View source for Counterterrorism

{{Short description|Activity to defend against or prevent terrorist actions}}
{{redirect|Combating Terrorism|the national security directive|PDD-62}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Counterterrorism}}
[[File:PI2G 2F.jpg|thumb|[[GIGN]] operators in 2015. GIGN is the counterterrorist [[Police tactical unit|tactical unit]] of the [[National Gendarmerie]] of France.]]
'''Counterterrorism''' (alternatively spelled: '''counter-terrorism'''), also known as '''anti-terrorism''', relates to the practices, [[military tactics]], techniques, and strategies that governments, [[law enforcement]], businesses, and [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]] use to combat or eliminate [[terrorism]] and [[violent extremism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stigall|first1=Dan E.|last2=Miller|first2=Chris|last3=Donnatucci|first3=Lauren|title=The 2018 National Strategy for Counterterrorism: A Synoptic Overview |journal=American University National Security Law Brief |date=October 7, 2019 |ssrn=3466967 }}</ref>

If an act of terrorism occurs as part of a broader [[insurgency]] (and insurgency is included in the [[definition of terrorism]]) then counterterrorism may additionally employ [[counterinsurgency]] measures. The [[United States Armed Forces]] uses the term "[[foreign internal defense]]" for programs that support other countries' attempts to suppress insurgency, [[lawlessness]], or [[subversion]], or to reduce the conditions under which threats to [[national security]] may develop.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 February 2020 |title=Introduction to Foreign Internal Defense |url=https://www.doctrine.af.mil/Portals/61/documents/AFDP_3-22/3-22-D01-FID-Introduction.pdf |website=U.S. Air Force Doctrine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Introduction to Foreign Internal Defense|url=https://doctrine.af.mil/download.jsp?filename=3-22-D01-FID-Introduction.pdf|journal=Curtis E. Lemay Center for Doctrine Development and Education|access-date=July 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124234528/https://www.doctrine.af.mil/download.jsp?filename=3-22-D01-FID-Introduction.pdf|archive-date=January 24, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sofrep.com/specialoperations/differences-fid-coin-relate-sof/|title=Differences Between Foreign Internal Defense (FID) and Counter Insurgency (COIN)|website=SOFREP}}</ref>

== History ==
The first counterterrorism body to be formed was the Special Irish Branch of the [[Metropolitan Police]], later renamed the [[Special Branch (Metropolitan Police)|Special Branch]] after it expanded its scope beyond its original focus on [[Fenian]] terrorism. Various [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement agencies]] established similar units in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fqAZzIDlgYC|title=Dictionary of Policing|author=Tim Newburn, Peter Neyroud|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=262|isbn=9781134011551}}</ref>

The [[International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists]] has been identified as the first international conference against terrorism.<ref name="t136">{{cite book | title=The Battle against Anarchist Terrorism | chapter=The first international conference on terrorism: Rome 1898 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2013-12-05 | isbn=978-1-139-52412-4 | doi=10.1017/cbo9781139524124.008 | pages=131–184}}</ref>

The first tactical counterterrorism unit was [[GSG 9]] of the [[West German]] Federal Border Protection (''[[Bundesgrenzschutz]]''), which was later renamed the [[Federal Police (Germany)|Federal Police]] (''Bundespolizei'') in 2005. GSG 9 was formed shortly after and in response to the Olympic [[Munich massacre]] of 1972.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 September 1972 |title=Conception for the Establishment and Employment of a Border-Guard for Special Police Action (GSG9) |url=http://www.sapstf.org/pdf/1972%20GSG9%20Formation%20Document.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sapstf.org/pdf/1972%20GSG9%20Formation%20Document.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=9 September 2017}}</ref>

Counterterrorist forces expanded with the perceived growing threat of terrorism in the late 20th century. After the [[September 11 attacks]], Western governments made counterterrorism efforts a priority. This included more extensive collaboration with foreign governments, shifting tactics involving [[red team]]s,<ref>{{cite journal
 | last1 = Shaffer
 | first1 = Ryan
 | title = Counter-Terrorism Intelligence, Policy and Theory Since 9/11
 | date = 2015
 | pages =368–375
 | volume = 27
 | issue = 2
 | doi=10.1080/09546553.2015.1006097
 | journal=Terrorism and Political Violence
 | s2cid = 145270348
 }}</ref> and preventive measures.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://icct.nl/publication/preventive-counter-terrorism-measures-and-non-discrimination-in-the-european-union-the-need-for-systematic-evaluation/ | title=Preventive Counter-Terrorism Measures and Non-Discrimination in the European Union: The Need for Systematic Evaluation | date=2 July 2011 | publisher=The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT) | access-date=6 September 2016 | archive-date=October 18, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018080400/https://icct.nl/publication/preventive-counter-terrorism-measures-and-non-discrimination-in-the-european-union-the-need-for-systematic-evaluation/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Although terrorist attacks affecting Western countries generally receive a disproportionately large share of media attention,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/which-countries-terrorist-attacks-are-ignored-by-the-u-s-media/|title=Which Countries' Terrorist Attacks Are Ignored By The U.S. Media?|date=2016|website=FiveThirtyEight}}</ref> most terrorism occurs in less developed countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/fourth-quarter-2017/impact-terrorism-developing-countries|title=Trade and Terror: The Impact of Terrorism on Developing Countries|date=2017|website=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref> Government responses to terrorism, in some cases, tend to lead to substantial unintended consequences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sexton|first1=Renard|last2=Wellhausen|first2=Rachel L.|last3=Findley|first3=Michael G.|title=How Government Reactions to Violence Worsen Social Welfare: Evidence from Peru|journal=American Journal of Political Science|language=en|issue=2|pages=353–367|doi=10.1111/ajps.12415|issn=1540-5907|year=2019|volume=63|s2cid=159341592}}</ref>{{Vague|date=August 2023|reason = What kind of  "unintended consequences"?}} such as what occurred in the above-mentioned Munich massacre.{{Explain|date=August 2023}}

== Planning ==
=== Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance ===
{{See also|Intelligence cycle management|Intelligence analysis|HUMINT|Counterintelligence}}
[[File:Magav-Facebook--Yamam-0009.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Yamam]], one of Israel's counterterrorism units]]

Most counterterrorism strategies involve an increase in policing and domestic [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] gathering. Central techniques include [[Wiretapping|intercepting communications]] and [[Tracking system|location tracking]]. New technology has expanded the range of [[Manhunt (military)|military]] and [[manhunt (law enforcement)|law enforcement]] options for intelligence gathering. Many countries increasingly employ [[facial recognition system]]s in policing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lin |first=Patrick K. |date=2021 |title=How to Save Face & the Fourth Amendment: Developing an Algorithmic Auditing and Accountability Industry for Facial Recognition Technology in Law Enforcement |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4095525 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.4095525 |s2cid=248582120 |issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Garvie |first=Clare |title=Face Recognition and the Right to Stay Anonymous |date=2022-05-26 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108775038.014 |work=The Cambridge Handbook of Information Technology, Life Sciences and Human Rights |pages=139–152 |access-date=2023-08-16 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108775038.014 |isbn=9781108775038 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-18 |title=Why facial recognition use is growing amid the Covid-19 pandemic |url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/policy/article/3108742/what-facial-recognition-and-why-more-relevant-ever-during-covid-19 |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref>

Domestic intelligence gathering is sometimes directed to specific [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] or religious groups, which are the sources of political controversy. [[Mass surveillance]] of an entire population raises objections on [[civil liberties]] grounds. [[Domestic terrorism|Domestic terrorists]], especially [[Lone wolf attack|lone wolves]], are often harder to detect because of their citizenship or legal status and ability to stay under the radar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/challenges-effective-counterterrorism-intelligence-2020s|title=The Challenges of Effective Counterterrorism Intelligence in the 2020s|work=Lawfare |date=June 21, 2020 |last1=Hoffman |first1=Bruce |last2=Ware |first2=Jacob }}</ref>

To select the effective action when terrorism appears to be more of an isolated event, the appropriate government organizations need to understand the source, motivation, methods of preparation, and tactics of terrorist groups. Good intelligence is at the heart of such preparation, as well as a political and social understanding of any grievances that might be solved. Ideally, one gets information from inside the group, a very difficult challenge for [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|human intelligence]] operations because [[Clandestine cell system|operational terrorist cells]] are often small, with all members known to one another, perhaps even related.<ref name="Feiler2007">{{cite journal
 | url = http://www.biu.ac.il/Besa/MSPS74.pdf
 | title = The Globalization of Terror Funding
 | author = Feiler, Gil
 | date = September 2007
 | publisher = Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University
 | page = 29
 | id = Mideast Security and Policy Studies No. 74
 | access-date = November 14, 2007
 }}</ref>

[[Counterintelligence]] is a great challenge with the security of cell-based systems, since the ideal, but the nearly impossible, goal is to obtain a [[Clandestine human intelligence|clandestine source]] within the cell. Financial tracking can play a role, as a [[Signals intelligence|communications intercept]]. However, both of these approaches need to be balanced against legitimate expectations of privacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/module-12/key-issues/surveillance-and-interception.html|title = Counter-Terrorism Module 12 Key Issues: Surveillance & Interception}}</ref>

=== Legal contexts ===
{{Main|Anti-terrorism legislation}}

In response to the growing legislation.

; {{UK}}
* The United Kingdom has had counterterrorism legislation in place for more than thirty years. The Prevention of Violence Act 1938 was brought in response to an [[Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) campaign of violence under the [[S-Plan]]. This act had been allowed to expire in 1953. It was repealed in 1973 to be replaced by the [[Prevention of Terrorism Acts]], a response to [[the Troubles]] in Northern Ireland. From 1974 to 1989, the temporary provisions of the act were renewed annually. Their original counterterrorism legislation was used to predict future IRA attacks and respond accordingly based on their predictions. For example, if British Security Forces attacked, they predicted the IRA would target civilian areas as a response.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gill |first1=Paul |last2=Piazza |first2=James A. |last3=Horgan |first3=John |title=Counterterrorism Killings and Provisional IRA Bombings, 1970–1998 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |date=26 May 2016 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=473–496 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2016.1155932|s2cid=147673041 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1477465/ }}</ref>
* In 2000 the Acts were replaced with the more permanent [[Terrorism Act 2000]], which contained many of their powers, and then the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]].
* The [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001]] was formally introduced into the Parliament on November 19, 2001, two months after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] in the United States. It received royal assent and went into force on December 13, 2001. On December 16, 2004, the Law Lords ruled that Part 4 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. However, under the terms of the [[Human Rights Act 1998]], it remained in force. The [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]] was drafted to answer the Law Lords ruling and the [[Terrorism Act 2006]] creates new offenses related to terrorism, and amends existing ones. The act was drafted in the aftermath of the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]] and, like its predecessors, some of its terms have proven to be highly controversial.

Since 1978 the UK's terrorism laws have been regularly reviewed by a security-cleared [[Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation]], whose often influential reports are submitted to Parliament and published in full.

;{{US}}
* U.S. legal issues surrounding this issue include rulings on the domestic employment of [[deadly force]] by law enforcement agencies.
* Search and seizure is governed by the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].
* The U.S. passed the [[Patriot Act]] after the September 11 attacks, as well as a range of other legislation and [[executive orders]] relating to national security.
* The [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] was established to consolidate domestic security agencies to coordinate counterterrorism and national response to major natural disasters and accidents.
* The [[United States Coast Guard]]'s mission, only military branch with law enforcement jurisdiction to board and seize ''"The direct or indirect supply, sale, or transfer of weapons to terrorist organizations violates U.N. Security Resolution 2216 (as extended and renewed by resolutions 2675 and 2707) and international law."''<ref>{{Cite web |title=USCENTCOM Seizes Iranian Advanced Conventional Weapons Bound for Houthis |url=https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3645241/uscentcom-seizes-iranian-advanced-conventional-weapons-bound-for-houthis/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.centcom.mil%2FMEDIA%2FPRESS-RELEASES%2FPress-Release-View%2FArticle%2F3645241%2Fuscentcom-seizes-iranian-advanced-conventional-weapons-bound-for-houthis%2F |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=U.S. Central Command |language=en-US}}</ref>
* The [[Posse Comitatus Act]] limits domestic employment of the [[United States Army]] and the [[United States Air Force]], requiring Presidential approval before deploying the Army or the Air Force. [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] policy also applies this limitation to the [[United States Marine Corps]] and the [[United States Navy]], because the Posse Comitatus Act does not cover naval services, even though they are federal military forces. The Department of Defense can be employed domestically on Presidential order, as was done during the [[Los Angeles riots of 1992]], [[Hurricane Katrina]], and the [[Beltway Sniper]] incidents.
* External or international use of lethal force would require a [[Presidential finding]].
* In February 2017, sources claimed that the Trump administration intends to rename and revamp the U.S. government program [[Countering Violent Extremism Task Force|Countering Violent Extremism]] (CVE) to focus solely on Islamist extremism.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-extremists-program-exclusiv-idUSKBN15G5VO Exclusive: Trump to focus counter-extremism program solely on Islam – sources], Reuters 2017-02-02</ref>

;
; {{AUS}}
* Australia has passed several counterterrorism acts. In 2004, a bill comprising three acts [[Australian anti-terrorism legislation, 2004|Anti-terrorism Act, 2004, (No 2) and (No 3)]] was passed. Then Attorney-General, [[Philip Ruddock]], introduced the ''Anti-terrorism bill, 2004'' on March 31. He described it as "a bill to strengthen Australia's counter-terrorism laws in a number of respects&nbsp;– a task made more urgent following the recent tragic [[2004 Madrid train bombings|terrorist bombings]] in Spain." He said that Australia's counterterrorism laws "require review and, where necessary, updating if we are to have a legal framework capable of safeguarding all Australians from the scourge of terrorism." The [[Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005]] supplemented the powers of the earlier acts. The Australian legislation allows police to detain suspects for up to two weeks without charge and to electronically track suspects for up to a year. The [[Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005#The "Shoot to Kill" Clause|Australian Anti-Terrorism Act of 2005]] included a "shoot-to-kill" clause. In a country with entrenched [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] traditions, the measures are controversial and have been criticized by [[civil libertarian]]s and [[Islam]]ic groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/archive/TerrorismLaws|title = Proposals to further strengthen Australia s counter-terrorism laws 2005}}</ref>

;
; {{ISR}}
* Israel monitors a list of designated [[terrorist organization]]s and has laws forbidding membership in such organizations and funding or helping them.
* On December 14, 2006, the [[Israeli Supreme Court]] ruled [[Israeli targeted killings|targeted killings]] were a permitted form of self-defense.<ref>[http://elyon1.court.gov.il/Files_ENG/02/690/007/a34/02007690.a34.htm Summary of Israeli Supreme Court Ruling on Targeted Killings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130223012451/http://elyon1.court.gov.il/Files_ENG/02/690/007/a34/02007690.a34.htm |date=February 23, 2013 }} December 14, 2006</ref>
* In 2016 the Israeli [[Knesset]] passed a comprehensive law against terrorism, forbidding any kind of terrorism and support of terrorism, and setting severe punishments for terrorists. The law also regulates legal efforts against terrorism.<ref name="Israel-ani-terror-law">{{cite news|title=Terror bill passes into law|url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Terror-bill-passes-into-law-456857|access-date=June 16, 2016|work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=June 16, 2016}}</ref>

=== Human rights ===
[[File:John Walker Lindh Custody.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Walker Lindh]] was captured as an enemy combatant during the United States' [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|2001 invasion of Afghanistan]].]]

One of the primary difficulties of implementing effective counterterrorist measures is the waning of civil liberties and individual privacy that such measures often entail, both for citizens of, and for those detained by states attempting to combat terror.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://icct.nl/publication/accountability-and-transparency-in-the-united-states-counter-terrorism-strategy/ | title=Accountability and Transparency in the United States' Counter-Terrorism Strategy | date=22 January 2015 | publisher=The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT) | access-date=6 September 2016 | archive-date=October 18, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018080620/https://icct.nl/publication/accountability-and-transparency-in-the-united-states-counter-terrorism-strategy/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> At times, measures designed to tighten security have been seen as [[abuses of power]] or even violations of human rights.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/fighting-terrorism-withou_b_9513034|title=Fighting Terrorism Without Violating Human Rights|date=March 21, 2016|website=HuffPost}}</ref>

Examples of these problems can include prolonged, incommunicado detention without judicial review or long periods of 'preventive detention';<ref>de Londras, Detention in the War on Terrorism: Can Human Rights Fight Back? (2011)</ref> risk of subjecting to torture during the transfer, return and extradition of people between or within countries; and the adoption of security measures that restrain the rights or freedoms of citizens and breach principles of non-discrimination.<ref name="Human Rights News 2004" /> Examples include:

* In November 2003, [[Malaysia]] passed new counterterrorism laws, widely criticized by local human rights groups for being vague and overbroad. Critics claim that the laws put the fundamental rights of free expression, association, and assembly at risk. Malaysia persisted in holding around 100 alleged militants without trial, including five Malaysian students detained for alleged terrorist activity while studying in Karachi, Pakistan.<ref name="Human Rights News 2004" />
* In November 2003, a Canadian-Syrian national, Maher Arar, publicly alleged that he had been tortured in a Syrian prison after being handed over to the Syrian authorities by the U.S.<ref name="Human Rights News 2004" />
* In December 2003, Colombia's congress approved legislation that would give the military the power to arrest, tap telephones, and carry out searches without warrants or any previous judicial order.<ref name="Human Rights News 2004" />
* Images of torture and ill-treatment of detainees in U.S. custody in Iraq and other locations have encouraged international scrutiny of U.S. operations in the war on terror.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" />
* Hundreds of foreign nationals remain in prolonged indefinite detention without charge or trial in Guantánamo Bay, despite international and U.S. constitutional standards some groups believe outlaw such practices.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" />
* Hundreds of people suspected of connections with the [[Taliban]] or [[Al-Qaeda]] remain in long-term detention in Pakistan or in U.S.-controlled centers in Afghanistan without trial.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" />
* China has used the "war on terror" to justify its policies in the predominantly Muslim [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] to stifle Uyghur identity.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" />
* In Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Yemen, and other countries, scores of people have been arrested and arbitrarily detained in connection with suspected terrorist acts or links to opposition armed groups.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" />
* Until 2005, eleven men remained in high security detention in the UK under the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" />
* United Nations experts condemned the misuse of counterterrorism powers by the Egyptian authorities following the arrest, detention, and designation of human rights activists Ramy Shaath and Zyad El-Elaimy as terrorists. The two activists were arrested in June 2019, and the first-ever renewal of remand detention for Shaath came for the 21st time in 19 months on 24 January 2021. Experts called it alarming, and demanded the urgent implementation of the Working Group's opinion and removal of the two's names from the "terrorism entities' list.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26739&LangID=E|title=UN experts call for removal of rights defenders Ramy Shaath and Zyad El-Elaimy from 'terrorism entities' list|access-date=11 February 2021|website=OHCHR}}</ref>

Many argue that such violations of rights could exacerbate rather than counter the terrorist threat.<ref name="Human Rights News 2004" /> Human rights activists argue for the crucial role of human rights protection as an intrinsic part to fight against terrorism.<ref name="Amnesty International 2005" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://icct.nl/publication/preventive-counter-terrorism-measures-and-non-discrimination-in-the-european-union-the-need-for-systematic-evaluation/ |title=Preventive Counter-Terrorism Measures and Non-Discrimination in the European Union: The Need for Systematic Evaluation |date=2 July 2011 |publisher=The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism-The Hague (ICCT) |access-date=6 September 2016 |archive-date=October 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018080400/https://icct.nl/publication/preventive-counter-terrorism-measures-and-non-discrimination-in-the-european-union-the-need-for-systematic-evaluation/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> This suggests, as proponents of [[human security]] have long argued, that respecting human rights may indeed help us to incur security. [[Amnesty International]] included a section on confronting terrorism in the recommendations in the Madrid Agenda arising from the Madrid Summit on Democracy and Terrorism (Madrid March 8–11, 2005):

{{Blockquote|Democratic principles and values are essential tools in the fight against terrorism. Any successful strategy for dealing with terrorism requires terrorists to be isolated. Consequently, the preference must be to treat terrorism as criminal acts to be handled through existing systems of law enforcement and with full respect for human rights and the rule of law. We recommend: (1) taking effective measures to make impunity impossible either for acts of terrorism or for the abuse of human rights in counter-terrorism measures. (2) the incorporation of human rights laws in all anti-terrorism programs and policies of national governments as well as international bodies."<ref name="Amnesty International 2005">Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU. [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior61/013/2005/en/ online]</ref>}}

While international efforts to combat terrorism have focused on the need to enhance cooperation between states, proponents of human rights (as well as [[human security]]) have suggested that more effort needs to be given to the effective inclusion of human rights protection as a crucial element in that cooperation. They argue that international human rights obligations do not stop at borders, and a failure to respect human rights in one state may undermine its effectiveness in the global effort to cooperate to combat terrorism.<ref name="Human Rights News 2004">Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref>

=== Preemptive neutralization ===
Some countries see preemptive attacks as a legitimate strategy. This includes capturing, killing, or disabling suspected terrorists before they can mount an attack. Israel, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Russia have taken this approach, while Western European states generally do not.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Another major method of preemptive neutralization is the [[interrogation]] of known or suspected terrorists to obtain information about specific plots, targets, the identity of other terrorists, whether or not the interrogation subjects himself is guilty of terrorist involvement. Sometimes more extreme methods are used to increase [[suggestibility]], such as [[sleep deprivation]] or drugs.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} Such methods may lead captives to offer false information in an attempt to stop the treatment, or due to the confusion caused by it.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} In 1978 the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled in the [[Ireland v. United Kingdom (1978)|Ireland v. United Kingdom]] case that [[five techniques|such methods]] amounted to a practice of [[inhuman or degrading treatment|inhuman and degrading treatment]], and that such practices were in breach of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] Article 3 (art. 3).{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

==== Non-military ====
[[File:Transparent garbage bins at Central station.jpg|thumb|upright|Transparent [[Waste container|garbage bin]] installed at [[Central railway station, Sydney|Central Station]] in [[Sydney]], Australia. The bin's transparency allows police to easily examine its contents, discouraging the placement of bombs or weaponry inside.]]

The [[human security]] paradigm outlines a non-military approach that aims to address the enduring underlying inequalities which fuel terrorist activity. Causal factors need to be delineated and measures implemented which allow equal access to resources and [[sustainability]] for all people. Such activities empower citizens, providing "freedom from fear" and "freedom from want".{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

This can take many forms, including the provision of clean drinking water, education, vaccination programs, provision of food and shelter and protection from violence, military or otherwise. Successful human security campaigns have been characterized by the participation of a diverse group of actors, including governments, [[NGOs]], and citizens.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

[[Foreign internal defense]] programs provide outside expert assistance to a threatened government. FID can involve both non-military and military aspects of counterterrorism.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

A 2017 study found that "governance and civil society aid is effective in dampening domestic terrorism, but this effect is only present if the recipient country is not experiencing a civil conflict."<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Foreign Aid as a Counterterrorism Tool – Burcu Savun, Daniel C. Tirone|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |volume=62 |issue=8 |pages=1607–1635 |language=en |doi=10.1177/0022002717704952 |year=2018 |last1=Savun |first1=Burcu |last2=Tirone |first2=Daniel C. |s2cid=158017999}}</ref>
{{further|Violent extremism#Prevention of radicalization and deradicalization}}

==== Military ====
[[File:3RAR Afghanistan patrol Aug 08.jpg|thumb|[[Australian Army]] soldiers under the [[International Security Assistance Force]] interacting with a civilian in [[Tarinkot]], [[Afghanistan]] in 2008 during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]], part of the [[war on terror]]]]
Terrorism has often been used to justify [[military intervention]] in countries where terrorists are said to be based. Similar justifications were used for the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[Second Chechen War|second Russian invasion of Chechnya]].

Military intervention has not always been successful in stopping or preventing future terrorism, such as during the [[Malayan Emergency]], the [[Mau Mau uprising]], and most of the campaigns against the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] during the [[Irish Civil War]], the [[S-Plan]], the [[Border campaign (Irish Republican Army)|Border Campaign]], and [[the Troubles]] in Northern Ireland. Although military action can temporarily disrupt a terrorist group's operations temporarily, it sometimes does not end the threat completely.<ref>{{cite book
 | author = Pape, Robert A.
 | year = 2005
 | title = Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism
 | publisher = Random House
 | pages = 237–250
}}</ref>

Repression by the military in itself usually leads to short term victories, but tend to be unsuccessful in the long run (e.g., the French doctrine used in colonial [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indochina]] and [[Algeria]]<ref name="Trinquier">{{cite web
 |url         = http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/trinquier/trinquier.asp
 |title       = Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency
 |first       = Roger
 |last        = Trinquier
 |year        = 1961
 |quote       = 1964 English translation by Daniel Lee with an Introduction by Bernard B. Fall
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080112132017/http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/trinquier/trinquier.asp
 |archive-date = January 12, 2008
 |df          = mdy-all
}}</ref>), particularly if it is not accompanied by other measures. However, new methods such as those taken in [[Iraq]] have yet to be seen as beneficial or ineffectual.<ref name="FM3-24">{{cite journal | publisher = US Department of the Army | first1 = John A. | last1 = Nagl | first2 = David H.| last2 = Petraeus | first3 = James F. | last3 =Amos |first4 = Sarah | last4 = Sewall
  | title = Field Manual 3–24 Counterinsurgency
  | quote = While military manuals rarely show individual authors, [[David Petraeus]] is widely described as establishing many of this volume's concepts.
  | date = December 2006
  | url = https://fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm3-24.pdf
  | access-date = February 3, 2008 }}</ref>

== Preparation ==
=== Target hardening ===
Whatever the target of terrorists, there are multiple ways of hardening the targets to prevent the terrorists from hitting their mark, or reducing the damage of attacks. One method is to place [[hostile vehicle mitigation]] to enforce protective standoff distance outside tall or politically sensitive buildings to prevent [[car bomb]]ings. Another way to reduce the impact of attacks is to design buildings for rapid evacuation.<ref>{{cite journal
 | author = Ronchi, E.
 | title = Disaster management: Design buildings for rapid evacuation
 | year = 2015
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 528
 | issue = 7582
 | pages = 333
 | doi=10.1038/528333b
 | pmid=26672544
| bibcode = 2015Natur.528..333R
 | doi-access = free
 }}</ref>

Aircraft cockpits are kept locked during flights and have reinforced doors, which only the pilots in the cabin are capable of opening. UK [[railway stations]] removed their garbage bins in response to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] threat, as convenient locations for depositing bombs. Scottish stations removed theirs after the [[7 July 2005 London Bombings]] as a precautionary measure. The [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority]] purchased bomb-resistant barriers after the September 11 attacks.

[[File:Operation Guardian of the Walls, May 2021. XVIII.jpeg|thumb|Israeli [[Iron Dome]] active protection system, capable of intercepting airborne rockets and artillery shells]]

Due to frequent shelling of Israel's cities, towns, and settlements by [[artillery rocket]]s from the [[Gaza Strip]] (mainly by [[Hamas]], but also by other Palestinian factions) and [[Lebanon]] (mainly by [[Hezbollah]]), Israel has developed several defensive measures against artillery, rockets, and missiles. These include building a [[bomb shelter]] in every building and school, but also deploying [[active protection system]]s such as the [[Arrow (missile family)|Arrow ABM]], [[Iron Dome]] and [[David's Sling]], which intercept the incoming threat in the air. [[Iron Dome]] has successfully intercepted hundreds of [[Qassam rocket]]s and [[BM-21 Grad|Grad rockets]] fired by Palestinians from the Gaza Strip.<ref>{{cite news|title=How Israel Developed Such A Shockingly Effective Rocket Defense System|author=Robert Johnson|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/how-israel-developed-the-iron-dome-2012-11?op=1#ixzz2Cme6aQn5|work=Business Insider|date=19 November 2012|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=IDF's 'David's Sling' missile system used to shoot down rocket barrage |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-742641 |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=May 10, 2023 |language=en-US |issn=0792-822X}}</ref>

A more sophisticated target-hardening approach must consider industrial and other critical industrial infrastructure that could be attacked. Terrorists do not need to import chemical weapons if they can cause a major industrial accident such as the [[Bhopal disaster]] or the [[Halifax Explosion]]. Industrial chemicals in manufacturing, shipping, and storage thus require greater protection, and some efforts are in progress.<ref>{{cite news
 | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A64224-2005Jan10.html
 | title = D.C. Wants Rail Hazmats Banned: S.C. Wreck Renews Fears for Capital
 | author = Weiss, Eric M.
 | date = January 11, 2005
 | page = B01
 | newspaper=The Washington Post
}}</ref>

Equipping likely targets with containers of pig lard has been used to discourage attacks by suicide bombers. The technique was apparently used on a limited scale by British authorities in the 1940s. The approach stems from the idea that Muslims perpetrating the attack would not want to be "soiled" by the lard in the moment before dying.<ref>{{cite news
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3484277.stm
 | title = Suicide bombing 'pig fat threat
 | date = February 13, 2004
 | access-date=January 2, 2010
 | publisher =BBC News}}</ref> The idea has been suggested more recently as a deterrent to suicide bombings in Israel.<ref>{{cite journal
 | url = http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/57793
 | title = Swine: Secret Weapon Against Islamic Terror?
 | date = December 9, 2007
 | journal = ArutzSheva
}}</ref> However, the actual effectiveness of this tactic is likely limited. A sympathetic Islamic scholar could issue a [[fatwa]] proclaiming that a suicide bomber would not be polluted by the swine products.

=== Command and control ===
For a threatened or completed terrorist attack, an [[Incident Command System]] (ICS) may be invoked to control the various services that may need to be involved in the response. ICS has varied levels of escalation, such as might be required for multiple incidents in a given area (e.g. [[7 July 2005 London bombings|2005 London bombings]] or the [[2004 Madrid train bombings]]), or all the way to a [[National Response Plan]] invocation if national-level resources are needed. For example, a national response might be required for a nuclear, biological, radiological, or significant chemical attack.

=== Damage mitigation ===
[[Fire department]]s, perhaps supplemented by public works agencies, utility providers, and heavy construction contractors, are most apt to deal with the physical consequences of an attack.

=== Local security ===
Again under an incident command model, local police can isolate the incident area, reducing confusion, and specialized police units can conduct tactical operations against terrorists, often using specialized counterterrorist tactical units. Bringing in such units will typically involve civil or military authority beyond the local level.

=== Medical services ===
[[Emergency medical services]] are capable of triaging, treating, and transporting the more severely affected individuals to hospitals, which typically have [[Mass-casualty incident|mass casualty]] and [[triage]] plans in place for terrorist attacks.

From the local to the national level, [[Public health surveillance|public health agencies]] may be designated to deal with identification or mitigation of possible biological attacks, including chemical or radiological contamination.

== Tactical units ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F054217-0020,_Bundesgrenzschutz,_GSG_9.jpg|right|thumb|[[GSG 9]] troopers disembarking from a helicopter in 1978. GSG 9 was one of the first tactical units to be established for the specific purpose of counterterrorism.]]


=== Counterterrorism agencies ===
{{main|List of counter-terrorism agencies}}

Many countries have dedicated counterterrorist units trained to handle terrorist threats. Besides various [[security agency|security agencies]], there are [[police tactical unit]]s whose role is to directly engage terrorists and prevent terrorist attacks. Such units perform both in preventive actions, hostage rescue, and responding to ongoing attacks. Countries of all sizes can have highly trained counterterrorist teams. Tactics, techniques, and procedures for [[Manhunt (military)|manhunting]] are under constant development.

These units are specially trained in [[military tactics]] and are equipped for [[close-quarters combat]], with emphasis on stealth and performing the mission with minimal casualties. The units include assault teams, [[sniper]]s, [[Bomb disposal|EOD]] experts, dog handlers, and intelligence officers. Most of these measures deal with terrorist attacks that affect an area or threaten to do so, or are lengthy situations such as [[shootout]]s and [[Police standoff|standoffs]] that allow the counterterrorist units to assemble and respond; it is harder to deal with shorter incidents such as assassinations, reprisal attacks, or bombings due to the short warning time and the quick exfiltration of the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stathis N. Kalyvas |year=2004 |title=The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil Wars |url=http://research.yale.edu/stathis/files/Paradox.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Ethics |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=97–138 |doi=10.1023/B:JOET.0000012254.69088.41 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061011055800/http://research.yale.edu/stathis/files/Paradox.pdf |archive-date=October 11, 2006 |access-date=October 1, 2006 |s2cid=144121872 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The majority of counterterrorism operations at the tactical level are conducted by state, federal, and national law enforcement or [[intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]. In some countries, the military may be called in as a last resort. For countries whose military is legally permitted to conduct domestic law enforcement operations, this is not an issue, and such counterterrorism operations are conducted by their military.

== Counterterrorist operations ==
Some counterterrorist actions of the 20th and 21st centuries are listed below. See [[list of hostage crises]] for a more extended list, including hostage-takings that did not end violently.

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="font-size:95%;"
<caption>Representative counterterrorist operations</caption>
|- valign="top"
! colspan=2|Incident
! Main locale
! Hostage nationality
! Kidnappers<br />/hijackers
! Counterterrorist force
! width=300 | Results
|- valign="top"
| 1972 ||[[Sabena Flight 571]]
|[[Tel Aviv-Lod International Airport]], Israel
| Mixed
| [[Black September (group)|Black September]]
| [[Sayeret Matkal]]
| 2 hijackers killed, 1 passenger died from wounds during raid. 2 passengers and 1 commando injured. 2 kidnappers captured. All other 96 passengers rescued.
|- valign="top"
| 1972 ||[[Munich massacre]]
|[[Munich]], [[West Germany]]
| Israeli
| [[Black September (group)|Black September]]
| [[Bundesgrenzschutz|German Federal Border Guard]]
| All hostages murdered; 5 kidnappers and 1 West German police officer killed. 3 kidnappers captured and released. This fatal result was the reason for the foundation of the German special counterterrorism unit [[GSG9]]
|- valign="top"
| 1975 ||[[1975 AIA building hostage crisis|AIA building hostage crisis]]
| AIA building, [[Kuala Lumpur]], Malaysia
| Mixed. American and Swedish
| [[Japanese Red Army]]
| [[Pasukan Gerakan Khas#UTK|Special Actions Unit]]
| All hostages released, all kidnappers flown to Libya.
|- valign="top"
| 1976 ||[[Operation Entebbe]]
|[[Entebbe airport]], Uganda
| Israelis and Jews. Non-Jewish hostages were released shortly after capture.
| [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine|PFLP]]
| [[Sayeret Matkal]], Sayeret Tzanhanim, Sayeret Golani
| All 7 hijackers, 45 Ugandan troops, 3 hostages, and 1 Israeli soldier were killed. 100 hostages rescued
|- valign="top"
| 1977 ||[[Lufthansa Flight 181]]
| Initially over the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] 
[[Mediterranean Sea|Sea]], south of [[French Riviera|the French coast]];

subsequently [[Mogadishu International Airport]], [[Somali Democratic Republic|Somalia]]
| Mixed
| [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine|PFLP]]
| [[GSG 9]], [[Special Air Service]] consultants
| 1 hostage killed before the raid; 3 hijackers killed and 1 captured. 90 hostages rescued.
|- valign="top"
| 1980 || Casa Circondariale di Trani [[Prison riot]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}
| [[Trani, Apulia|Trani]], Italy
| Italian
| [[Red Brigades]]
| [[Gruppo di intervento speciale]] (GIS)
| 18 police officers rescued, all terrorists captured.
|- valign="top"
| 1980 ||[[Iranian Embassy siege]]
|London, UK
| Mostly Iranian but some British
| [[Democratic Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Arabistan|Democratic Revolutionary Movement for the Liberation of Arabistan]]
| [[Special Air Service]]
| 5 kidnappers killed, 1 kidnapper captured. 1 hostage killed prior to raid, 1 hostage killed by kidnapper during raid; 24 hostages rescued. 1 SAS operative received minor burns.
|- valign="top"
|1979-1981  ||[[Iran hostage crisis]]
|[[Tehran]], [[Iran]]
| Americans
| [[Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line]]
| [[United States Army Special Forces]], [[Delta Force]], [[75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger)]], [[Special Activities Center|CIA Special Activities Division]], [[1st Special Operations Wing]]
| 8 US servicemen killed & 4 injured 1 Iranian civilian (alleged by Iranian Army) killed in [[Operation Eagle Claw]]. Negotiation finished in 1981. 53 hostages released.
|- valign="top"
| 1981 ||[[Garuda Indonesia Flight 206]]
|[[Don Mueang International Airport|Don Mueang Airport]], [[Bangkok]], Thailand
| Mostly Indonesian, some Europeans/Americans
| [[Komando Jihad]]
| [[Kopassus]] assault group, [[Royal Thai Air Force|RTAF]] securing perimeter
| 5 hijackers killed (2 likely killed extrajudicially after raid),1 Kopassus operative killed, 1 pilot fatally wounded by terrorist, all hostages rescued.
|- valign="top"
| 1982 
| [[Operation Winter Harvest]] 
| [[Padua]], Italy
| American
| [[Red Brigades]]
| [[Intelligence Support Activity| U.S. Army Intelligence Support Activity]] (ISA), [[Delta Force]] and [[Nucleo Operativo Centrale di Sicurezza]] (NOCS)
| Hostage saved, capture of the entire terrorist cell.
|- valign="top"
| 1983 ||[[1983 Turkish embassy attack in Lisbon|Turkish embassy attack]]
| [[Lisbon]], Portugal
| Turkish
| [[Armenian Revolutionary Army]]
| [[Grupo de Operações Especiais (Portugal)|GOE]]
| 5 hijackers, 1 hostage, and 1 police officer killed, 1 hostage and 1 police officer wounded.
|- valign="top"
| 1985 ||[[Achille Lauro hijacking|''Achille Lauro'' hijacking]]
|[[MS Achille Lauro|MS ''Achille Lauro'']] off the Egyptian coast
| Mixed
|[[Palestine Liberation Organization]]
|[[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]], [[United States Navy SEALs|Navy SEALs]] turned over to [[Italian special forces]] ([[Gruppo di intervento speciale]])
| 1 hostage killed during hijacking, 4 hijackers convicted in Italy
|- valign="top"
| 1986 || [[Pudu Prison siege]]
| Pudu Prison, [[Kuala Lumpur]], Malaysia
| Two doctors
| Prisoners
| [[Pasukan Gerakan Khas#UTK|Special Actions Unit]]
| 6 kidnappers captured, 2 hostages rescued
|- valign="top"
| 1988 ||[[Mothers Bus]]
| Hijacked between [[Beer Sheva]] and [[Dimona]], Israel
| 11 passengers
| [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]]
|[[YAMAM]]
| 3 hijacker killed, 3 hostages killed, 8 hostages rescued
|- valign="top"
| 1993 ||[[Indian Airlines Flight 427]]
| Hijacked between Delhi and [[Srinagar]], India
| 141 passengers
| Islamic terrorist (Mohammed Yousuf Shah)
|[[National Security Guard]]
| 1 hijacker killed, all hostages rescued.
|-
|1994
|[[Air France Flight 8969]]
|[[Marseille]], France
|Mixed
|[[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria]]
|[[GIGN]]
|4 hijackers killed. 3 hostages killed before the raid, 229 hostages rescued
|- valign="top"
| 1996 ||[[Japanese embassy hostage crisis]]
|[[Lima]], Peru
| Japanese and guests (800+)
| [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]]
|[[Peruvian Armed Forces|Peruvian military]] and [[Law enforcement in Peru|police]] mixed forces
| All 14 kidnappers, 1 hostage, and 2 rescuers killed.
|- valign="top"
| 1996 ||[[Mapenduma hostage crisis]]
|[[Jayawijaya Regency|Mapenduma]], Indonesia
|Mixed (19 Indonesians, 4 British, 2 Dutch, & 1 German)
|[[Kelly Kwalik]]'s [[Free Papua Movement]] (OPM) Group
|[[Kopassus]]'s SAT-81 Gultor CT Group, [[Kostrad]]'s Infantry Battalion, Penerbad (Army Aviation) Mixed Forces
| 8 kidnappers killed, 2 kidnappers captured. 2 hostages killed by kidnappers, 24 hostages rescued. 5 soldiers killed in helicopter accident.
|- valign="top"
| 2000 ||[[Sauk Arms Heist|Sauk Siege]]
|[[Perak]], Malaysia
| Malaysian (2 police officers, 1 soldier and 1 civilian)
| [[Al-Ma'unah]]
| [[Grup Gerak Khas]] and 20 [[Pasukan Gerakan Khas]], mixed forces
| 2 hostages, 2 rescuers, and 1 kidnapper killed.  Other 28 kidnappers captured.
|- valign="top"
| 2001–2005 || [[Pankisi Gorge crisis]]
| [[Pankisi Gorge]], [[Kakheti]], Georgia
|
| Mixed, [[Al-Qaeda]] and Chechen rebels led by [[Ibn al-Khattab]]
| 2,400 troops, 1,000 police officers
| Terrorism threats in the gorge were repressed.
|- valign="top"
| 2002 ||[[Moscow theater hostage crisis]]
|Moscow, Russia
| Mixed, mostly Russian (900+)
|[[Special Purpose Islamic Regiment]]
|[[Spetsnaz]]
| All 39 kidnappers and 129–204 hostages killed. 600–700 hostages freed.
|- valign="top"
| 2004 ||[[Beslan school siege]]
|[[Beslan]], [[North Ossetia–Alania|North Ossetia-Alania]], Russia
| Russian
|[[Riyad-us Saliheen Brigade of Martyrs|Riyad-us Saliheen]]
| [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|MVD]] (including [[OMON]]), [[Russian Ground Forces|Russian army]] (including [[Spetsnaz]]), Russian police ([[Militsiya]])
| 334 hostages killed and hundreds wounded. 10–21 rescuers killed. 31 kidnappers killed, 1 captured.
|- valign="top"
| 2007 ||[[Siege of Lal Masjid]]
|[[Islamabad]], Pakistan
|
| Students and [[Islamism|Islamist]] [[Militia]] 
|[[Pakistan Army]] and [[Pakistan Rangers|Rangers]], [[Special Service Group]]
| 91 students/militia members killed, 50 captured. 10 SSG and 1 Ranger killed; 33 SSG, 3 Rangers, 8 soldiers wounded. 204 civilians injured.
|- valign="top"
| 2007 ||Kirkuk Hostage Rescue{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}
| Kirkuk, Iraq
| Turkman child
| [[Islamic State of Iraq]] and [[Al Qaeda]]
| PUK's Kurdistan Regional Government's Counter Terrorism Group
| 5 kidnappers arrested, 1 hostage rescued{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}
|- valign="top"
| 2008 ||[[Operation Jaque]]
| Colombia
| Mixed
|[[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]]
|[[Military Forces of Colombia|Columbian military]]
| 15 hostages rescued. 2 kidnappers captured
|- valign="top"
| 2008 ||Operations Dawn
| Gulf of Aden, [[Somalia]]
| Mixed
| Somali pirates and militants
| [[PASKAL]] and mixed international forces
| Negotiation finished. 80 hostages released. RMN, including PASKAL navy commandos with mixed international forces patrolling the Gulf of Aden during this festive period.<ref>''[http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/10/5/nation/2194475&sec=nation Crewmen tell of scary ordeal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008053311/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F10%2F5%2Fnation%2F2194475&sec=nation |date=October 8, 2008 }} [[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]] Sunday October 5, 2008''.</ref><ref>''[http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/9/29/focus/2143855&sec=focus No choice but to pay ransom] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205181118/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F9%2F29%2Ffocus%2F2143855&sec=focus |date=December 5, 2008 }} [[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]] Monday September 29, 2008''</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]] |title=''Ops Fajar mission accomplished'' |date=October 10, 2008 |access-date=November 7, 2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/10/21/nation/2327961&sec=nation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024092954/http://www.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F10%2F21%2Fnation%2F2327961&sec=nation |archive-date=October 24, 2008 |df=mdy }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
| 2008 ||[[2008 Mumbai attacks]]
| Multiple locations in [[Mumbai]] city
| Indian Nationals, Foreign tourists
| [[2008 Mumbai attacks#Attribution|Ajmal Qasab and other Pakistani nationals affiliated to Laskar-e-taiba]]
| [[National Security Guard]], [[MARCOS]], [[Mumbai Police]], [[Rapid Action Force]]
| 141 Indian civilians, 30 foreigners, 15 police officers, and two NSG commandos were killed. 9 attackers killed, 1 attacker captured. 293 individuals injured
|- valign="top"
| 2009 ||[[Maersk Alabama hijacking]]
|Gulf of Aden, Somalia. 
| 23 crew
| [[Piracy in Somalia|Somali pirates]]
| [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]], [[SEAL Team Six]]
| 3 kidnappers killed and 1 captured. All hostages rescued.
|- valign="top"
|2009 ||[[2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team|2009 Lahore Attacks]]
|Multiple locations in [[Lahore]] city
|Pakistan
|[[Lashkar-e-Taiba]]
|[[Law enforcement in Pakistan|Police Commandos]], [[Pakistan Army Rangers|Army Rangers Battalion]]
|March 3, The Sri Lankan cricket team attack – 6 members of the Sri Lankan cricket team were injured, 6 Pakistani police officers and 2 civilians killed.
March 30, the Manawan Police Academy in Lahore attack – 8 gunmen, 8 police personnel and 2 civilians killed, 95 people injured, 4 gunmen captured.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}<br />
Plaza Cinema Chowk attack – 16 police officers, an army officer and unknown number of civilians killed. As many as 251 people injured.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}
|- valign="top"
|2011 ||[[Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden]]
|Gulf of Aden, [[Somalia]]
|[[Koreans]], Myanmar, Indonesian
|Somali pirates and militants
|[[Republic of Korea Navy Special Warfare Flotilla]] (UDT/SEAL)
|4+ kidnappers killed or missing (Jan 18). 8 kidnappers killed, 5 captured. All hostages rescued.
|- valign="top"
|2012 ||[[Lopota Gorge hostage crisis]]
|[[Lopota]] Gorge, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
|[[Georgians]]
|Ethnic Chechen, Russian, and Georgian militants
|Special Operations Center, SOD, KUD, [[Special Forces Brigade (Georgia)|army special forces]]
|2 KUD members and one special forces corpsman killed, 5 police officers wounded. 11 kidnappers killed, 5 wounded, and 1 captured. All hostages rescued.
|- valign="top"
|2013 ||[[2013 Lahad Datu standoff]]
| [[Lahad Datu]], Sabah, Malaysia
| [[Malaysians]]
| [[Sultanate of Sulu|Royal Security Forces of the Sultanate of Sulu and North Borneo]] ([[Jamalul Kiram III]]'s faction)
| [[Malaysian Armed Forces]], [[Royal Malaysia Police]], [[Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency]] and [[National Special Operations Force (Malaysia)|joint counterterrorist forces]], [[Philippine Armed Forces]]
| 8 police officers (including 2 [[Pasukan Gerakan Khas|PGK commandos]]) and one soldier killed, 12 others wounded. 56 militants killed, 3 wounded, and 149 captured. All hostages rescued. 6 civilians killed and one wounded.
|- valign="top"
| 2017 || [[2017 Isani flat siege]]
| [[Isani district]], [[Tbilisi]], Georgia
| [[Georgians]]
| Chechen militants
| [[State Security Service of Georgia]], police special forces
| 3 militants killed, including [[Akhmed Chatayev]]. 1 special forces officer killed during skirmishes.
|- valign="top"
| 2024 || [[Operation Golden Hand]]
| [[Rafah]], [[Gaza Strip]]
| [[Israel]]i
| [[Hamas]]
| [[Yamam|YAMAM]] and [[Shin Bet]] with support from the [[Israel Defense Forces]]
| 67–100+ Palestinians killed, all hostages rescued. 
|}

=== Designing counterterrorist systems ===

{{tone|section|date=June 2021}}
The scope for counterterrorism systems is very large in physical terms and in other dimensions, such as type and degree of terrorist threats, political and diplomatic ramifications, and legal concerns. Ideal counterterrorist systems use technology to enable persistent [[intelligence]], surveillance and reconnaissance missions, and potential actions. Designing such a system-of-systems comprises a major technological project.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2008.01160.x| title = Reducing Risk Through Real Options in Systems Design: The Case of Architecting a Maritime Domain Protection System| year = 2009| last1 = Buurman | first1 = J. | last2 = Zhang | first2 = S. | last3 = Babovic | first3 = V. | journal = Risk Analysis| volume = 29| issue = 3| pages = 366–379 | pmid = 19076327| bibcode = 2009RiskA..29..366B| s2cid = 36370133}}</ref>

A particular design problem for counterterrorist systems is the uncertainty of the future: the threat of terrorism may increase, decrease or remain the same, the type of terrorism and location are difficult to predict, and there are technological uncertainties. A potential solution is to incorporate [[Flexibility (engineering)|engineering flexibility]] into system design, allowing for flexibility when new information arrives. Flexibility can be incorporated in the design of a counter-terrorism system in the form of options that can be exercised in the future when new information is available.<ref name=":0" />

=== Law enforcement ===
While some countries with longstanding terrorism problems have law enforcement agencies primarily designed to prevent and respond to terror attacks,<ref>Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref> in other nations, counterterrorism is a relatively more recent objective of law enforcement agencies.<ref name="Deflem">Deflem, Mathieu. 2010. The Policing of Terrorism: Organizational and Global Perspectives. New York: Routledge.</ref><ref>Deflem, Mathieu and Samantha Hauptman. 2013. "Policing International Terrorism." Pp. 64–72 in Globalisation and the Challenge to Criminology, edited by Francis Pakes. London: Routledge. [https://deflem.blogspot.com/2013/01/policinginternationalterrorism.html]</ref>

Though some [[Civil libertarianism|civil libertarians]] and [[criminal justice]] scholars have criticized efforts of law enforcement agencies to combat terrorism as futile and expensive<ref name="HelmsCostanzaJohnson">{{Cite journal|last1=Helms|first1=Ronald|last2=Costanza|first2=S E|last3=Johnson|first3=Nicholas|date=2012-02-01|title=Crouching tiger or phantom dragon? Examining the discourse on global cyber-terror|journal=Security Journal|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=57–75|doi=10.1057/sj.2011.6|s2cid=154538050|issn=1743-4645}}</ref> or as threats to civil liberties,<ref name="HelmsCostanzaJohnson" /> other scholars have analyzed the most important dimensions of the policing of terrorism as an important dimension of counter-terrorism, especially in the post-9/11 era, and have discussed how police view terrorism as a matter of crime control.<ref name="Deflem" /> Such analyses highlight the civilian police role in counterterrorism next to the military model of a war on terror.<ref>Michael Bayer. 2010. The Blue Planet: Informal International Police Networks and National Intelligence. Washington, DC: National Intelligence Defense College. [http://www.ni-u.edu/ni_press/pdf/The_Blue_Planet.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018080149/http://www.ni-u.edu/ni_press/pdf/The_Blue_Planet.pdf|date=October 18, 2017}}</ref>

==== American law enforcement ====
[[File:FBI Hostage Rescue Team Agents bei einer Übung.jpg|thumb|upright|[[FBI]] [[Hostage Rescue Team]] agents]]
Pursuant to passage of the [[Homeland Security Act of 2002]], federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies began to systemically reorganize.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Costanza | first1 = S.E. | last2 = Kilburn | first2 = John C. Jr. | year = 2005 | title = Symbolic Security, Moral Panic and Public Sentiment: Toward a sociology of Counterterrorism | journal = Journal of Social and Ecological Boundaries | volume = 1 | issue = 2| pages = 106–124 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Deflem | first1 = M | year = 2004 | title = Social Control and the Policing of Terrorism Foundations for a sociology of Counterterrorism | url = https://deflem.blogspot.com/2004/08/social-control-and-policing-of.html | journal = American Sociologist | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 75–92 | doi = 10.1007/bf02692398 | s2cid = 143868466 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> Two primary federal agencies, the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] (DOJ) and the [[Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS), house most of the federal agencies that are prepared to combat domestic and international terrorist attacks. These include the [[United States Border Patrol|Border Patrol]], the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] and the [[FBI]].

Following suit from federal changes pursuant to 9/11, however, most state and local law enforcement agencies began to include a commitment to "fighting terrorism" in their mission statements.<ref>DeLone, Gregory J. 2007. "Law Enforcement Mission Statements Post September 11." Police Quarterly 10(2)</ref><ref>Mathieu Deflem. 2010. The Policing of Terrorism: Organizational and Global Perspectives. New York: Routledge.</ref> Local agencies began to establish more patterned lines of communication with federal agencies.  Some scholars have doubted the ability of local police to help in the war on terror and suggest their limited manpower is still best utilized by engaging community and targeting street crimes.<ref name="HelmsCostanzaJohnson"/>

While counter-terror measures (most notably heightened airport security, immigrant [[Racial profiling|profiling]]<ref>Ramirez, D., J. Hoopes, and T.L. Quinlan.  2003 "Defining racial profiling in a post-September 11 world." American Criminal Law Review. 40(3): 1195–1233.</ref> and border patrol) have been adapted during the last decade, to enhance counter-terror in law enforcement, there have been remarkable limitations to assessing the actual utility/effectiveness of law enforcement practices that are ostensibly preventative.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kilburn | first1 = John C. Jr. | last2 = Costanza | first2 = S.E. | last3 = Metchik | first3 = Eric | last4 = Borgeson | first4 = Kevin | year = 2011 | title = Policing Terror Threats and False Positives: Employing a Signal Detection Model to Examine Changes in National and Local Policing Strategy between 2001–2007 | journal = Security Journal | volume = 24 | pages = 19–36 | doi = 10.1057/sj.2009.7 | s2cid = 153825273 }}</ref>  Thus, while sweeping changes in counterterrorist rhetoric redefined most American post 9/11 law enforcement agencies in theory, it is hard to assess how well such hyperbole has translated into practice.

In [[intelligence-led policing]] (ILP) efforts, the most quantitatively amenable starting point for measuring the effectiveness of any policing strategy (i.e.: Neighborhood Watch, Gun Abatement, Foot Patrols, etc.) is usually to assess total financial costs against clearance rates or arrest rates. Since terrorism is such a rare event phenomena,<ref>Kilburn, John C. Jr. and Costanza, S.E.  2009  "Immigration and Homeland Security"  published in Battleground: Immigration (Ed: Judith Ann Warner); Greenwood Publishing, Ca.</ref> measuring arrests or clearance rates would be a non-generalizable and ineffective way to test enforcement policy effectiveness. Another methodological problem in assessing counterterrorism efforts in law enforcement hinges on finding operational measures for key concepts in the study of [[homeland security]]. Both terrorism and homeland security are relatively new concepts for criminologists, and academicians have yet to agree on the matter of how to properly define these ideas in a way that is accessible.

=== Military ===

{{Further| List of special forces units}}
[[File:DSA 2016 - Breach the hideout.jpg|thumb|[[Malaysian Army]] [[Gerak Khas (Malaysian Army unit)|''Gerak Khas'']] operatives during a [[training exercise]] in 2016]]
Given the nature of operational counterterrorism tasks, national military organizations do not generally have dedicated units whose sole responsibility is the prosecution of these tasks. Instead the counterterrorism function is an element of the role, allowing flexibility in their employment, with operations being undertaken in the domestic or international context.

In some cases the legal framework within which they operate prohibits military units conducting operations in the domestic arena; [[United States Department of Defense]] policy, based on the [[Posse Comitatus Act]], forbids domestic counterterrorism operations by the U.S. military. Units allocated some operational counterterrorism tasks are frequently [[special forces]] or similar assets.

In cases where military organisations do operate in the domestic context, some form of formal handover from the law enforcement community is regularly required, to ensure adherence to the legislative framework and limitations. For instance, during the 1980 [[Iranian Embassy siege]], the [[Metropolitan Police]] formally turned responsibility over to the [[British Army]]'s [[Special Air Service]] when the situation went beyond police capabilities.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Civilian casualty ratio]]
* [[Civil defense]]
* [[Counterinsurgency]]
* [[Counter-IED efforts]]
* [[Counterjihad]]
* [[Deradicalization]]
* [[Explosive detection]]
* [[Extrajudicial execution]]
* [[Extraordinary rendition]]
* [[Fatwa on Terrorism]]
* [[Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism]]
* [[Industrial antiterrorism]]
* [[Informant]]
* [[Infrastructure security]]
* [[International counter-terrorism operations of Russia]]
* [[Irregular warfare]]
* [[Manhunt (law enforcement)]]
* [[Manhunt (military)]]
* Paramilitary
* [[Preventive State]]
* [[Security increase]]
* [[Sociology of terrorism]]
* [[Special Activities Division]], Central Intelligence Agency
* [[Targeted killing]]
* [[Terrorism Research Center]]
* [[War among the people]]
* [[War on terror]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Arreguín-Toft, Ivan. "Tunnel at the End of the Light: A Critique of U.S. Counter-terrorist Grand Strategy," ''Cambridge Review of International Affairs'', Vol. 15, No. 3 (2002), pp.&nbsp;549–563.
* Ivan Arreguín-Toft, "How to Lose a War on Terror: A Comparative Analysis of a Counterinsurgency Success and Failure," in Jan Ångström and Isabelle Duyvesteyn, Eds., ''Understanding Victory and Defeat in Contemporary War'' (London: Frank Cass, 2007).

* Bakker, Edwin, and Tinka Veldhuis. [http://www.icct.nl/news/a-fear-management-approach-to-counter-terrorism ''A Fear Management Approach to Counter-Terrorism'' (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, 2012)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402040414/http://www.icct.nl/news/a-fear-management-approach-to-counter-terrorism |date=April 2, 2015 }}
*  Barton, Mary S.  ''Counterterrorism between the Wars: An International History, 1919-1937'' (Oxford University Press, 2020) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57070 online book review]
* Berger, J.M.  [http://icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/J.-M.-Berger-Making-CVE-Work-A-Focused-Approach-Based-on-Process-Disruption-.pdf ''Making CVE Work: A Focused Approach Based on Process Disruption''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728223729/http://icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/J.-M.-Berger-Making-CVE-Work-A-Focused-Approach-Based-on-Process-Disruption-.pdf |date=July 28, 2020 }}, (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, May 2016
* Besenyo, Janos. [https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=531307 Low-cost attacks, unnoticeable plots?] Overview on the economical character of current terrorism, Strategic Impact (ROMANIA) (ISSN: 1841–5784) (eISSN: 1824–9904) 62/2017: (Issue No. 1) pp.&nbsp;83–100.
* Deflem, Mathieu. 2020. [https://deflem.blogspot.com/2020/01/responses-to-terror-policing-countering.html "Responses to Terror: Policing and Countering Terrorism in the Modern Age."] In The Handbook of Collective Violence: Current Developments and Understanding, eds. C.A. Ireland, et al. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. 
* Deflem, Mathieu, and Stephen Chicoine. 2019. [https://deflem.blogspot.com/2019/01/terrorismpolicing.html "Policing Terrorism."] In The Handbook of Social Control, edited by Mathieu Deflem. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
* Deflem, Mathieu and Shannon McDonough. 2015. [https://deflem.blogspot.com/2015/01/fearofcounterterrorism.html "The Fear of Counterterrorism: Surveillance and Civil Liberties Since 9/11."] Society 52(1):70–79. 
* Gagliano Giuseppe, ''Agitazione sovversiva, guerra psicologica e terrorismo'' (2010) {{ISBN|978-88-6178-600-4}}, Uniservice Books.
* Ishmael Jones, ''The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture'' (2008, revised 2010) {{ISBN|978-1-59403-382-7}}, Encounter Books.
* James Mitchell, "Identifying Potential Terrorist Targets" a study in the use of convergence. G2 Whitepaper on terrorism, copyright 2006, G2. Counterterrorism Conference, June 2006, Washington D.C.
* [[James F. Pastor]], "Terrorism and Public Safety Policing:Implications for the Obama Presidency" (2009, {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1580-9}}, Taylor & Francis).
* Jessica Dorsey, Christophe Paulussen, [http://www.icct.nl/download/file/ICCT-Dorsey-Paulussen-Boundaries-of-the-Battlefield-Report-April-2013_docx.pdf ''Boundaries of the Battlefield: A Critical Look at the Legal Paradigms and Rules in Countering Terrorism'' (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, 2013)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022040650/http://www.icct.nl/download/file/ICCT-Dorsey-Paulussen-Boundaries-of-the-Battlefield-Report-April-2013_docx.pdf |date=October 22, 2020 }}
* Judy Kuriansky (Editor), "Terror in the Holy Land: Inside the Anguish of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict" (2006, {{ISBN|0-275-99041-9}}, Praeger Publishers).
* Lynn Zusman (Editor), "[http://apps.americanbar.org/abastore/index.cfm?pid=5010069&section=main&fm=Product.AddToCart The Law of Counterterrorism]" (2012, {{ISBN|978-1-61438-037-5}}, American Bar Association).* Marc Sageman, ''Understanding Terror Networks'' (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), {{ISBN|0-8122-3808-7}}.
* [[Newton Lee]], ''Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness (Second Edition)'' (Switzerland: [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer International Publishing]], 2015), {{ISBN|978-3-319-17243-9}}.
* Merari, Ariel. "Terrorism as a Strategy in Insurgency," ''Terrorism and Political Violence'', Vol. 5, No. 4 (Winter 1993), pp.&nbsp;213–251.

*  Sinkkonen, Teemu.''Political Responses to Terrorism'' (Acta Universitatis Tamperensis, 2009), {{ISBN|978-9514478710}}.
* Vandana, Asthana., "[https://web.archive.org/web/20100704154956/http://acdis.illinois.edu/publications/207/publication-cross-border-terrorism-in-india-counterterrorism-strategies-and-challenges.html Cross-Border Terrorism in India: Counterterrorism Strategies and Challenges]," ''ACDIS Occasional Paper'' (June 2010), Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois

== External links ==
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*[https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/ct/ U.S. Bureau of Counterterrorism]
*[https://www.counterterrorism.police.uk/ Counter Terrorism Policing]
*[https://www.orderandsafety.org/ "Public order and safety" – International project on combating crime and terrorism]

{{Terrorism topics}}
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