View source for Criminal justice

{{Short description|Justice to those who have committed crimes}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Globalize|date=December 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Criminology and penology |penology}}

'''Criminal justice''' is the delivery of [[justice]] to those who have committed [[crime]]s. The '''criminal justice system''' is a series of [[government]] agencies and institutions. Goals include the [[Rehabilitation (penology)|rehabilitation]] of offenders, preventing other crimes, and moral support for victims. The primary institutions of the criminal justice system are the [[police]], [[Prosecutor|prosecution]] and [[Criminal defense lawyer|defense]] lawyers, the [[court]]s and the [[prison]]s system.

==Criminal justice system==
===Definition===
The criminal justice system consists of three main parts:
#[[Law enforcement]] agencies, usually the [[police]]
#[[Court]]s and accompanying [[Prosecutor|prosecution]] and [[Criminal defense lawyer|defence]] lawyers
#Agencies for detaining and supervising offenders, such as [[prison]]s and [[probation]] agencies.

In the criminal justice system, these distinct agencies operate together as the principal means of maintaining the [[rule of law]] within [[society]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.correctionalofficer.org/us-criminal-justice-system|title=U.S. Criminal Justice System Overview - CorrectionalOfficer.org|website=www.correctionalofficer.org}}</ref>
[[File:Adult Criminal Justice System.png|thumb|350x350px|This image shows the procedure in the criminal justice system.]]

===Law enforcement===
{{Main|Law enforcement}}
The first contact a defendant has with the criminal justice system is usually with the [[police]] (or ''[[law enforcement]]'') who investigates the suspected wrongdoing and makes an [[arrest]], but if the suspect is dangerous to the whole nation, a national level [[law enforcement agency]] is called in. When warranted, law enforcement agencies or police officers are empowered to use force and other forms of legal coercion and means to effect public and [[social order]]. The term is most commonly associated with police departments of a [[State (polity)|state]] that are authorized to exercise the [[Police power (United States constitutional law)|police power]] of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. The word comes from the [[Latin]] ''politia'' ("civil administration"), which itself derives from the {{Langx|grc|πόλις}} for {{Transliteration|grc|polis}} ("city").<ref>{{OEtymD|police|access-date=8 February 2007}}</ref> The first police force comparable to the present-day police was established in 1667 under King [[Louis XIV]] in France, although modern police usually trace their origins to the 1800 establishment of the [[Thames River Police]] in [[London]], the [[City of Glasgow Police|Glasgow Police]], and the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] [[Prefecture of Police|police of Paris]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Dinsmor |first=Alastair |title=Glasgow Police Pioneers |publisher=The Scotia News |date=Winter 2003 |url=http://www.scotia-news.com/issue5/ISSUE05a.htm |access-date=10 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716173010/http://www.scotia-news.com/issue5/ISSUE05a.htm |archive-date=16 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.met.police.uk/msu/history.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716200107/http://www.met.police.uk/msu/history.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date=16 July 2007|access-date=10 February 2007|work=Marine Support Unit|publisher=Metropolitan Police}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=La Lieutenance Générale de Police|url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo1.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011122200432/http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo1.htm|archive-date=22 November 2001|work=La Préfecture de Police fête ses 200 ans Juillet 1800 – Juillet 2000|publisher=La Préfecture de Police au service des Parisiens|language=fr}}</ref>

Police are primarily concerned with keeping the peace and enforcing [[criminal law]] based on their particular mission and jurisdiction. Formed in 1908, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] began as an entity which could investigate and enforce specific federal laws as an investigative and "[[law enforcement agency]]" in the United States;<ref>{{cite book| last =FBI| title =THE FBI: A Centennial History, 1908–2008| publisher =FBI| year =2009| location =Washington, D.C.| pages =138| isbn = 978-0-16-080954-5}}</ref> this, however, has constituted only a small portion of overall policing activity.<ref>{{cite book| last =Walker| first =Samuel| title =A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism| publisher =Lexington Books| year =1977| location =Lexington, MT| pages =143| isbn =978-0-669-01292-7}}</ref> Policing has included an array of activities in different contexts, but the predominant ones are concerned with [[Public-order crime|order maintenance]] and the provision of services.<ref>{{cite book| last =Neocleous| first =Mark| title =Fabricating Social Order: A Critical History of Police Power| publisher =Pluto Press| year =2004| location =London| pages =93–94| id = ISBN}}</ref> During modern times, such endeavors contribute toward fulfilling a shared mission among law enforcement organizations with respect to the traditional policing mission of deterring crime and maintaining societal order.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McElreath|first1=David|last2=Doss|first2=Daniel|last3=Jensen|first3=Carl|last4=Wigginton|first4=Michael|last5=Kennedy|first5=Ralph|last6=Winter|first6=Kenneth|last7=Mongue|first7=Robert|last8=Bounds|first8=Janice|last9=Estis-Sumerel|first9=J. Michelle|title=Introduction to Law Enforcement|date=2013|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=978-1466556232|page=87|edition=1}}</ref>

===Courts===
{{Main|Court}}
[[File:Microcosm of London Plate 058 - Old Bailey edited.jpg|thumb|A trial at the [[Old Bailey]] in [[London]], {{Circa|1808}}]]
{{Criminal procedure (trial)}}
The courts serve as the venue where disputes are settled and justice is then administered. With regard to criminal justice, there are a number of critical people in any court setting. These critical people are referred to as the courtroom work group and include both professional and non professional individuals. These include the [[judge]], [[prosecutor]], and the [[defense attorney]]. The judge, or magistrate, is a person, elected or appointed, who is knowledgeable in the law, and whose function is to objectively administer the legal proceedings and offer a final decision to dispose of a case.

In the U.S. and in a growing number of nations, [[guilt (law)|guilt]] or innocence (although in the U.S. a jury can never find a defendant "innocent" but rather "not guilty") is decided through the [[adversarial system]]. In this system, two parties will both offer their version of events and [[Argument|argue]] their case before the court (sometimes before a judge or panel of judges, sometimes before a jury). The case should be decided in favor of the party who offers the most sound and compelling arguments based on the law as applied to the facts of the case.

The prosecutor, or district attorney, is a [[lawyer]] who brings charges against a person, persons or corporate entity. It is the prosecutor's duty to explain to the court what crime was committed and to detail what [[evidence]] has been found which incriminates the accused. The prosecutor should not be confused with a [[plaintiff]] or plaintiff's counsel. Although both serve the function of bringing a complaint before the court, the prosecutor is a servant of the state who makes accusations on behalf of the state in criminal proceedings, while the plaintiff is the complaining party in civil proceedings.

A defense attorney counsels the accused on the a legal process, likely outcomes for the accused and suggests strategies. The accused, not the lawyer, has the right to make final decisions regarding a number of fundamental points, including whether to testify, and to accept a plea offer or demand a jury trial in appropriate cases. It is the defense attorney's duty to represent the interests of the client, raise procedural and evidentiary issues, and hold the prosecution to its burden of proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Defense counsel may challenge evidence presented by the prosecution or present exculpatory evidence and argue on behalf of their client. At trial, the defense attorney may attempt to offer a [[rebuttal]] to the prosecutor's accusations.

In the U.S., accused people are entitled to a government-paid defense attorney if the individual is in jeopardy of losing life and/or liberty. Those who cannot afford a private attorney may be provided one by the state. Historically, however, the right to a defense attorney has not always been universal. For example, in [[Tudor period|Tudor]] England criminals accused of [[treason]] were not permitted to offer arguments in their defense. In many jurisdictions, there is no right to an appointed attorney, if the accused is not in jeopardy of losing their liberty.

The final determination of guilt or innocence is typically made by a third party, who is supposed to be disinterested. This function may be performed by a judge, a panel of judges, or a [[jury]] panel composed of unbiased citizens. This process varies depending on the laws of the specific jurisdiction. In some places the panel (be it judges or a jury) is required to issue a unanimous decision, while in others only a majority [[vote]] is required. In America, this process depends on the state, level of court, and even agreements between the prosecuting and defending parties. Some nations do not use juries at all, or rely on theological or military authorities to issue verdicts.

Some cases can be disposed of without the need for a trial. In fact, the vast majority are. If the accused confesses their guilt, a shorter process may be employed and a judgment may be rendered more quickly. Some nations, such as America, allow [[plea bargaining]] in which the accused pleads guilty, [[nolo contendere]] or not guilty, and may accept a diversion program or reduced punishment, where the prosecution's case is weak or in exchange for the cooperation of the accused against other people. This reduced sentence is sometimes a reward for sparing the state the expense of a formal trial. Many nations do not permit the use of plea bargaining, believing that it coerces innocent people to plead guilty in an attempt to avoid a harsh punishment. The courts nowadays are seeking alternative measures as opposed to throwing someone into prison right away.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Punished|last=Rios|first=Victor|year=2011|pages=108}}</ref>

The entire trial process, whatever the country, is fraught with problems and subject to criticism. [[Bias]] and [[discrimination]] form an ever-present threat to an objective decision. Any [[prejudice]] on the part of the lawyers, the judge, or jury members threatens to destroy the court's credibility. Some people argue that the often Byzantine rules governing courtroom conduct and processes restrict a layman's ability to participate, essentially reducing the legal process to a battle between the lawyers. In this case, the criticism is that the decision is based less on sound justice and more on the lawyer's eloquence and [[charisma]]. This is a particular problem when the lawyer performs in a substandard manner. The jury process is another area of frequent criticism, as there are few mechanisms to guard against poor judgment or incompetence on the part of the layman jurors. Judges themselves are very subject to bias subject to things as ordinary as the length of time since their last break.<ref>"We find that the percentage of favorable rulings drops gradually from ≈65% to nearly zero within each decision session and returns abruptly to ≈65% after a break." {{cite journal |author1=Shai Danzigera |author2=Jonathan Levav |author3=Liora Avnaim-Pessoa| title=Extraneous factors in judicial decisions |date=11 April 2011 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=17 |pages=6889–92 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1018033108 |pmid=21482790 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.6889D |pmc=3084045|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Manipulations of the court system by defense and prosecution attorneys, law enforcement as well as the defendants have occurred and there have been cases where justice was denied.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Perri | first1 = Frank S. | last2 = Lichtenwald | first2 = Terrance G. | year = 2009 | title = When Worlds Collide: Criminal Investigative Analysis, Forensic Psychology And the Timothy Masters Case | url = http://www.all-about-forensic-psychology.com/support-files/criminal-profiling.pdf | journal = Forensic Examiner | volume = 18 | issue = 2| page = 226972 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Perri | first1 = Frank S. | last2 = Lichtenwald | first2 = Terrance G. | year = 2010 | title = The Last Frontier: Myths & The Female Psychopathic Killer | url = http://www.all-about-forensic-psychology.com/support-files/female-psychopathic-killers.pdf | journal = Forensic Examiner | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 50–67 }}</ref>

===Corrections and rehabilitation===
[[File:HuntsvilleUnitHuntsvilleTX.jpg|thumb|The [[Huntsville Unit]] of the [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]] in [[Huntsville, Texas]], is a [[prison]], a component of a corrections system.]]
{{Main|Corrections|Legal remedy}}
{{Judicial remedies}}
Offenders are then turned over to the correctional authorities, from the court system after the accused has been found guilty. Like all other aspects of criminal justice, the administration of [[punishment]] has taken many different forms throughout history. Early on, when civilizations lacked the resources necessary to construct and maintain prisons, [[exile]] and [[execution]] were the primary forms of punishment. Historically [[shame]] punishments and [[exile]] have also been used as forms of censure.

The most publicly visible form of punishment in the modern era is the [[prison]]. Prisons may serve as detention centers for prisoners after trial. For containment of the accused, jails are used. Early prisons were used primarily to sequester criminals and little thought was given to living conditions within their walls. In America, the [[Quaker]] movement is commonly credited with establishing the idea that prisons should be used to reform criminals. This can be seen as a critical moment in the debate regarding the purpose of punishment.
[[File:Correctional Activities at Central Jail Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2010 - Convicted prisoners receiving Quranic education.jpg|left|thumb|[[Qur'an]]ic education for offenders at the [[Central Jail Faisalabad]] in [[Faisalabad]], Pakistan]]
Punishment (in the form of prison time) may serve a variety of purposes. First, and most obviously, the incarceration of criminals removes them from the general population and inhibits their ability to perpetrate further crimes. A new goal of prison punishments is to offer criminals a chance to be rehabilitated. Many modern prisons offer schooling or job training to prisoners as a chance to learn a vocation and thereby earn a legitimate living when they are returned to society. Religious institutions also have a presence in many prisons, with the goal of teaching ethics and instilling a sense of morality in the prisoners. If a prisoner is released before his time is served, he is released as a parole. This means that they are released, but the restrictions are greater than that of someone on probation.

There are numerous other forms of punishment which are commonly used in conjunction with or in place of prison terms. Monetary [[Fine (penalty)|fines]] are one of the oldest forms of punishment still used today. These fines may be paid to the state or to the victims as a form of reparation. [[Probation]] and [[house arrest]] are also sanctions which seek to limit a person's mobility and their opportunities to commit crimes without actually placing them in a prison setting. Furthermore, many jurisdictions may require some form of public or community service as a form of reparations for lesser offenses. In Corrections, the department ensures court-ordered, pre-sentence chemical dependency assessments, related Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative specific examinations and treatment will occur for offenders sentenced to Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative in compliance with RCW 9.94A.660.

Execution or [[capital punishment]] is still used around the world. Its use is one of the most heavily debated aspects of the criminal justice system. Some societies are willing to use executions as a form of political control, or for relatively minor misdeeds. Other societies reserve execution for only the most sinister and brutal offenses. Others still have discontinued the practice entirely, accepting the use of execution to be excessively cruel and/or irreversible in case of an erroneous conviction.<ref>(ACJS) 1963 Justice Sciences 25 April 2015. 2015-05-07 ACJS History 243–252 Criminal Justice. 4: 243-2546790</ref>

==Theories of criminal justice==
{{Main|Justice#Instrumental theories of justice}}
The functional study of criminal justice is at times distinct from [[criminology]], which involves the study of crime as a social phenomenon, causes of crime, criminal behavior, and other aspects of crime; although in most cases today, criminal justice as a [[Academic discipline|field of study]] is used as a synonym for criminology and the [[sociology of law]]. It emerged as an academic discipline in the 1920s, beginning with [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] police chief [[August Vollmer]] who established a criminal justice program at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1916.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Finest of the Finest |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=18 February 1966 |url=http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899019,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014095649/http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C899019%2C00.html |archive-date=14 October 2008 }}</ref> Vollmer's work was carried on by his student, [[Orlando Winfield Wilson|O.W. Wilson]], who led efforts to professionalize policing and reduce [[Police corruption|corruption]]. Other programs were established in the United States at [[Indiana University (Bloomington)|Indiana University]], [[Michigan State University]], [[San Jose State University]], and the [[University of Washington]].<ref name="savelsberg">{{cite journal |last1=Savelsberg |first1=Joachim J |last2=Cleveland |first2=Lara L. |last3=King |first3=Ryan D. |date=June 2004 |title=Institutional Environments and Scholarly Work: American Criminology, 1951–1993 |journal=Social Forces |volume=82 |pages=1275–1302 |doi=10.1353/sof.2004.0093 | issue=4|s2cid=145220713 }}</ref> As of 1950, criminal justice students were estimated to number less than 1,000.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} Until the 1960s, the primary focus of criminal justice in the United States was on policing and police science.

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, crime rates soared and social issues took center stage in the public eye. A number of new laws and studies focused federal resources on researching new approaches to crime control. The [[Warren Court]] (the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] under [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]]), issued a series of rulings which redefined citizen's rights and substantially altered the powers and responsibilities of police and the courts. The Civil Rights Era offered significant legal and ethical challenges to the ''[[status quo]]''.

In the late 1960s, with the establishment of the [[Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] (LEAA) and associated policy changes that resulted with the [[Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968]]. The LEAA provided [[Grant (money)|grants]] for criminology research, focusing on social aspects of crime. By the 1970s, there were 729 academic programs in criminology and criminal justice in the United States.<ref name="savelsberg"/> Largely thanks to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20040325070528/http://leepusa.com/ Law Enforcement Education Program], criminal justice students numbered over 100,000 by 1975. Over time, scholars of criminal justice began to include [[criminology]], [[sociology]], and [[psychology]], among others, to provide a more comprehensive view of the criminal justice system and the root causes of crime. Criminal justice studies now combine the practical and technical policing skills with a study of social deviance as a whole.

Criminal justice degrees are offered at both the two-year community college and four-year university level. Community college criminal justice programs include the Associate of Arts (AA), Associate of Science (AS), and the Associate of Applied Science (AAS) degrees. Criminal justice degree programs at four-year institutions typically include coursework in statistics, methods of research, criminal justice, policing, U.S. court systems, criminal courts, corrections, community corrections, criminal procedure, criminal law, victimology, juvenile justice, and a variety of special topics. A number of universities offer, bachelor's, academic minors, graduate certificates, master's, and doctoral degrees in Criminal Justice; Criminology, Law and Society; [[Administration of justice|Administration of Justice]]; or a specially designated [[Bachelor of Criminal Justice]] degree.

Theories of criminal justice include [[utilitarian|utilitarian justice]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Punishment {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/ |access-date=2023-10-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[retributive justice]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Punishment |url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/punishment.htm |website=California State University |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413204529/https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/punishment.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[restorative justice]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Jon |title=Victim-Centered Restorative Justice: An Essential Distinction |url=https://justalternatives.org/VCRJ.pdf}}</ref> They can work through [[Deterrence (legal)|deterrence]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bailey | first1=William C. | last2=Martin | first2=J. David | last3=Gray | first3=Louis N. | title=Crime and Deterrence: A Correlation Analysis | journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency | date=1974 | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=124–143 | doi=10.1177/002242787401100204 | url=https://doi.org/10.1177/002242787401100204 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Rehabilitation (penology)|rehabilitation]]<ref>Monahan, John. "Preface: Recidivism Risk Assessment in the 21st Century." Handbook of Recidivism Risk/Needs Assessment Tools (2017).</ref> or [[Incapacitation (penology)|incapacitation]].

==History==
{{Main|History of criminal justice}}
[[File:Prisoners whipped.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Prisoners at a [[Flagellation|whipping]] post in a [[Delaware]] prison, {{Circa|1907}}]]
The modern criminal justice system has evolved since [[ancient]] times, with new forms of [[punishment]], added [[rights]] for [[Criminal|offender]]s and victims, and [[policing]] reforms. These developments have reflected changing [[customs]], political ideals, and economic conditions. In ancient times through the Middle Ages, [[exile]] was a common form of punishment. During the [[Middle Ages]], payment to the victim (or the victim's family), known as [[wergild]], was another common punishment, including for violent crimes. For those who could not afford to buy their way out of punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of [[corporal punishment]]. These included [[mutilation]], [[human branding|branding]], and [[flogging]], as well as [[execution]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Though a prison, [[Stinche Prison|Le Stinche]], existed as early as the 14th century in [[Florence]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wolfgang, Marvin |year=1990 |title=Crime and Punishment in Renaissance Florence |journal=Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology |volume=81 |pages=567–84|doi=10.2307/1143848|issue=3|jstor=1143848|url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6668&context=jclc |url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[incarceration]] was not widely used until the 19th century. Correctional reform in the United States was first initiated by [[William Penn]], towards the end of the 17th century. For a time, [[Pennsylvania]]'s criminal code was revised to forbid [[torture]] and other forms of cruel punishment, with [[jail]]s and [[prison]]s replacing corporal punishment. These reforms were reverted, upon Penn's death in 1718. Under pressure from a group of [[Quakers]], these reforms were revived in Pennsylvania toward the end of the 18th century, and led to a marked drop in Pennsylvania's crime rate. [[Patrick Colquhoun]], [[Henry Fielding]] and others led significant reforms during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.<ref>{{cite book |author=Garland, David |chapter=Of Crimes and Criminals |pages=20 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition |editor=Maguire, Mike |editor2=Rod Morgan |editor3=Robert Reiner |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002}}</ref>

The development of a modern criminal justice system was contemporary to the formation of the concept of a nation-state, later defined by German sociologist [[Max Weber]] as establishing a "[[Monopoly on violence|monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force]]", which was exercised in the criminal justice case by the police.<ref>Max Weber, ''Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society'', translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. New York: Palgrave Books, 2015, pp. 129–198.</ref><ref>Max Weber in Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society, translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. Palgrave Books 2015, p. 136</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bates|first1=R.|last2=Greif|first2=A.|last3=Singh|first3=S.|title=Organizing Violence|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=599–628|doi=10.1177/002200202236166|year=2002|s2cid=14970734|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3707095|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olson|first=Mancur|date=1993|title=Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development|jstor=2938736|journal=American Political Science Review|volume=September 1993|issue=3|pages=567–576|doi=10.2307/2938736|s2cid=145312307 }}</ref>

===Modern police===
{{Main|Police}}

The first modern police force is commonly said to be the [[Metropolitan Police]] in [[London]], established in 1829 by Sir [[Robert Peel]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Terrill|first1=Richard J.|title=World Criminal Justice Systems: A Comparative Survey|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317228820|page=32|edition=revised|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3hCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=John S.|last2=Forst|first2=Linda S.|title=An Introduction to Policing|date=2015|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1305544680|pages=6–8|edition=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4TCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7}}</ref> Based on the [[Peelian principles]], it promoted the [[Preventive police|preventive]] role of police as a deterrent to urban [[crime]] and disorder.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brodeur |first=Jean-Paul |title=High Policing and Low Policing: Remarks about the Policing of Political Activities |journal=[[Social Problems]] |volume=30 |issue=5 |date=1983 |pages=507–520 |doi=10.2307/800268 |jstor=800268 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/800268 |access-date=20 August 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=UKP>{{cite web|title=Policing by consent|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/policing-by-consent|publisher=UK Government|access-date=29 December 2013|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> In the United States, police departments were first established in [[Boston]] in 1838, and [[New York City]] in 1844. Early on, police were not respected by the community, as [[Police corruption|corruption]] was rampant.

In the 1920s, led by [[Berkeley, California]], police chief, [[August Vollmer]] and [[O.W. Wilson]], police began to professionalize, adopt new technologies, and place emphasis on training and professional qualifications of new hires. Despite such reforms, police agencies were led by highly autocratic leaders, and there remained a lack of respect between police and the community. Following urban unrest in the 1960s, police placed more emphasis on community relations, enacted reforms such as increased diversity in hiring, and many police agencies adopted [[community policing]] strategies.

In the 1990s, [[CompStat]] was developed by the [[New York Police Department]] as an information-based system for tracking and [[crime mapping|mapping crime]] patterns and trends, and holding police accountable for dealing with crime problems. CompStat has since been replicated in police departments across the United States and around the world, with [[problem-oriented policing]], [[intelligence-led policing]], and other information-led policing strategies also adopted.

Criminal Justice Overview.
Criminal justice is a multifaceted system that includes laws, courts, and corrections. Its purpose is to uphold societal norms by enforcing laws and punishing offenders. The criminal justice system strives to maintain order and protect citizens from harm.
The Role of Criminal Law
Criminal law is essential for defining crimes, determining punishments, and ensuring fair trials. It provides a framework for holding individuals accountable for their actions while protecting individual rights. Without criminal law, society would lack an organized means of addressing wrongdoing.
Justice for All.
"Criminal justice for all" emphasizes the principle that every person should be treated fairly under the law. This concept promotes fairness, impartiality, and equal access to justice regardless of background or social status. The pursuit of justice for all enhances the integrity and legitimacy of the criminal justice system.
<ref>Deborah Turkheimer Vol. 66, No. 1 (Autumn 2016) Published by the Association of American Law Schools: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26402415
 Kumaralingam Amirthalingam Singapore Journal of Legal Studies (Sep 2017) Published by the National University of Singapore (Faculty of Law):https://www.jstor.org/stable/44986460 </ref>
== By country ==

=== France ===
{{Further|Judicial police (France)|French criminal law#Courts}}
{{excerpt|Judicial police (France)|paragraphs=1|hat=no}}
{{excerpt|French criminal law|Courts|paragraphs=1-4|hat=no}}

===United States===
In the United States 58% thought that the criminal justice system was not tough enough, while 14% thought it was too tough, according to an opinion poll in 2023.<ref name="i029">{{cite web | last=Gallup | first=Inc. | last2=Brenan | first2=Megan | title=Americans More Critical of U.S. Criminal Justice System | website=Gallup.com | date=16 November 2023 | url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/544439/americans-critical-criminal-justice-system.aspx | access-date=25 July 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Outline of criminal justice]] – structured list of topics related to criminal justice, organized by subject area
* [[Criminal justice ethics]]
* [[Criminal justice reform]]
* [[Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences]]
* [[Criminal responsibility in French law]]
* [[American Society of Criminology]]
* [[Insanity defense]]
* [[Intoxication defense]]
* [[Penal populism]]
* [[Prison reform]]
* [[Public criminology]]
* [[Recidivism]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Works cited==
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFBell2008 |CITEREFBermannPicard2008 |CITEREFChambers1896 |CITEREFDonnelly2013 |CITEREFLegifrance}}
{{reflib|lib=FCL|Bell-2008|Bermann-Picard-2008|Chambers-1896|Donnelly-2013|Legifrance}}
* <!--{{sfn|Terrill|2009|p=}}-->{{cite book |title=World Criminal Justice Systems: A Survey |last=Terrill |first=Richard J. |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2009 |edition=7 |isbn=978-1-59345-612-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJaEzC1CBe8C&pg=PA153}}

==Further reading==
* Dale, Elizabeth. ''Criminal Justice in the United States, 1789–1939'' (Cambridge University Press, 2011)184 pp
* Fuller, John Randolph. ''Criminal Justice: Mainstream and Crosscurrents'' 2005. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
* [[Serge Guinchard]] and Jacques Buisson. ''Criminal procedural law in France'' Lexinexis editor, 7th edition, September 2011, 1584 pages.
* Hanes, Richard C. and Sharon M. Hanes. Crime and Punishment in America. Volume 1. 2005. Thomas Gale. Farmington Hills, MI
* Friedman, Lawrence M. Crime and Punishment in American History. 1993. Basic Books. New York, NY.
* Sunga, Lyal S. ''The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation''. 1997. Kluwer Law International. The Hague, The Netherlands.
* Walker, Samuel Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice. 1980. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.acjs.org/ Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences]
* [http://ictj.org/our-work/transitional-justice-issues/criminal-justice The International Center for Transitional Justice's (ICTJ) Criminal Justice Page]
* [http://www.sccjr.ac.uk Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research], an academic research centre focusing on crime and justice issues.

{{Social sciences}}
{{Types of justice}}
{{Portal bar|Law}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Criminal Justice}}
[[Category:Criminal justice| ]]