View source for Cree language

{{Short description|Aboriginal language continuum}}
{{distinguish|text=the [[Kri language]] or the [[Muscogee language|Creek language (Muscogee)]]}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Cree
| nativename       = {{lang|crk-Cans|ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ}}, {{lang|crk-Latn|nēhiyawēwin}} (Plains)<br />{{lang|cwd-Cans|ᓃᐦᐃᖬᐑᐏᐣ}}, {{lang|cwd-Latn|nīhithawīwin}} (Woods)<br />{{lang|csw-Cans|ᓀᐦᐃᓇᐌᐎᐣ}}, {{lang|csw-Latn|nêhinawêwin}} (W. Swampy)<br />{{lang|csw-Cans|ᐃᓂᓃᒧᐎᓐ}}, {{lang|csw-Latn|ininîmowin}} (E. Swampy)<br />{{lang|crl-Cans|ᐃᔨᓂᐤ ᐊᔭᒥᐎᓐ}}, {{lang|crl-Latn|Iyiniu-Ayamiwin}} (N. Eastern)<br />{{lang|crj-Cans|ᐄᔨᔫ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ}}, {{lang|crj-Latn|Iyiyiu-Ayamiwin}} (S. Eastern)
| states           = [[Canada]]; [[United States]] ([[Montana]])
| ethnicity        = [[Cree]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|86,475|2}}
| date             = 2021 census
| ref              = <ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2023-03-29 |title=Indigenous languages in Canada, 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2023029-eng.htm |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>
| speakers2        = 
| familycolor      = Algic
| fam1             = [[Algic languages|Algic]]
| fam2             = [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]
| fam3             = Cree-[[Innu-aimun|Montagnais]]-[[Naskapi language|Naskapi]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cree1271 |title=Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi |date=2022-05-24 |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015114502/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cree1271 |archive-date=2022-10-15 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]], [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]] ([[Cree syllabics|Cree]])
| nation           = {{Flag|Northwest Territories}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_Map.pdf |title=Official Languages of the Northwest Territories |publisher=[[Northwest Territories Language Commissioner]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323114247/http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_Map.pdf |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} (map)</ref>
| minority         = {{plainlist|
*{{flag|Alberta}}
*{{flag|Manitoba}}
*{{flag|Ontario}}
*{{flag|Quebec}}
*{{flag|Saskatchewan}}}}<ref>[https://www.2m.com.au/blog/indigenous-languages-series-3-cree-canada/ "Indigenous Languages Series 3: Cree – Canada"]2M Language Services</ref>
| iso1             = cr
| iso2             = cre
| iso3             = cre
| lc1              = crk
| ld1              = [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]]
| lc2              = cwd
| ld2              = [[Woods Cree language|Woods Cree]]
| lc3              = csw
| ld3              = [[Swampy Cree language|Swampy Cree]]
| lc4              = crm
| ld4              = [[Moose Cree language|Moose Cree]]
| lc5              = crl
| ld5              = [[Northern East Cree language|Northern East Cree]]
| lc6              = crj
| ld6              = [[Southern East Cree language|Southern East Cree]]
| lc7              = nsk
| ld7              = [[Naskapi language|Naskapi]]<!--nsk, moe and atj don't belong to the Cree macrolanguage per SIL-->
| lc8              = moe
| ld8              = [[Montagnais language|Montagnais]]
| lc9              = atj
| ld9              = [[Atikamekw language|Atikamekw]]
| map              = 
| mapcaption       = A rough map of Cree dialect areas
| map2             = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|Six dialects of Cree are classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.}}
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = cree1271
| glottoname       = Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi
| glotto2          = cree1272
| glottorefname2   = Cree
| image            = Cree_map_simple.svg
| imagecaption     = Historical distribution of Cree peoples
}}
{{Contains special characters|Canadian}}

'''Cree''' ({{IPAc-en|k|r|iː}} {{respelling|KREE}};<ref>{{cite book |author=Laurie Bauer |date=2007 |title=The Linguistics Student's Handbook |publisher=Edinburgh }}</ref> also known as Cree–[[Montagnais language|Montagnais]]–[[Naskapi language|Naskapi]]) is a [[dialect continuum]] of [[Algonquian languages]] spoken by approximately 86,475 people across [[Canada]] in 2021,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2023-03-29 |title=Indigenous languages in Canada, 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2023029-eng.htm |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> from the [[Northwest Territories]] to [[Alberta]] to [[Labrador]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/en/services/secretariat-des-langues-autochtones/official-languages-overview|title=Education, Culture, and Employment|website=Government of the Northwest Territories|access-date=October 4, 2017|archive-date=July 27, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727215340/https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/en/services/secretariat-des-langues-autochtones/official-languages-overview|url-status=dead}}</ref> If considered one language, it is the [[Native American languages|aboriginal language]] with the highest number of speakers in Canada.<ref name=":5" /> The only region where Cree has any [[official language|official status]] is in the [[Northwest Territories]], alongside eight other aboriginal languages.<ref name="lang"/> There, Cree is spoken mainly in [[Fort Smith, Northwest Territories|Fort Smith]] and [[Hay River, Northwest Territories|Hay River]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |publisher=Government of the Northwest Territories |title=2016–2017 annual report on official languages |url=https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/sites/www.ece.gov.nt.ca/files/resources/english_version.2016-2017_ol_ar.pdf }}</ref>

==Names==
[[Endonym]]s are:
* {{lang|crk-Latn|nêhiyawêwin}} {{lang|crk|ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ}} (Plains Cree)
* {{lang|cwd-Latn|nīhithawīwin}} {{lang|cwd|ᓃᐦᐃᖬᐑᐏᐣ}} (Woods Cree)
* {{lang|csw-Latn|nêhinawêwin}} {{lang|csw|ᓀᐦᐃᓇᐌᐎᐣ}} (Western Swampy Cree)
* {{lang|csw-Latn|ininîmowin}} {{lang|csw|ᐃᓂᓃᒧᐎᓐ}} (Eastern Swampy Cree)
* {{lang|crm-Latn|ililîmowin}} {{lang|crm|ᐃᓕᓖᒧᐎᓐ}} (Moose Cree)
* {{lang|crj-Latn|iyiniu-Ayamiwin}} {{lang|crj|ᐄᓅ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ}} (Southern East Cree)
* {{lang|crl-Latn|iyiyiu-Ayamiwin}} {{lang|crl|ᐄᔨᔫ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ}} (Northern East Cree)
* {{lang|atj-Latn|nehirâmowin}} (Atikamekw)
* {{lang|moe-Latn|nehlueun}} (Western Montagnais, Piyekwâkamî dialect)
* {{lang|moe-Latn|ilnu-Aimûn}} (Western Montagnais, Betsiamites dialect)
* {{lang|moe-Latn|innu-Aimûn}} (Eastern Montagnais)

== Origin and diffusion ==
Cree is believed to have begun as a dialect of the [[Proto-Algonquian language]] spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the [[Urheimat|original Algonquian homeland]], an undetermined area thought to be near the Great Lakes. The speakers of the proto-Cree language are thought to have moved north, and diverged rather quickly into two different groups on each side of [[James Bay]]. The eastern group then began to diverge into separate dialects, whereas the western grouping probably broke into distinct dialects much later.<ref>Rhodes and Todd, "Subarctic Algonquian Languages" in ''Handbook of North American Indians: Subarctic'', p. 60</ref> After this point it is very difficult to make definite statements about how different groups emerged and moved around, because there are no written works in the languages to compare, and descriptions by Europeans are not systematic; as well, Algonquian people have a tradition of bilingualism and even of outright adopting a new language from neighbours.<ref>Rhodes and Todd, 60–61</ref>

A traditional view among 20th-century anthropologists and historians of the [[fur trade]] posits that the Western Woods Cree and the [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]] (and therefore their dialects) did not diverge from other Cree peoples before 1670, when the Cree expanded out of their homeland near James Bay because of access to European firearms. By contrast, James Smith of the [[Museum of the American Indian]] stated, in 1987, that the weight of archeological and linguistic evidence puts the Cree as far west as the [[Peace River Region]] of Alberta before European contact.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=James G. E. |title=the Western Woods Cree: anthropological myth and historical reality |journal=American Ethnologist |date=August 1987 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=434–448 |doi=10.1525/ae.1987.14.3.02a00020 }}</ref>

== Dialect criteria ==
The Cree [[dialect continuum]] can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern [[Ontario]] and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of [[Quebec]] differentiate {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (sh as in '''''sh'''e'') and {{IPA|/s/}}, while those to the west have merged the two phonemes as {{IPA|/s/}} and in the east the phonemes are merged as either {{IPA|/ʃ/}} or {{IPA|/h/}}.  In several dialects, including northern [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]] and Woods Cree, the long vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/iː/}} have merged into a single vowel, {{IPA|/iː/}}. In the Quebec communities of [[Chisasibi, Quebec|Chisasibi]], [[Whapmagoostui, Quebec|Whapmagoostui]], and [[Kawawachikamach, Quebec|Kawawachikamach]], the long vowel {{IPA|/eː/}} has merged with {{IPA|/aː/}}.

However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of [[Proto-Algonquian language|Proto-Algonquian]] '''*l''' in the modern dialects, as shown below:

{| class="wikitable"
! Dialect
! Location
! Reflex<br />of *''l''
! Word for 'native person'<br />← *{{Transliteration|cr|elenyiwa}}
! Word for 'you'<br />← *{{Transliteration|cr|kīla}}
|-
| [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]] || SK, AB, BC, NT || align="center"| y || {{lang|cr-Latn|iyiniw}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|kīya}}
|-
| [[Woods Cree language|Woods Cree]] || MB, SK || align="center"| ð/th || {{lang|cr-Latn|iðiniw/ithiniw}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|kīða/kītha}}
|-
| [[Swampy Cree language|Swampy Cree]] || ON, MB, SK || align="center"| n || {{lang|cr-Latn|ininiw}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|kīna}}
|-
| [[Moose Cree language|Moose Cree]] || ON || align="center"| l || {{lang|cr-Latn|ililiw}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|kīla}}
|-
| [[Atikamekw language|Atikamekw]] || [[Nitaskinan]], QC || align="center"| r || {{lang|cr-Latn|iriniw}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|kīr}}
|-
| [[Northern East Cree language|Northern East Cree]] || [[Eeyou Istchee]], QC || align="center"| y || {{lang|cr-Latn|iyiyiw}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|čīy}}
|-
| [[Southern East Cree language|Southern East Cree]] || [[Eeyou Istchee]], QC || align="center"| y || {{lang|cr-Latn|iyiyū/iyinū}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|čīy}}
|-
| [[Naskapi language|Kawawachikamach Naskapi]] || [[Nitassinan]], QC || align="center"| y || {{lang|cr-Latn|iyiyū}}  || {{lang|cr-Latn|čīy}}
|-
| [[Montagnais language|Western Innu]] || [[Nitassinan]], QC || align="center"| l || {{lang|cr-Latn|ilnu}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|čīl}}
|-
| [[Montagnais language|Eastern Innu]] || [[Nitassinan]], QC, NL || align="center"| n || {{lang|cr-Latn|innu}} || {{lang|cr-Latn|čīn}}
|}

The Plains Cree, speakers of the '''y''' dialect, refer to their language as ''{{lang|cr-Latn|nēhi'''y'''awēwin}}'', whereas Woods Cree speakers say ''{{lang|cr-Latn|nīhi'''th'''awīwin}}'', and Swampy Cree speakers say ''{{lang|cr-Latn|nēhi'''n'''awēwin}}''.

Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalisation]] of Proto-Algonquian '''*k''': East of the Ontario–Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into {{IPA|/tʃ/}} or {{IPA|/ts/}} before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the *{{Transliteration|cr|kīla}} column.

Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > {{IPA|/tʃ/}} sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as ''East Cree'' then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagnais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to [[Kawawachikamach, Quebec|Kawawachikamach]] (y-dialect) and [[Natuashish]] (n-dialect).

==Dialect groups==
The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. Roughly from west to east:

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" 
|+ {{nowrap|Cree dialect ISO codes}}
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|ISO-639-3<br />code&nbsp;and&nbsp;name || colspan=2 rowspan=2 |ISO-639-6<br />code&nbsp;and&nbsp;name || rowspan=2 colspan=3|[[Linguasphere]]<br />code&nbsp;and&nbsp;name<ref>Linguasphere code 62-ADA is called "Cree+Ojibwa net", listing four divisions of which three are shown here—the fourth division 62-ADA-d representing the [[Ojibwe dialects#In literature|Ojibwe dialects]], listed as "Ojibwa+
Anissinapek".</ref> || rowspan=2 colspan=3|Moseley<ref>Moseley, Christopher. 2007. ''Encyclopedia of World's Endangered Languages''. {{ISBN|0-203-64565-0}}</ref> || rowspan=2 colspan=3| [[Glottolog]]<br />name (and code)<ref>Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cree1271 "Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi"]. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.</ref> || colspan=4|&nbsp;&nbsp;dialect&nbsp;type&nbsp;&nbsp; || colspan=2 rowspan=2|additional comments
|-
|'''*l''' || '''*k(i)'''||'''*š'''||'''*ē'''
|-
| bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=12|'''cre''' Cree (generic) || rowspan=2|'''cwd''' [[Woods Cree language|Woods Cree]]<br />({{lang|cr-Latn|Nīhithawīwin}}) || rowspan=2 colspan=2|'''cwd'''<br />Woods Cree || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=12|'''62-ADA-a''' Cree || rowspan=2 colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-ab'''<br />Woods Cree || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=22|Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi||bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=9|Western Cree||rowspan=2|Wood Cree || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=22| Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi<br />'''cree1271''' || colspan=2 | Woods Cree<br />'''wood1236'''|| '''ð'''||'''k'''||'''s'''||'''ī'''|| || In this dialect '''ē''' has merged into '''ī'''.
|-
| rowspan=3 | Plains Cree<br />'''plai1258''' || Western York Cree|| '''r → ð'''||'''k'''||'''s'''||'''ī'''|| ||Missinipi Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nīhirawīwin}}). Also known as "Rocky Cree".  Historical '''r''' have transitioned to '''ð''' and have merged into Woods Cree. While Woods Cree proper have '''hk''', Missinipi Cree have '''sk''', e.g., Woods Cree {{Lang|cwd|mihkosiw}} v. Missinipi Cree {{Transliteration|cr|miskosiw}}: 'he/she is red'.
|-
| rowspan=2|'''crk''' [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]]|| rowspan=2 colspan=2 | '''crk'''<br />Plains Cree || rowspan=2 colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-aa'''<br />Plains Cree || rowspan=2 | Plains Cree || Northern Alberta Cree ||'''y'''||'''k'''||'''s'''||'''ī'''||(northern) || rowspan=2|Divided to Southern Plains Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nēhiyawēwin}}) and Northern Plains Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nīhiyawīwin}} or {{lang|cr-Latn|Nīhiyawīmowin}}). In the Northern dialect, '''ē''' has merged into '''ī'''.
|-
| Nuclear Plains Cree || '''y'''||'''k'''||'''s'''||'''ē''' ||(southern) 
|-
| rowspan=2 |'''csw ''' [[Swampy Cree language|Swampy Cree]]<br />({{lang|cr-Latn|Nēhinawēwin}}) || rowspan=2 colspan=2 |'''csw '''<br />Swampy Cree || colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-ac'''<br />Swampy Cree, West<br />(Ininīmowin) || rowspan=2 | Swampy Cree || rowspan=2 | Swampy Cree<br />'''swam1239''' || Western Swampy Cree || '''n'''||'''k'''||'''s'''||'''ē''' || || rowspan=2|Eastern Swampy Cree, together with Moose Cree, also known as "West Main Cree," "Central Cree," or "West Shore Cree." In the western dialect, '''š''' has merged with '''s'''. Western Swampy Cree also known as "York Cree;" together with Northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, also known as "Western Woodland Cree."
|-
| colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-ad'''<br />Swampy Cree, East<br />({{lang|cr-Latn|Ininiwi-Išikišwēwin}}) || Eastern Swampy Cree || '''n'''||'''k'''||'''š'''||'''ē'''||
|-
| rowspan=3 |'''crm''' [[Moose Cree language|Moose Cree]]<br />({{lang|cr-Latn|Ililīmowin}}) || colspan=3 rowspan=3 |'''crm'''<br />Moose Cree || rowspan=3 colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-ae'''<br />Moose Cree || rowspan=3 |Moose Cree || colspan=2 rowspan=3| Moose Cree<br />'''moos1236''' || '''n\l'''||'''k'''||'''š'''||'''ē'''||(lowland)|| rowspan=3|Together with the Eastern Swampy Cree, also known as "West Main Cree," "Central Cree," or "West Shore Cree." In Swampy Cree-influenced areas, some speakers use '''n''' instead of '''l''', ''e.g.'', upland Moose Cree ''{{lang|cr-Latn|iniliw}}'' v. lowland Moose Cree {{lang|cr-Latn|ililiw}}: 'human'. Kesagami Lake Cree was an '''r''' dialect but has transitioned and merged with '''l''' dialect of Moose Cree.
|-
| '''l'''||'''k'''||'''š'''||'''ē''' ||(upland)
|-
| '''r → l'''||'''k'''||'''š'''||'''ē''' || (Kesagami Lake)
|-
| '''crl''' [[Northern East Cree language|Northern&nbsp;East&nbsp;Cree]]<br />({{lang|cr-Latn|Īyyū Ayimūn}}) || colspan=2 | '''crl'''<br />Northern East Cree || colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-af'''<br />Cree, East || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=10| Eastern Cree||rowspan=3| East Cree || colspan=2 | Northern East Cree<br />'''nort1552''' || '''y'''||'''k\č'''||'''š'''||'''ā''' || || rowspan=3| Also known as "James Bay Cree" or "East Main Cree". The long vowels '''ē''' and '''ā''' have merged in the northern dialect but are distinct in the southern.  Southern East Cree is divided between coastal (southwestern) and inland (southeastern) varieties. Also, the inland southern dialect has lost the distinction between '''s''' and '''š'''. Here, the inland southern dialect falls in line with the rest of the Naskapi groups where both phonemes have become '''š'''. Nonetheless, the people from the two areas easily communicate. In the northern dialect, '''ki''' is found in situations were short unaccented vowel '''a''' transitioned to '''i''' without changing the '''k''' to '''č'''. 
|-
| rowspan=2|'''crj''' [[Southern East Cree language|Southern&nbsp;East&nbsp;Cree]]<br />({{lang|cr-Latn|Īynū Ayimūn}}) || colspan=2 rowspan=2|'''crj'''<br />Southern East Cree || rowspan=2 colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-ag'''<br />Cree, Southeast || rowspan=2 colspan=2 | Southern East Cree<br />'''sout2978 ''' || '''y'''||'''č'''||'''š'''||'''ē'''||(coastal)
|-
|'''y\n'''||'''č'''||'''š~s'''||'''ē'''||(inland)
|-
| rowspan=2 colspan=2|'''nsk''' [[Naskapi language|Naskapi]]|| rowspan=2|'''nsk'''<br />Naskapi || '''kkaa'''<br />Koksoak || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=7|'''62-ADA-b'''<br />Innu || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=2|'''62-ADA-ba'''<br />Mushau&nbsp;Innuts || '''62-ADA-baa'''<br />Koksoak River|| rowspan=2 | Naskapi ||rowspan=2|Naskapi<br />'''nask1242''' || Western Naskapi  || '''y'''||'''č'''||'''š~s'''||'''ā''' || || Western Naskapi (or simply referred to as Naskapi). Spoken in Kawawachikamach, Quebec.
|-
| '''dvsi'''<br />Davis Inlet || '''62-ADA-bab'''<br />Davis Inlet || Eastern Naskapi || '''n'''||'''č'''||'''š~s'''||'''ē''' || || Eastern Naskapi; also known as Mushuau Innu. Spoken in Natuashish, Labrador.
|-
| rowspan=5 colspan=2|'''moe''' [[Montagnais language|Montagnais]]|| rowspan=5|'''moe'''<br />Montagnais || '''poit'''<br />Pointe-Bleue || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=5|'''62-ADA-bb'''<br />Uashau&nbsp;Innuts + Bersimis || '''62-ADA-bbe'''<br />Pointe&nbsp;Bleue || rowspan=5 | Montagnais || rowspan=5 | Montagnais<br />'''mont1268''' || rowspan=4 | Western Montagnais || rowspan=3|'''l'''||rowspan=3|'''č'''||rowspan=3|'''š'''||rowspan=3|'''ē''' || rowspan=3| || rowspan=3|Western Montagnais (Lehlueun); also known as the "Betsiamites dialect"
|-
| '''escu'''<br />Escoumains || '''62-ADA-bbd'''<br />Escoumains
|-
| '''berm'''<br />Bersimis || '''62-ADA-bbc'''<br />Bersimis
|-
| '''uasi'''<br />Uashaui-Innuts || '''62-ADA-bbb'''<br />Uashaui&nbsp;Innuts || '''n'''||'''č'''||'''š~h'''||'''ē''' || || Part of Western Montagnais, but more precisely referred to as Central Montagnais. '''š''' is realized as '''h''' in intervocalic position, especially amongst middle-aged and young speakers.
|-
| '''miga'''<br />Mingan || '''62-ADA-bba'''<br />Mingan || Eastern Montagnais || '''n'''||'''č'''||'''š~h'''||'''ē''' || || Eastern Montagnais (Innu-aimûn). '''š''' is mostly realized as '''h'''.
|-
| rowspan=3 colspan=2 |'''atj''' [[Atikamekw language|Atikamekw]]<br />({{Transliteration|atj|Nehirâmowin}}) || rowspan="3" |'''atj'''<br />Atikamekw || '''mana'''<br />Manawan || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=3 | '''62-ADA-c'''<br />Atikamekw || colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-ca'''<br />Manawan || bgcolor=#cccccc rowspan=3|Western Cree (cont'd)||rowspan=3 | Attikamek || rowspan=3 colspan=2|Atikamekw<br />'''atik1240''' || rowspan=3|'''r'''||rowspan=3|'''k'''||rowspan=3|'''š'''||rowspan=3|'''ē''' || rowspan=3| || rowspan=3| 
|-
| '''wemo'''<br />Wemotaci || colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-cb'''<br />Wemotaci
|-
| '''optc'''<br />Opitciwan || colspan=2 | '''62-ADA-cc'''<br />Opitciwan
|-
|}

==Phonology==
This table shows the possible consonant phonemes in the Cree language or one of its varieties.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonant phonemes
!
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}}
|
| {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n/ñ/ń}}
|
|
|
|
|-
![[Plosive]]
| {{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{angbr|t}}
| {{IPA link|t͡s}}~{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} {{angbr|c}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} {{angbr|ch/tc/č}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|k}}
|
|-
![[Fricative]]
|
| {{IPA link|ð}} {{angbr|th}}
| {{IPA link|s}}~{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|sh/c/š}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|h}}
|-
![[Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɹ}} {{angbr|r}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y/i/ý}}
| {{IPA link|w}} {{angbr|w}}
|
|-
![[lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|l}}
|
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Vowels
!
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|ɪ}} {{angbr|i}}
| {{IPA link|iː}} {{angbr|ii/ī/î}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|o}}~{{IPA link|ʊ}} {{angbr|u\o}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|oː}}~{{IPA link|uː}} {{angbr|uu/ū/û                                                       \ ō/ô}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
| {{IPA link|eː}} {{angbr|e/ē/ê}}
| {{IPA link|ə}} {{angbr|a}}
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|aː}} {{angbr|aa/ā/â}}
| colspan="2" |
|}

In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute {{angbr|sh}} with {{angbr|s}}, while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute {{angbr|ñ}} with their {{angbr|l}}. In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute {{angbr|ē}} with {{angbr|ī}}, while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate the Plains Cree {{IPA|[j]}} that is {{IPA|[ð]}} in Rocky Cree as {{angbr|ý}}. Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute {{angbr|ē}} with {{angbr|ī}}, while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree {{IPA|[n]}} that is {{IPA|[ð]}} in Woods Cree as {{angbr|ń}}. Atikamekw uses {{angbr|c}} [{{IPA|ʃ}}], {{angbr|tc}} [{{IPA|t͡ʃ}}], and {{angbr|i}} [{{IPA|j}}] (which also serves as {{angbr|i}} [{{IPA|i}}]).  Eastern James Bay Cree prefers to indicate long vowels (other than {{IPA|[eː]}}) by doubling the vowel, while the western Cree use either a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] or [[circumflex]] diacritic; as {{IPA|[eː]}} is always long, often it is written as just {{angbr|e}} without doubling or using a diacritic. While Western Cree dialects make use of {{angbr|o}} and either {{angbr|ō}} or {{angbr|ô}}, Eastern Cree dialects instead make use of {{angbr|u}} and either {{angbr|uu}}, {{angbr|ū}}, or {{angbr|û}}.

==Syntax==

Cree features a complex [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]] morphosyntax. A common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a specific set of rules or structure; instead, "subjects and objects are expressed by means of inflection on the verb".<ref name="Thunder">[http://www.ctl.ualberta.ca/Pedagogical_Provocations/Profiles/DorothyThunder.html/ Thunder, Dorothy]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO) in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, and SOV.<ref name ="Thunder" /><ref name="Dahlstrom1">Dahlstrom, introduction</ref>

Obviation is also a key aspect of the Cree language(s). In a sense, the [[obviative]] can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other (proximate) discourse-participant. "Obviative animate nouns, [in the Plains Cree dialect for instance], are marked by [a suffix] ending {{lang|cr-Latn|–a}}, and are used to refer to third persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than the [[proximate]] third person".<ref name ="Dahlstrom2">Dahlstrom pp. 11</ref> For example:

{{interlinear|indent=2|lang=cr-Latn
|Sam wâpam-''ew'' Susan-''a''
|Sam see-3SG Susan-3OBV
|"Sam sees Susan."}}

The suffix {{lang|cr-Latn|-a}} marks Susan as the obviative, or 'fourth' person, the person furthest away from the discourse.<ref name = "Thunder" />

The Cree language has [[grammatical gender]] in a system that classifies nouns as animate or inanimate. The distribution of nouns between animate or inanimate is not semantically transparent, which means gender must be learned along with the noun.<ref name = "Thunder" />

As is common in polysynthetic languages, a Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example:

{{interlinear|indent=2|lang=cr-Latn
|kiskinohamātowikamikw
|know.CAUS.APPL.RECP.place
|'school' ({{lit}} 'knowing-it-together-by-example place')}}

This means that changing the word order in Cree can place emphasis on different pieces of the sentence.<ref name=":4">Wolfart, H. C., & Carroll, J. F. (1981). ''Meet Cree: A guide to the Cree language'' (New and completely rev. ed.). Edmonton: University of Alberta Press.</ref> Wolfart and Carroll<ref name=":4" /> give the following example by transposing the two Cree words:
{{plainlist | indent = 1 |
* {{lang|cr-Latn|kakwēcimēw kisēýiniwa}} → 'He asked the old man.'
* {{lang|cr-Latn|kisēýiniwa kakwēcimēw}} → 'It was the old man he asked.'
}}

==Writing==
[[File:Winnipeg Forks - Trilingual Plaque.jpg|thumb|Trilingual plaque in English, French and Cree]]
Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern [[Quebec]] and [[Labrador]], are traditionally written using [[Cree syllabics]], a variant of [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]], but can be written with the [[Latin script]] as well. Both [[writing systems]] represent the language phonetically. Cree is always written from left to right horizontally.<ref name="Ager">{{Cite web|title=Ager, Simon: Omniglot, Cree Syllabary|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cree.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117194347/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cree.htm|archive-date=2012-01-17|access-date=2011-12-05}}</ref> The easternmost dialects are written using the Latin script exclusively. The dialects of Plains Cree, Woods Cree, and western Swampy Cree use [[Western Cree syllabics]] and the dialects of eastern Swampy Cree, East Cree, Moose Cree, and Naskapi use [[Eastern Cree syllabics]].

=== Syllabics ===

In Cree syllabics, each symbol, which represents a [[consonant]], can be written four ways, each direction representing its corresponding [[vowel]].<ref name="Ager" /> Some dialects of Cree have up to seven vowels, so additional [[diacritics]] are placed after the syllabic to represent the corresponding vowels. Finals represent stand-alone consonants.<ref name="Ager" /> The Cree language also has two [[semivowel]]s. The semivowels may follow other consonants or be on their own in a word.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Meet Cree : a guide to the Cree language|last=Christoph.|first=Wolfart, H.|date=1981|publisher=University of Alberta Press|others=Carroll, Janet F.|isbn=0888640730|edition=New and completely rev.|location=Edmonton|oclc=8925218}}</ref>

The following tables show the [[syllabaries]] of Eastern and Western Cree dialects, respectively:

{| class="wikitable collapsible" align=left style="margin:.1ex 1em 1ex 0"
! colspan="9" | Eastern Cree syllabary
|-
! rowspan=2|Initial
! colspan="7" | Vowels
! rowspan=2|Final
|-
! ê
! i
! o
! a
! î
! ô
! â
|-
!
| ᐁ
| ᐃ
| ᐅ
| ᐊ
| ᐄ
| ᐆ
| ᐋ
|
|-
! p
| ᐯ
| ᐱ
| ᐳ
| ᐸ
| ᐲ
| ᐴ
| ᐹ
| ᑉ
|-
! t
| ᑌ
| ᑎ
| ᑐ
| ᑕ
| ᑏ
| ᑑ
| ᑖ
| ᑦ
|-
! k
| ᑫ
| ᑭ
| ᑯ
| ᑲ
| ᑮ
| ᑰ
| ᑳ
| ᒃ
|-
! c
| ᒉ
| ᒋ
| ᒍ
| ᒐ
| ᒌ
| ᒎ
| ᒑ
| ᒡ
|-
! m
| ᒣ
| ᒥ
| ᒧ
| ᒪ
| ᒦ
| ᒨ
| ᒫ
| ᒻ
|-
! n
| ᓀ
| ᓂ
| ᓄ
| ᓇ
| ᓃ
| ᓅ
| ᓈ
| ᓐ
|-
! s
| ᓭ
| ᓯ
| ᓱ
| ᓴ
| ᓰ
| ᓲ
| ᓵ
| ᔅ
|-
! sh
| ᔐ
| ᔑ
| ᔓ
| ᔕ
| ᔒ
| ᔔ
| ᔖ
| ᔥ
|-
! y
| ᔦ
| ᔨ
| ᔪ
| ᔭ
| ᔩ
| ᔫ
| ᔮ
| ᔾ (<sup>ᐤ</sup>)
|-
! l
| ᓓ
| ᓕ
| ᓗ
| ᓚ
| ᓖ
| ᓘ
| ᓛ
| ᓪ
|-
! r*
| ᕃ
| ᕆ
| ᕈ
| ᕋ
| ᕇ
| ᕉ
| ᕌ
| ᕐ
|-
! v*, f*
| ᕓ
| ᕕ
| ᕗ
| ᕙ
| ᕖ
| ᕘ
| ᕚ
| ᕝ
|-
! th*
| ᕞ
| ᕠ
| ᕤ
| ᕦ
| ᕢ
| ᕥ
| ᕧ
| ᕪ
|-
! w
| ᐌ
| ᐎ
| ᐒ
| ᐗ
| ᐐ
| ᐔ
| ᐙ
| ᐤ
|-
! h
| ᐦᐁ
| ᐦᐃ
| ᐦᐅ
| ᐦᐊ
| ᐦᐄ
| ᐦᐆ
| ᐦᐋ
| ᐦ
|-
| colspan=9 | * Used only in foreign sounds
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible" 
! colspan="9" | Western Cree syllabary
|-
! rowspan=2|Initial
! colspan="7" | Vowels
! rowspan=2|Final
|-
! ê
! i
! o
! a
! î
! ô
! â
|-
!
| ᐁ
| ᐃ
| ᐅ
| ᐊ
| ᐄ
| ᐆ
| ᐋ
|
|-
! p
| ᐯ
| ᐱ
| ᐳ
| ᐸ
| ᐲ
| ᐴ
| ᐹ
| ᑊ
|-
! t
| ᑌ
| ᑎ
| ᑐ
| ᑕ
| ᑏ
| ᑑ
| ᑖ
| ᐟ
|-
! k
| ᑫ
| ᑭ
| ᑯ
| ᑲ
| ᑮ
| ᑰ
| ᑳ
| ᐠ
|-
! c
| ᒉ
| ᒋ
| ᒍ
| ᒐ
| ᒌ
| ᒎ
| ᒑ
| ᐨ
|-
! m
| ᒣ
| ᒥ
| ᒧ
| ᒪ
| ᒦ
| ᒨ
| ᒫ
| ᒼ
|-
! n
| ᓀ
| ᓂ
| ᓄ
| ᓇ
| ᓃ
| ᓅ
| ᓈ
| ᐣ
|-
! s
| ᓭ
| ᓯ
| ᓱ
| ᓴ
| ᓰ
| ᓲ
| ᓵ
| ᐢ
|-
! y
| ᔦ
| ᔨ
| ᔪ
| ᔭ
| ᔩ
| ᔫ
| ᔮ
| ᐩ (ᐝ)
|-
! th
| ᖧ
| ᖨ
| ᖪ
| ᖬ
| ᖩ
| ᖫ
| ᖭ
| <sup>‡</sup>
|-
! w
| ᐍ
| ᐏ
| ᐓ
| ᐘ
| ᐑ
| ᐕ
| ᐚ
| ᐤ
|-
! h
| ᐦᐁ
| ᐦᐃ
| ᐦᐅ
| ᐦᐊ
| ᐦᐄ
| ᐦᐆ
| ᐦᐋ
| ᐦ
|-
! hk
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ᕽ
|-
! l
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;" | ᓬ 
|-
! r
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;" | ᕒ 
|}
{{Clear}}<!--Prevent paragraph from slipping between tables-->
Speakers of various Cree dialects have begun creating dictionaries to serve their communities. Some projects, such as the Cree Language Resource Project, are developing an online bilingual Cree dictionary for the Cree language.

Cree syllabics has not commonly or traditionally used the [[Full stop|period]] ({{Grapheme|.}}). Instead, either a full-stop glyph ({{Grapheme|᙮}}) or a double em-width space has been used between words to signal the transition from one sentence to the next.

=== Romanization ===<!-- Derived from Plains Cree#Standard Roman Orthography -->

For [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]] and [[Swampy Cree language|Swampy Cree]], Standard Roman Orthography (SRO) uses fourteen letters of the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]] to denote the dialect's ten consonants ({{Grapheme|p}}, {{Grapheme|t}}, {{Grapheme|c}}, {{Grapheme|k}}, {{Grapheme|s}}, {{Grapheme|m}}, {{Grapheme|n}}, {{Grapheme|w}}, {{Grapheme|y}} and {{Grapheme|h}}) and seven vowels ({{Grapheme|a}}, {{Grapheme|i}}, {{Grapheme|o}}, {{Grapheme|ā}}, {{Grapheme|ī}}, {{Grapheme|ō}} and {{Grapheme|ē}}). [[Letter case|Upper case]] letters are not used.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree">{{cite book|last1=Okimāsis|first1=Jean|title=How to Spell it in Cree (The Standard Roman Orthography)|last2=Wolvengrey|first2=Arok|publisher=Houghton Boston|year=2008|isbn=978-0-9784935-0-9|location=Saskatoon, Saskatchewan|name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{RP|5}} For more details on the phonetic values of these letters or variant orthographies, see the [[Cree language#Phonology|§ Phonology]] section above.

The {{IPA|/ð/}} sound of [[Woods Cree]] is written {{Grapheme|th}}, or {{Grapheme|ð}} in more recent material.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021|reason=Which more recent material uses ''ð''?}} Plains and Swampy material written to be cross-dialectical often modify {{Grapheme|y}} to {{Grapheme|ý}} and {{Grapheme|n}} to {{Grapheme|ñ}} when those are pronounced {{IPA|/ð/}} in Swampy.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{RP|7,53}} {{Grapheme|š}} is used in Eastern dialects where ''s'' and ''š'' are distinct phonemes. In other dialects, ''s'' is used even when pronounced like {{IPA|[ʃ]}}.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{Rp|54}}

{{Grapheme|l}} and {{Grapheme|r}} are used natively in Moose and Attikamek Cree, but in other dialects only for loanwords.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{Rp|55}}

The stops, ''p'', ''t'', ''k'', and the affricate, ''c'', can be pronounced either voiced or unvoiced, but the symbols used for writing these sounds all correspond to the unvoiced pronunciation, e.g. {{Grapheme|p}} not {{Grapheme|b}}, {{Grapheme|t}} not {{Grapheme|d}}, etc.  The phoneme {{IPA|/t͡s/}} is represented by {{Grapheme|c}}, as it is in various [[C#Other languages|other languages]].

Long vowels are denoted with either a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], as in {{Grapheme|ā}}, or a [[circumflex]], as in {{Grapheme|â}}.<ref name="Language Geek">{{Cite web|title=Language Geek: Cree|url=http://www.languagegeek.com/algon/cree/nehiyawewin.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204041554/http://www.languagegeek.com/algon/cree/nehiyawewin.html|archive-date=2012-02-04|access-date=2006-01-08}}</ref><ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{rp|4, 7–8}} Use of either the macron or circumflex is acceptable, but usage should be consistent within a work. The vowel ''ē'' {{IPA|/eː/}}, used in southern Plains Cree, is always long and the grapheme {{Grapheme|e}} is never used. In northern Plains Cree the sound has merged with ''ī'', and thus {{Grapheme|ē}} is not used at all.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{RP|8}}

The use of unmarked {{Grapheme|o}} and marked {{Grapheme|ō}} for the phonemes {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} emphasizes the relationship that can exist between these two vowels.  There are situations where ''o'' can be lengthened to ''ō'', as for example in {{Lang|cr|ᓂᑲᒧ!}} {{Transliteration|cr|nikamo!}} 'sing (now)!' and {{Lang|cr|ᓂᑲᒨᐦᑲᐣ!}} {{Transliteration|cr|nikamōhkan!}} 'sing (later)!'.

In alphabetic writing, the use of punctuation has been inconsistent. For instance, in the Plains Cree dialect, the [[Interrogative word|interrogative]] [[enclitic]] ''cî'' can be included in the sentence to mark a yes–no question<ref name="Thunder" /> such that this is sometimes considered to be sufficient without including a [[question mark]] (?). However, in many modern publications and text collections (''cf.'' ''The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw'' (1998)<ref>Ahenakew, Freda, and H.C. Wolfart, eds. 1998. [https://uofmpress.ca/books/detail/the-counselling-speeches-of-jim-ka-nipitehtew ana kâ-pimwêwêhahk okakêskihkêmowina / The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw]. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. {{ISBN|0-88755-648-5}}</ref>) full punctuation is used.<ref>Okimâsis, Jean, and Arok Wolvengrey. 2008. [http://creeliteracy.org/how-to-spell-it-in-cree-wolvengrey-okemasis/ How to Spell it in Cree]. Regina: miywâsin ink. {{ISBN|978-0-9784935-0-9}}</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=2|lang=cr-Latn
|top= John cî kî-mîcisow?
|John cî kî-mîciso-w
|John Q PST-eat-3SG
|"Did John eat?"}}

Additionally, other [[interrogatives]] (''where, when, what, why, who'') can be used, as in other languages, and questions marks can thus be used for such questions in Cree as well.

Hyphenation can be used to separate a particle from the root word that it prefixes, especially particles that precede verbs ("preverbs" or "indeclinable preverbs") or nouns ("prenouns" or "indeclinable prenouns"). One example is {{Transliteration|cr|māci-pīkiskwē}} ('start speaking!'), derived from {{Transliteration|cr|pīkiskwē}}. Note that {{Transliteration|cr|māci-}} can neither stand alone as a separate word, nor is it an essential part of a stem. There are some more complex situations where it is difficult to determine whether an element is a particle. Some frequently used compound words can be written as unhyphenated.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{RP|16–19}} Stress can be predicted in some cases based on hyphenation.

[[Vowel reduction]] or vowel dropping, as is common of unstressed short ''i'' {{IPA|[ɪ]}}, is not denoted in order to be more cross-dialectal—instead of using apostrophes, the full unreduced vowels are written.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{Rp|23}}

Representation of [[sandhi]] (such as {{Transliteration|cr|oski-aya}} → {{Transliteration|cr|osk-āya}}) can be written or not written, as sandhi representation introduces greater complexity.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />{{Rp|24–25}} There are additional rules regarding ''h'' and ''iy'' that may not match a given speaker's speech, to enable a standardized transcription.

==Contact languages==

Cree is also a component language in at least five [[mixed language|contact language]]s: Michif, Northern Michif, Bungi, Oji-Cree, and Nehipwat. Michif and Bungi are spoken by members of the [[Métis]], and historically by some [[Voyageurs]] and European settlers of Western [[Canada]] and in parts of the Northern [[United States]].  Nehipwat and [[Oji-Cree language|Oji-Cree]] are blends of Cree with Assiniboine (Nehipwat) and Ojibwe (Oji-Cree).

[[Michif language|Michif]] is a [[mixed language]] which combines Cree with [[French language|French]]. For the most part, Michif uses Cree [[verbs]], question words, and [[demonstrative]]s while using French [[nouns]]. Michif is unique to the Canadian prairie provinces as well as to [[North Dakota]] and [[Montana]] in the United States.<ref name="Bakker and Papen1">Bakker and Papen p. 295</ref> Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota.

[[Bungi creole|Bungi]] is a creole based on [[Scottish English]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], Cree, and [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]].<ref name="Bakker and Papen2">Bakker and Papen p. 304</ref> Some French words have also been incorporated into its [[lexicon]]. This language flourished at and around the [[Red River Colony|Red River Settlement]] (the modern-day location of [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]]) by the mid- to late-1800s.<ref name= "Carter">Carter p. 63</ref> Bungi is now virtually [[extinct language|extinct]], as its features are being abandoned in favour of standard English.<ref name="Bakker and Papen2" /><ref>Blain. (1989: 15)</ref>

Cree has also been incorporated into another mixed language within Canada, Nehipwat, which is a blending of Cree with [[Assiniboine language|Assiniboine]]. Nehipwat is found only in a few southern [[Saskatchewan]] reserves and is now [[moribund language|nearing extinction]]. Nothing is known of its structure.<ref name="Bakker and Papen3">Bakker and Papen p. 305</ref>

== Loss of language ==
Doug Cuthand argues three reasons for the loss of the Cree language among many speakers over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<ref name=":0">Cuthand, D. (2007). ''Askiwina: A Cree world''. Regina: Coteau Books.</ref> First, [[Residential School System|residential schools]] cultivated the prejudice that their language was inferior. While students were still speaking their native language at home, their learning stopped at school. When they left residential schools as adults, they went home and their vocabulary and knowledge of language did not include concepts or forms that an adult speaker who had not been taken to a residential school would have.

Cuthand also argues that the loss of the Cree language can be attributed to the migration of native families away from the [[Indian reserve|reserve]], voluntarily or not. Oftentimes, the elders are left on the reserve.<ref name=":0" /> This breaks up the traditional intergenerational flow of lingual knowledge from elder to youth.

The third point Cuthand<ref name=":0" /> argues is that Cree language loss was adopted by the speakers. Parents stopped teaching their children their native language in the belief that doing so would help their children find economic success or avoid discrimination.
[[File:Cree_map.svg|thumb|Map of Cree dialects]]

==Legal status==
[[File:Mistassini roadsign.jpg|thumb|A Quebec stop sign in Cree, English and French]]
The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the [[Northwest Territories]], but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of [[Fort Smith, Northwest Territories|Fort Smith]].<ref name="lang">[http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324202430/http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf |date=March 24, 2009}} (as amended 1988, 1991–1992, 2003)</ref> It is also one of two principal languages of the regional government of [[Eeyou Istchee James Bay]] in Northern Quebec, the other being French.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gcc.ca/pdf/LEG000000024.pdf |title=Agreement on Governance in the Eeyou Istchee James Bay Territory Between the Crees of Eeyou Istchee and the Gouvernement du Québec, 2012 |access-date=2012-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011045759/http://www.gcc.ca/pdf/LEG000000024.pdf |archive-date=2017-10-11 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Robert Falcon Ouellette]], a Cree Member of Parliament, played a pivotal role in promoting Indigenous languages especially Cree within the [[Canadian Parliament]] and [[Canadian House of Commons]]. He was instrumental in obtaining unanimous consent from all political parties to change the standing orders to allow Indigenous languages to be spoken in the House of Commons, with full translation services provided. This historic change enabled Ouellette to deliver a speech in Cree with interpretation supported by language educator Kevin Lewis, marking the first use of an Indigenous language in the House of Commons on Jan 28, 2019.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.revparlcan.ca/en/honouring-indigenous-languages-within-parliament/ | title=Honouring Indigenous Languages within Parliament – Canadian Parliamentary Review – la Revue parlementaire canadienne | date=8 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4901314/indigenous-winnipeg-mp-delivers-historic-speech-in-house-of-commons/ | title=Indigenous Winnipeg MP delivers speech in Cree in House of Commons - Winnipeg &#124; Globalnews.ca }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/27/canada-native-languages-parliament-indigenous | title=Sound of native languages in parliament to mark win for indigenous Canadians | newspaper=The Guardian | date=27 January 2019 | last1=Cecco | first1=Leyland }}</ref>

Furthermore, Bill C-91, the ''Indigenous Languages Act'' passed in 2019, was enacted to support and revitalize Indigenous languages across Canada. This legislation, aims to reclaim, revitalize, and maintain Indigenous languages through sustainable funding and the establishment of the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. Ouellette was the chair of the Indigenous caucus in the House of Commons and helped ensure it passage before the election of 2019.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.parl.ca/documentviewer/en/42-1/bill/c-91/royal-assent | title=Government Bill (House of Commons) C-91 (42-1) - Royal Assent - Indigenous Languages Act - Parliament of Canada }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hudon |first=Marie-Éve |date=March 15, 2022 |title=Official Languages and Parliament |url=https://lop.parl.ca/staticfiles/PublicWebsite/Home/ResearchPublications/HillStudies/PDF/2015-131-E.pdf |access-date=November 10, 2024 |website=lop.parl.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Canadian Parliamentary Review › vol 42 no 2 |url=https://www.canlii.org/en/commentary/doc/2019CanLIIDocs3786#!fragment/zoupio-_Toc3Page3/BQCwhgziBcwMYgK4DsDWszIQewE4BUBTADwBdoAvbRABwEtsBaAfX2zgGYAFMAc0I4BKADTJspQhACKiQrgCe0AORLhEQmFwIZcxSrUatIAMp5SAIUUAlAKIAZGwDUAggDkAwjeGkwAI2ik7IKCQA |access-date=November 10, 2024 |website=www.canlii.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uottawa.ca/faculty-education/news-all/meet-robert-falcon-ouellette-veteran-former-parliamentarian-and-professor#:~:text=Professor%20Ouellette%20holds%20a%20doctorate,Chair%20of%20the%20Indigenous%20Caucus | title=Meet Robert-Falcon Ouellette: Veteran, former parliamentarian, and professor }}</ref>

== Support and revitalization ==
As of 2017, Cree had about 117,000 documented speakers.<ref name=":1" /> They are still a minority language given the dominance of English and French in Canada. There are programs in place to maintain and revitalize the language, though. In the Quebec James Bay Cree community, a resolution was put into action in 1988 that made Cree the language of education in primary schools and eventually elementary schools.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=McAlpine |first1=Lynn |last2=Herodier |first2=Daisy |title=Schooling as a Vehicle for Aboriginal Language Maintenance: Implementing Cree as the Language of Instruction in Northern Quebec |journal=Canadian Journal of Education |date=22 June 1994 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=128–141 |doi=10.2307/1495244 |url=https://journals.sfu.ca/cje/index.php/cje-rce/article/view/2678 |id={{ProQuest|215381294}} |jstor=1495244 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Mistissini council decided to require their employees to learn Cree syllabics in 1991.<ref name=":3" />

The Cree School Board now has its annual report available in both English and Cree.<ref name=":3" />

There is a push to increase the availability of Cree stations on the radio.<ref name=":3" />

In 2013, free Cree language electronic books for beginners became available for [[Alberta]] language teachers.<ref>{{Cite web
| last = Betowski
| first = Bev
| title = E-books show kids the colour of Cree language
| work = University of Alberta News & Events
| access-date = 2013-01-31
| url = http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=53FA7A9A77F8439D913A7C08A71B08FB
| url-status = dead
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130130233513/http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=53FA7A9A77F8439D913A7C08A71B08FB
| archive-date = 2013-01-30
}}</ref>

The Government of the Northwest Territories<ref name=":2" /> releases an annual report on First Nations languages. The 2016–2017 report features successes they have had in revitalizing and supporting and projects they are working on. For example, they released a Medicinal Plant Guide that had information in both Cree and English. An important part of making the guide was input from the elders. Another accomplishment was the dubbing of a movie in Cree. They are working on broadcasting a radio station that "will give listeners music and a voice for our languages".<ref name=":2" />

[[Joshua Whitehead]] is one writer who has used the Cree language as part of his poetry.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Whitehead |first1=Joshua |title='mihkokwaniy' |url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/newfire/opening-up-about-indigenous-intimacy-1.4181758/read-mihkokwaniy-by-poet-joshua-whitehead-1.4201873 |website=CBC |publisher=CBC/Radio-Canada |access-date=11 December 2021}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Canada}}
* [[Cree|Cree people]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{No footnotes|section|date=September 2012}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ahenakew |first=Freda |author-link=Freda Ahenakew |title=Cree Language Structures: A Cree Approach |publisher=Pemmican Publications |year=1987 |isbn=0-919143-42-3}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Ahenakew |first=Freda |title=Text-Based Grammar in Cree Language Education |degree=MA |publisher=University of Manitoba |author-link=Freda Ahenakew |year=1984 |hdl=1993/29817}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bakker |first1=Peter |title=Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective |last2=Papen |first2=Robert A. |publisher=John Benjamins |year=1997 |isbn=1-55619-172-3 |editor-last=Thomason |editor-first=Sarah G. |series=Creole Language Library |volume=17 |location=Philadelphia |chapter=Michif: A Mixed Language based on French and Cree}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bloomfield |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Bloomfield |title=Plains Cree Texts |publisher=AMS Press |year=1974 |isbn=0-404-58166-8 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Sarah |title=Aboriginal People and Colonizers of Western Canada to 1900 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-8020-7995-4 |location=Toronto}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Castel |first1=Robert J. |title=Castel's English–Cree Dictionary and Memoirs of the Elders Based on the Woods Cree of Pukatawagan, Manitoba |last2=Westfall |first2=David |publisher=Brandon University Northern Teacher Education Program |year=2001 |isbn=0-9689858-0-7 |location=Brandon, MB}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dahlstrom |first=Amy |title=Plains Cree Morphosyntax |publisher=Garland |year=1991 |isbn=0-8153-0172-3 |series=Outstanding dissertations in linguistics |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=C. D. |title=Spoken Cree, Level I, west coast of James Bay |publisher=University of Alberta Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-88864-347-0 |location=Edmonton}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hirose |first=Tomio |title=Origins of predicates evidence from Plains Cree |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-96779-1 |series=Outstanding dissertations in linguistics |location=New York |oclc=52127595}}
* {{Cite web |date=2004–2008 |editor-last=Junker |editor-first=Marie-Odile |title=Le Dictionnaire du cri de l'Est de la Baie James sur la toile: français-cri et cri-français (dialectes du Sud et du Nord) |url=http://dictf.eastcree.org/ |language=en, fr, crn, ecs |editor-first2=Marguerite |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first3=Luci |editor-last3=Salt |editor-first4=Alice |editor-last4=Duff |editor-first5=Daisy |editor-last5=Moar |editor-first6=Ruth |editor-last6=Salt}}
* {{Cite book |last1=LeClaire |first1=Nancy |title=Alperta Ohci Kehtehayak Nehiyaw Otwestamakewasinahikan |last2=Cardinal |first2=George |last3=Waugh |first3=Earle H. |last4=Hunter |first4=Emily |publisher=University of Alberta Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-88864-309-8 |location=Edmonton |trans-title=Alberta Elders' Cree Dictionary |language=en, cr}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Okimāsis |first1=Jean |author-link=Jean Okimāsis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254919165 |title=How to spell it in Cree: the Standard Roman Orthography |last2=Wolvengrey |first2=Arok |date=2008 |publisher=Miywâsin Ink |author-link2=Arok Wolvengrey |isbn=978-0-9784935-0-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Steller |first=Lea-Katharina |url=http://fullextra.hu/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=786 |title=Paleográfiai kalandozások |publisher=Szentendre |year=1995 |isbn=963-450-922-3 |chapter=Alkalmazkodni és újat adni – avagy „accomodatio“ a paleográfiában |language=hu}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wolfart |first=H. Christoph |author-link=H.C. Wolfart |title=Plains Cree A Grammatical Study |publisher=American Philosophical Society |year=1973 |isbn=0-87169-635-5 |series=New Series |volume=63, Part 5 |location=Philadelphia}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wolfart |first1=H. Christoph |author-link=H.C. Wolfart |title=The Student's Dictionary of Literary Plains Cree |last2=Ahenakew |first2=Freda |year=1998 |isbn=0-921064-15-2 |series=Memoir (Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics) |volume=15}}
* {{Cite book |title=nēhiýawēwin: itwēwina {{lang|cr-Cans|ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ: ᐃᑗᐏᓇ|cat=no|italics=no}} |date=15 October 2001 |publisher=Canadian Plains Research Center |isbn=0-88977-127-8 |editor-last=Wolvengrey |editor-first=Arok |editor-link=Arok Wolvengrey |trans-title=Cree: Words}} [Cree–English English–Cree Dictionary – Volume 1: Cree-English; Volume 2: English-Cree].
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=cr}}
* [https://www.atlas-ling.ca/ The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas]
* [https://www.eastcree.org/pdf/ECwebmap1.pdf The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas], .pdf
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180804012235/http://giftoflanguageandculture.ca/ The Gift of Language and Culture website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050921042321/http://www.sicc.sk.ca/heritage/sils/ourlanguages/cree.html Our Languages: Cree] (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204041554/http://www.languagegeek.com/algon/cree/nehiyawewin.html Languagegeek: Cree]—OpenType font repository of aboriginal languages (including Cree).
* [https://www.pathoftheelders.com/ Path of the Elders]  – Explore Treaty 9, Aboriginal Cree and First Nations history.

=== Lessons ===
* [http://www.nisto.com/cree/ Nehinawe: Speak Cree] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000816223055/http://www.nisto.com/cree/ |date=2000-08-16 }}
* [http://www.nisto.com/cree/lesson/ Cree Language Lessons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050705074846/http://www.nisto.com/cree/lesson/ |date=2005-07-05 }}
* [http://www.eastcree.org/ The East Cree language web]
*[https://www.eastcree.org/cree/en/lessons/ Cree on-line Spelling Lessons]

=== Dictionaries ===
* [https://oldcree.com/ Proto-Cree dictionary]
* [https://moosecree.ca/ Moose Cree dictionary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100327130651/http://www.eastcree.org/cree/en/dictionary/ Online Eastern James Bay Cree dictionary] (covers both Northern and Southern dialects)
* [http://www.creedictionary.com/ Online Cree dictionary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140416180729/http://www.kwayaciiwin.com/node/15336 Wasaho Ininiwimowin (Wasaho Cree) Dictionary] at Kwayaciiwin Education Resource Centre

=== E-books ===
* [https://littlecreebooks.com/ Little Cree Books]

{{Cree language|state=expanded}}
{{Algonquian languages}}
{{First Nations in Alberta}}
{{Languages of Quebec}}
{{Languages of Canada}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cree Language}}
[[Category:Cree language| ]]
[[Category:Cree]]
[[Category:Cree culture|Language]]
[[Category:Central Algonquian languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Subarctic]]
[[Category:First Nations languages in Canada]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of North America]]
[[Category:Vulnerable languages]]
[[Category:Métis languages]]