911 |title=Tablitsi Form' Obmundirovaniya Russkoi Armi |publisher=Imperial Russian War Ministry}}</ref>

Until 1909, Cossack regiments in summer wore white ''[[gymnasterka]]s'' (blouses)<ref>{{cite book |first1=Borris |last1=Mollo |pages=[https://archive.org/details/uniformsofimperi00moll/page/140 140]–141 |title=Uniforms of the Imperial Russian Army |isbn=978-0-7137-0920-9 |year=1979 |publisher=Blandford Press |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/uniformsofimperi00moll}}</ref> and cap covers of standard Russian army pattern. The shoulder straps and cap bands were in the host colour, as detailed below. From 1910 to 1918, they wore a khaki-grey jacket for field wear. The dress uniform had blue or green [[breeches]] with broad, coloured stripes in the host colour, which were often worn with the service jacket.

While most Cossacks served as [[cavalry]], several of the larger hosts had [[infantry]] and [[artillery]] units. Three regiments of Cossacks formed part of the [[Imperial Guard (Russia)|Imperial Guard]], as well as the ''Konvoi''—the tsar's mounted escort. The Imperial Guard regiments wore tailored, government-issue uniforms, which were colourful and elaborate. For example, the ''Konvoi'' wore scarlet ''cherkesska''s, white ''beshmet''s, and red crowns on their fleece hats.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vladimir A.|last=Emmanuel|page=8|title=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914|date=2 April 2013|publisher=Winged Hussar |isbn=978-0-9889532-1-5}}</ref> The Guard Cossacks of His Majesty and the Ataman's Guard Cossacks, both drawn from the Don Host, wore red, and light blue, coats respectively.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vladimir A.|last=Emmanuel|pages=18–19|title=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914|date=2 April 2013|publisher=Winged Hussar |isbn=978-0-9889532-1-5}}</ref> The Combined Cossack Guard Regiment, comprising representative detachments from each of the remaining hosts, wore red, light blue, crimson, or orange coats, according to squadron.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vladimir A.|last=Emmanuel|page=17|title=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914|date=2 April 2013|publisher=Winged Hussar |isbn=978-0-9889532-1-5}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Host
!Year est.
!Cherkesska (long coat) or tunic
!Beshmet (waistcoat)
!Trousers
!Fleece Hat
!Shoulder Straps
|-
| [[Don Cossacks]] || 1570 || blue tunic || none || blue with red stripes || red crown || blue
|-
| [[Ural Cossacks]] || 1571 || blue tunic || none || blue with crimson stripes || crimson crown || crimson
|-
| [[Terek Cossacks]] || 1577 || grey-brown cherkesska || light blue || grey || light blue crown || light blue
|-
| [[Kuban Cossacks]] || 1864|| black cherkesska || red || grey || red crown || red
|-
| [[Orenburg Cossacks]] || 1744 || green tunic || none || green with light blue stripes || light blue crown || light blue
|-
| [[Astrakhan Cossacks]] || 1750 || blue tunic || none || blue with yellow stripes || yellow crown || yellow
|-
| [[Siberian Cossacks]] || 1750s || green tunic || none || green with red stripes || red crown || red
|-
| [[Baikal Cossacks|Transbaikal Cossacks]] || 1851 || green tunic || none || green with yellow stripes || yellow crown || yellow
|-
| [[Amur Cossacks]] || 1858 || green tunic || none || green with yellow stripes || yellow crown || green
|-
| [[Semiryechensk Cossacks]] || 1867 || green tunic || none || green with crimson stripes || crimson crown || crimson
|-
| [[Ussuri Cossacks]] || 1889 || green tunic || none || green with yellow stripes || yellow crown || yellow
|-
|colspan="7" style="text-align: center;" | '''Source:''' All details are based on the 1909–1914 dress uniforms portrayed in coloured plates published by the Imperial War Ministry (Shenk 1910–1911).<ref name=Shenk/>
|}

== Modern-day Cossack identity ==
Ethnic, or "born" (''prirodnye''), Cossacks are those who can trace, or claim to trace, their ancestry to people and families identified as Cossack in the Tsarist era. They tend to be Christian, practicing as [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]]s or [[Old Believers]]; though there are growing numbers of [[Slavic Native Faith|Rodnovers]], especially among Ukrainian Cossacks.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Pilkington |first1=Hilary |last2=Popov |first2=Anton |year=2009 |contribution=Understanding Neo-paganism in Russia: Religion? Ideology? Philosophy? Fantasy? |title=Subcultures and New Religious Movements in Russia and East-Central Europe |editor=George McKay|pages=275–266 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03911-921-9}}</ref>

Others may be initiated as Cossacks, particularly men in military service. Such initiates may be neither ethnic Slavs, nor Christian. Not all agree that such initiates should be considered Cossack. There is no consensus on an initiation rite or rules.

In other cases, individuals may wear Cossack uniform and pass themselves off as Cossack, perhaps because there is a large ethnic Cossack population in the area and the person wants to fit in. Others adopt Cossack clothing in an attempt to take on some of their mythic status. Ethnic Cossacks refer to the re-enactors as ''ryazhenye'' (ряженые, or "dressed up phonies").<ref>{{cite web |author=Nadezhda Kuznetsova |url=http://info.sibnet.ru/?id=294328 |script-title=ru:Казаки и "ряженые" |trans-title=Cossacks and "masqueraders" |language=ru |website=Info.sibnet.ru |date=21 September 2010 |access-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004135429/http://info.sibnet.ru/?id=294328 |archive-date=4 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Boris Almazov |url=http://borisalmazov.narod.ru/stati/kazachia_drama.htm |script-title=ru:Казачья драма |trans-title=The Cossack Drama |language=ru |website=Borisalmazov.narod.ru |date=2006 |access-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003114644/http://borisalmazov.narod.ru/stati/kazachia_drama.htm |archive-date=3 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Because of the lack of consensus on how to define Cossacks, accurate numbers are not available. According to the [[Russian Census (2010)|Russian Census of 2010]], 67,573&nbsp;people identify as ethnic Cossack in Russia.<ref name="Russtat">{{cite web |url=http://rg.ru/2011/12/16/stat.html |script-title=ru:Вот какие мы – россияне: Росстат об итогах Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года |trans-title=Here's what we are – the Russians: Russtat on the outcome of the National Population Census 2010 |language=ru |website=Rg.ru |date=22 December 2011 |access-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924151748/http://www.rg.ru/2011/12/16/stat.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 3.5 and 5&nbsp;million people associate themselves with the Cossack identity in Europe and across the world.<ref name="Cole2011"/><ref name="Tjoe2006"/>

== Organizations ==

=== Americas ===
The Cossack Congress in America unites the Cossack communities of the North American Continent. It has branches in the U.S., [[Canada]], and [[Colombia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Goal of the Cossack Congress in America {{!}} Рассеяны но не расторгнуты |url=http://www.kazaksusa.com/goals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516021321/http://www.kazaksusa.com/goals |archive-date=16 May 2021 |access-date=16 May 2021 |website=www.kazaksusa.com}}</ref>

=== Armenia ===
On April 24, 1999, the founding meeting of the International Armenian-Cossack Friendship and Cooperation Association was held in Yerevan. There is a Separate Cossack District of the Great Don Army operating in [[Armenia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Number |date=3 November 2019 |title=Армянское казачество на страже многовековой армяно-российской дружбы - интервью |trans-title=Armenian Cossacks guarding centuries-old Armenian-Russian friendship - interview |url=http://dalma.news/ru/armyanskoe-kazachestvo-na-strazhe-mnogovekovoy-armyano-rossiyskoy-druzhby-intervyu/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519020512/http://dalma.news/ru/armyanskoe-kazachestvo-na-strazhe-mnogovekovoy-armyano-rossiyskoy-druzhby-intervyu/ |archive-date=19 May 2021 |access-date=19 May 2021 |website=Dalma News |language=ru-RU}}</ref> The organization was established by the decision of the Council of Atamans on December 15, 2015. It is a partner of the [[Ministry of Defense of Armenia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Казаки на страже Карабаха: вчера и сегодня |trans-title=Cossacks guarding Karabakh: yesterday and today |url=https://www.armmuseum.ru/news-blog/kazaki-v-armenii?format=amp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519020512/https://www.armmuseum.ru/news-blog/kazaki-v-armenii?format=amp |archive-date=19 May 2021 |access-date=19 May 2021 |website=www.armmuseum.ru |language=ru-RU}}</ref>

=== Azerbaijan ===
The Association of Cossacks of Azerbaijan operates in the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]]. The association was established in 1992 and registered with the Ministry of Justice of Azerbaijan on 16 November 1994, with 1,500 members.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Землячество казаков в АР" - Посольство Российской Федерации в Азербайджанской Республике |url=https://azerbaijan.mid.ru/cossacks |access-date=18 May 2021 |website=azerbaijan.mid.ru |archive-date=18 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518211757/https://azerbaijan.mid.ru/cossacks |url-status=live }}</ref> Many Cossacks under the association join the [[Azerbaijani Armed Forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Казаки Азербайджана: Мы с нетерпением ждем отправки на фронт, чтобы присоединиться к нашим азербайджанским солдатам {{!}} Общественная жизнь |trans-title=Cossacks of Azerbaijan: We are looking forward to being sent to the front to join our Azerbaijani soldiers {{!}} Social life |url=https://moscow-baku.ru/news/society/rukovoditel_molodezhi_zemlyachestva_kazakov_azerbaydzhana_ruslan_sleptsov_my_s_neterpeniem_zhdem_otp/ |access-date=18 May 2021 |website=moscow-baku.ru |language=ru-RU |archive-date=18 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518211757/https://moscow-baku.ru/news/society/rukovoditel_molodezhi_zemlyachestva_kazakov_azerbaydzhana_ruslan_sleptsov_my_s_neterpeniem_zhdem_otp/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Belarus ===
There are 3 republican Cossack organizations in [[Belarus]]: the All-Belarusian United Cossacks, the All-Belarusian Unified Cossacks and the Belarusian Cossacks, which have existed since the mid-1990s.<ref>{{Cite web |author-last=Petrovskaya |author-first=Galina |date=17 February 2016 |title=Белорусские казаки: патриоты Беларуси c "русским миром" в голове? |trans-title=Belarusian Cossacks: Patriots of Belarus with the "Russian World" in their Heads? |url=https://p.dw.com/p/1HvO1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206071154/https://www.dw.com/ru/%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8-%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B-%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8-c-%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC-%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC-%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5/a-19048509 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |access-date=16 May 2021 |website=DW.COM |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |language=ru-RU}}</ref>

=== Russia ===

==== Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation ====
{{Main|Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation}}

The Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation are the Cossack paramilitary formation providing public and other services, under the Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated December 5, 2005, No. 154-FZ "On State Service of the Russian Cossacks".<ref>{{cite web |date=8 December 2005 |script-title=ru:Федеральный закон Российской Федерации от 5&nbsp;декабря 2005 г. N 154-ФЗ – О государственной службе российского казачества |trans-title=Federal Law of the Russian Federation from 5&nbsp;December 2005 No 154-FZ – On the State Service of Russian Cossacks |url=http://www.rg.ru/2005/12/08/kazachestvo.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020101853/https://rg.ru/2005/12/08/kazachestvo.html |archive-date=20 October 2017 |access-date=21 August 2017 |website=rg.ru |language=ru}}</ref>

==== All-Russian Cossack Society ====
The [[All-Russian Cossack Society]] ({{Langx|ru|Всероссийское казачье общество}}) is responsible for the coordination of the activities of all 11 registered Cossack hosts, particularly in the spheres of patriotic education and the continuity of historical Cossack customs and traditions. Both registered and non-registered Cossack organizations can be part of the society. On 4 November 2019, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] appointed Kuban Vice Governor and Kuban Cossack Host Ataman [[Nikolai Doluda]] as Ataman of the All-Russia Cossack Society.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 January 2020 |title=Поправки в Конституцию напишут Прилепин, Шахназаров и казачий атаман |website=Радио Свобода |url=https://www.svoboda.org/a/30379581.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728222210/https://www.svoboda.org/a/30379581.html |archive-date=28 July 2020}}</ref> Cossack General Doluda was appointed two years after the atamans and the Cossacks created it in October 2017. The idea was first proposed in 1994. On 27 November 2018, delegates of the Constitutive Assembly voted for the establishment of the society and adopted its official statute. Doluda was then nominated for head of the society, in which he was backed by the Presidential Council on Cossack Affairs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nikolai Doluda: "New opportunities open up for Cossack youth movement" |url=https://yugtimes.com/news/52861/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707063358/https://yugtimes.com/news/52861/ |archive-date=2020-07-07 |access-date=2020-07-07}}</ref>

=== Ukraine ===
The following organizations operate in [[Ukraine]]:
{{Col div}}
* Great Council of Atamans of Ukraine<ref>{{cite web|url=http://intercossacks.org.ua/radaotamaniv.html |title=Atamans of Ukraine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225103552/http://intercossacks.org.ua/radaotamaniv.html |archive-date=25 February 2016 }}</ref>
* United Council of Ukrainian and Foreign Cossacks
* Cossack Guard of Ukraine
* [[The Ukrainian Registered Cossacks|Ukrainian Registered Cossacks]]
* International Union of Cossacks
* Registered Ukrainian People's Cossacks
* All-Ukrainian Cossack Army
* Union of Cossack Formations{{Col div end}}

== Notable people ==
* [[Nikolai Gogol]] - Russian novelist, short story writer, and playwright 
* [[Yury Trifonov]] - Russian writer
* [[Sergei Korolev]] - the lead Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer 
* [[Vladimir Borovikovsky]] - Russian artist
* [[Dmitry Bortniansky]] - Russian Imperial composer
* [[Nikolay Shcherbina]] - Russian poet
* [[Leonid Zhabotinsky]] - Ukrainian weightlifter 
* [[Yuri Andropov]] - Soviet politician who was the sixth leader of the Soviet Union
* [[Sergey Shakhray]] - Russian politician
* [[Vasily Safonov]] - Russian pianist, teacher, conductor and composer
* [[Nikolay Samokish]] -  Ukrainian and Soviet painter and illustrator
* [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]] - Russian poet, playwright, artist, and actor
* [[George Kistiakowsky]] - Ukrainian-American physical chemistry professor at Harvard who participated in the [[Manhattan Project]] and later served as [[President Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s [[Science Advisor to the President|Science Advisor]]
* [[Aleksandr Khanzhonkov]] - pioneering Russian cinema entrepreneur, film director and screenwriter
* [[Vladimir Vernadsky]] - Ukrainian and Soviet mineralogist and geochemist 
* [[Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay]] - Russian explorer
* [[Mykola Markevych]] - Ukrainian historian, ethnographer, musician and poet
* [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] - Russian composer  
* [[Fyodor Pirotsky]] - Russian engineer, inventor of the world's first railway electrification system and electric tram
* [[Natalia Alexandrovna Pushkina]] - [[Count of Merenberg]]
* [[Petro Prokopovych]] - Ukrainian beekeeper who made revolutionary contributions to the practice 
* [[Semyon Kataev]] - Soviet scientist and inventor in the field of television and radio electronics
* [[Andrei Krasnov]] - Russian botanist
* [[Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny]] - political and civic leader
* [[Vasily Karazin]] - Russian enlightenment figure, intellectual, inventor, scientific publisher
* [[Zinaida Yermolyeva]] - Soviet microbiologist of Don Cossack origin most notable for producing penicillin for the Soviet military
* [[Alexander Zasyadko (general)]] - Russian general
* [[Sergei Winogradsky]] - Ukrainian and Russian microbiologist, ecologist and soil scientist who pioneered the cycle-of-life concept
* [[:ru:Болдырев, Иван Васильевич|Boldyrev, Ivan Vasilyevich]] - photographer and inventor

== Noble families ==
{{Main|List of Don Cossacks noble families|}}
* [[Skoropadsky family]]
* [[Lyzohub family]]
* [[Shivtzov family (Orenburg)]]
* [[Doroshenko family]]
* [[Orlov-Denisov family]]
* [[Ilovaiski family]]
* [[Paskevich]]
* [[Poltoratsky family]]
* [[Razumovsky]]
* [[Kobyzewicz family]]
* [[Tereshchenko family]]

== Flags and emblems ==
<gallery>
File:Flag of Don Cossacks.svg|Flag of the Don Cossacks
File:Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg|Flag of the Kuban Cossacks
File:Флаг Семиреченского казачьего войска.png|Flag of the Semirechye Cossacks
File:Flag of Terek Cossacks.svg|Flag of the Terek Cossacks
File:Schidna Slobidczyna.svg|Flag of Russian Sloboda-Ukrainian Cossacks
File:Flag of the Orenburg Cossacks.svg|Flag of the Orenburg Cossacks
File:Cossackia flag.svg|Unofficial flag of the cossack ethnos and [[Cossackia]]
File:Free Cossacks RVC flag.svg|Flag of the [[Russian Volunteer Corps#Organization|Free Cossack Detachment]] of the [[Russian Volunteer Corps]]
File:Флаг реестрового казачества России.png|Flag of the [[Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation|Registered Cossacks of The Russian Federation]]
File:Don Cossacks National Guard Banner.jpg|Flag of the {{ill|Cossack National Guard|ru|Казачья национальная гвардия Всевеликого войска Донского}}
File:Flag of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.png|Flag of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast
File:Flag of Zaporizhia Oblast.svg|Flag of Zaporizhzhia Oblast
File:Russo-Chinese Flag (1899).png|Flag of the Cossack Guard<ref>{{Cite web |title=Salt Lake Herald {{!}} 1899-10-22 {{!}} Page 19 {{!}} First Russo Chinese Flag |url=https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/details?id=11176624&q=Flag+banner+blue+&rows=200&sort=rel |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=newspapers.lib.utah.edu |language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
<gallery>
File:Emblem of the All-Russian Cossack Society.svg|Emblem of the [[Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation]]
File:Всевеликое войско Донское (шеврон).png|Emblem of registered Don cossacks
File:Кубанское казачье войско (шеврон).png|Emblem of registered Kuban cossacks
File:Kuban patch.jpg|Modern Kuban Cossack armed forces patch of the Russian military
File:Терское казачье войско (шеврон).png|Emblem of registered Terek cossacks
File:Волжское казачье войско (шеврон).png|Emblem of registered Volga cossacks
File:Оренбургское казачье войско (шеврон).png|Emblem of the registered Orenburg Cossacks
File:Herb Viyska Zaporozkoho.svg|Coat of arms of the Zaporozhian Host
</gallery>

== Propaganda and stereotypes ==
The propaganda machine of [[Napoleon]], a French military and political leader, spread the myth of ''English Cossacks''. French propaganda portrayed the inhabitants of the [[Scottish Highlands]] as barbarian with non-human bodily functions, who allegedly felt great joy when destroying civilian housing, farmland, and even entire human settlements. This stereotype of [[Scottish people]] was later mingled with observations on Russian soldiers fighting on the European continent. In Europe ''Cossack'' is a titulation for a [[thief]], while Russians have been stereotyped by French authors as [[Exoticism|exotic]].<ref>{{cite book | author1= Christine Haynes |title=Our Friends the Enemies: The Occupation of France After Napoleon |publisher= Harvard University Press |year=2018 |page=172 |isbn=978-0-674-97231-5 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Albazinians]]
* [[Betrayal of the Cossacks]]
* [[Combat Hopak]]
* [[Cossacks cuisine]]
* [[Cossack election]]
* [[Cossack explorers]]
* [[Cossack host]]
* [[Crimean Khanate]]
* [[Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks]]
* [[History of the Cossacks]]
* [[Hopak]]
* [[Jewish Cossacks]]
* [[Kosiński Uprising]]
* [[Persian Cossack Brigade]]
* [[Prisiadki]] - a type of dance associated with Cossacks
* [[Registered Cossacks]]
* [[Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation]]
* [[Nağaybäk|Tatar Cossacks]]
* [[Tatar invasions]]
* [[Wild Fields]]{{Div col end}}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist|1}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em |refs=
<ref name=Avrich_1976>{{cite book |last1=Avrich |first1=Paul |title=Russian Rebels, 1600–1800 |year=1976 |orig-date=1972 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-00836-4 |title-link=Russian Rebels, 1600–1800}}</ref>
<ref name=Mueggenberg_2019>{{cite book |last1=Mueggenberg |first1=Brent |title=The Cossack Struggle Against Communism, 1917-1945 |year=2019 |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |location=Jefferson |isbn=978-1-4766-7948-8}}</ref>
<ref name=ORourke_2008>{{cite book |last1=O'Rourke |first1=Shane |title=The Cossacks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GuhoAAAAMAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-7680-0 |access-date=2015-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509173353/https://books.google.com/books?id=GuhoAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=2016-05-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name=estraikh>{{cite book |chapter=Jews as Cossacks: A Symbiosis in Literature and Life |last1=Estraikh |first1=Gennady |title=Soviet Jews in World War II: Fighting, Witnessing, Remembering |date=2014 |publisher=Academic Studies Press |location=Brighton |isbn=978-1-61811-686-4 |pages=85–103 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781618116864-006/html |doi=10.1515/9781618116864-006 |s2cid=213731533 |access-date=2021-10-14 |archive-date=2021-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028170815/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781618116864-006/html |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |first1=H. |last1=Havelock |title=The Cossacks in the Early Seventeenth Century |journal=English Historical Review |volume=13 |issue=50 |date=April 1898 |pages=242–260 |jstor=547225 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Longworth |first1=Philip |title=The Cossacks |year=1969 |publisher=Constable |location=London }}
* {{cite book |last1=Seaton |first1=Albert |title=The Horsemen of the Steppes: The Story of the Cossacks |year=1985 |publisher=The Bodley Head |location=London |isbn=978-0-370-30534-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Summerfield |first1=Stephen |title=Cossack Hurrah: Russian Irregular Cavalry Organisation and Uniforms during the Napoleonic Wars |year=2005 |publisher=Partizan Press |isbn=978-1-85818-513-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Summerfield |first1=Stephen |title=The Brazen Cross: Brazen Cross of Courage: Russian Opochenie, Partizans and Russo-German Legion during the Napoleonic Wars |year=2007 |publisher=Partizan Press |isbn=978-1-85818-555-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ure |first1=John |author-link=John Ure (diplomat) |title=The Cossacks |year=1999 |publisher=Constable |location=London |isbn=978-0-094-77400-1 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Witzenrath|first1=Christoph|title=Cossacks and the Russian Empire, 1598–1725: Manipulation, Rebellion and Expansion into Siberia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6x8AgAAQBAJ|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-11749-9}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.hailerpublishing.com/cossack.html |archive-date=2009-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415061251/http://www.hailerpublishing.com/cossack.html |trans-title=The Cossack Corps |title=General der Flieger Hellmuth Felmy |department=US Army Historical Division |publisher=Hailer Publishing |year=2007}}
* {{cite book|first=Yuri |last=Kondufor|title=A Short History of the Ukraine|location=[[Kyiv]]|publisher=Naukova Dumka|year=1986}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Cossacks}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|Cossacks}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Cossacks |volume=7  |last= Kropotkin |first= Peter Alexeivitch |author-link= Peter Kropotkin| page = 218 |short=1}}
* {{cite web |url=http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/cossacks.htm |title=Cossacks during the Napoleonic Wars}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages/Z/A/ZaporizhiaThe.htm |title=Zaporizhian Cossacks}} {{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofukraine.com/ |title=Encyclopedia of Ukraine}}
* {{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/C/O/Cossacks.htm |title=History of Ukrainian Cossacks}} {{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofukraine.com/ |title=Encyclopedia of Ukraine}}
* {{cite AV media |url=http://library2.usask.ca/USSRConst/gallery/cossacks |title=Soviet Cossacks |medium=photography |access-date=2010-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113001501/http://library2.usask.ca/USSRConst/gallery/cossacks |archive-date=2011-11-13 }} – an issue of the propaganda journal ''[[USSR in Construction]]'' which presents numerous images of Cossack life in Soviet Russia.
* {{cite web |url=http://kazak_nation.livejournal.com/ |title=Cossack Nation Live journal}}
* {{cite web |url=http://kazaknation.com/ |title=Cossack Nation – The Social Network of Ethnic Cossacks}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.kazaksusa.com/ |title=The Congress of Cossacks in America}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html |title=Pirate, Rebel, Freedom Fighter, Champion of the Poor |access-date=2015-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805222255/http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html |archive-date=2007-08-05 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cossackdom.com/ |series=Open Public Library |title=History of the Cossacks 15–21st&nbsp;centuries |quote=Documents, maps, illustrations}}
* {{cite web |first1=Siobhan |last1=Peeling |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/cossacks/ |title=Cossacks}} {{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ |title=International Encyclopedia of the First World War |website=1914–1918 online |access-date=2019-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230080030/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html |archive-date=2019-12-30 }}

{{Social class}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cossacks| ]]
[[Category:Slavic titles]]
[[Category:Slavic warriors]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Eastern Europe]]
[[Category:Russian sub-ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Ukrainian people]]
[[Category:Social history of Russia]]
[[Category:Society of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:East Slavs]]