View source for Cuteness

{{short description|Subjective physical trait}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{redirect-multi|2|Cute|Cutie}}

'''Cuteness''' is a type of [[Physical attractiveness|attractiveness]] commonly associated with [[youth]] and [[Human physical appearance|appearance]], as well as a scientific concept and analytical model in [[ethology]], first introduced by Austrian [[Ethology|ethologist]] [[Konrad Lorenz]].<ref>Lorenz, Konrad. ''Studies in Animal and Human Behavior''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Press; 1971</ref> Lorenz proposed the concept of '''baby schema''' (''Kindchenschema''), a set of facial and body features that make a creature appear "cute" and activate ("release") in others the motivation to care for it.<ref name="Glocker2">Glocker ML, Langleben DD, Ruparel K, Loughead JW, Valdez JN, Griffin MD, Sachser N, Gur RC. [http://www.pnas.org/content/106/22/9115.figures-only "Baby schema modulates the brain reward system in nulliparous women."] ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences – U.S.A'' 2009 June 2;106(22):9115–9119.</ref> Cuteness may be ascribed to people as well as things that are regarded as attractive or charming.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130216110859/http://oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/cute "cute, adj."]. OED Online. March 2012. Oxford University Press. (accessed April 29, 2012).</ref>

== Juvenile traits ==
[[File:Kopfproportionen.svg|thumb|275px|Change of head proportions (especially the relative size of the [[maxilla]] and [[mandible]]) as a function of age]]
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Doug Jones, a [[visiting scholar]] in anthropology at [[Cornell University]],<!-- His qualifications are given on the first page of the article. --> said that the proportions of facial features change with age due to changes in hard tissue and soft tissue, and Jones said that these "age-related changes" cause juvenile animals to have the "characteristic 'cute' appearance" of proportionately smaller snouts, higher foreheads and larger eyes than their adult counterparts. In terms of hard tissue, Jones said that the [[neurocranium]] grows a lot in juveniles while the bones for the nose and the parts of the skull involved in chewing food only reach maximum growth later. In terms of soft tissue, Jones said that the [[cartilage|cartilaginous]] tissues of the ears and nose continue to grow throughout a person's lifetime, starting at age twenty-five the eyebrows descend on the "[[Supraorbital ridge|supraorbital rim]]" from a position above the supraorbital rim to a position below it, the "lateral aspect of the eyebrows" sags with age, making the eyes appear smaller, and the red part of the lips gets thinner with age due to loss of connective tissue.<!-- This was found on page 728 at the bottom and 729 at the top. --><ref name="DJones" />

A study found that the faces of "attractive"<!-- The study did not use the word "cute", but an "attractive" child's face would normally be interpreted as being synonymous with a cute child's face.--> [[Northern Italy|Northern Italian]] Caucasian<!-- On page 595, Sforza says the study used Northern Italian Caucasians.--> children have "characteristics of babyness" such as a "larger forehead", a smaller jaw, "a proportionately larger and more prominent [[maxilla]]", a wider face, a flatter face and larger "[[anteroposterior]]" facial dimensions than the Northern Italian Caucasian children used as a [[reference]].<!-- This information is on page 604. The citation information for the original journal article is located on page 593.--><ref>Preedy, V.R. (2012). Handbook of anthropometry: Physical measures of human form in health and disease. New York: Springer Science. {{ISBN|978-1-4419-1787-4}}</ref>

===Biological function===
Konrad Lorenz argued in 1949 that infantile features triggered nurturing responses in adults and that this was an evolutionary adaptation which helped ensure that adults cared for their children, ultimately securing the survival of the species. Some later scientific studies have provided further evidence for Lorenz's theory. For example, it has been shown that human adults react positively to infants who are [[stereotype|stereotypically]] cute. Studies have also shown that responses to cuteness—and to facial attractiveness in general—seem to be similar across and within cultures.<ref>Van Duuren, Mike; Kendell-Scott, Linda; Stark, Natalie. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927105817/http://www.winchester.ac.uk/view.ashx?Item=15993 "Early Aesthetic Choices: Infant Preferences for Attractive Premature Infant Faces"] (PDF), King Alfred's College. Archived from [http://www.winchester.ac.uk/view.ashx?Item=15993 the original].</ref> In a study conducted by Stephan Hamann of [[Emory University]], he found using an [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]], that cute pictures increased brain activity in the [[Orbitofrontal cortex|orbital frontal cortex]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Agreed, Baby Pandas Are Cute. But Why? |author=Schneider, Avie |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/01/10/169057467/agreed-baby-pandas-are-cute-but-why |newspaper=National Public Radio |date=10 January 2013 |access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref>

==Growth pattern of children==
[[File:Kindchenschema - Mensch.jpg|thumb|A young child]]
Desmond Collins, who was an Extension Lecturer of Archaeology at [[London University]],<ref>(1970). Special Issue: Early Man. World Archaeology Volume 2, Issue 1, DOI: 10.1080/00438243.1970.9979467 page 112 [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00438243.1970.9979467?journalCode=rwar20#.VGwIFYdYvls link]</ref> said that the lengthened youth period of humans is part of [[neoteny]].<!-- This is on page 15.--><ref name="Collins">Collins, D. et al. (1973). Background to archaeology: Britain in its European setting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-20155-1}} hard cover</ref>

Physical anthropologist [[Barry Bogin]] said that the pattern of children's growth may intentionally increase the duration of their cuteness. Bogin said that the human brain reaches adult size when the body is only 40 percent complete, when "dental maturation is only 58 percent complete" and when "reproductive maturation is only 10 percent complete". Bogin said that this [[allometry]] of human growth allows children to have a "superficially infantile" appearance (large [[skull]], small face, small body and sexual underdevelopment) longer than in other "[[mammal]]ian species". Bogin said that this cute appearance causes a "nurturing" and "care-giving" response in "older individuals".<!-- This was on page 83.--><ref>Bogin, B. (1997). Evolutionary Hypotheses for Human Childhood. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, vol. 40, pp. 63–89</ref>

== Gender differences ==
The perceived cuteness of an infant is influenced by the [[gender]] and behavior of the infant.<ref name=Koyama>{{cite journal|last=Koyama|first=Reiko |author2=Takahashi, Yuwen |author3=Mori, Kazuo|title=Assessing the cuteness of children: Significant factors and gender differences|journal=Social Behavior and Personality|year=2006|volume=34|pages=1087–1100|doi=10.2224/sbp.2006.34.9.1087|issue=9|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Karraker>{{cite journal|last=Karraker|first=Katherine|author2=Stern, Marilyn|title=Infant physical attractiveness and facial expression: Effects on adult perceptions|journal=Basic and Applied Social Psychology|year=1990|volume=11|pages=371–385|doi=10.1207/s15324834basp1104_2|issue=4}}</ref> In the Koyama et al. (2006) research, female infants are seen as cute for the physical attraction that female infants display more than male infants,<ref name=Koyama /> whereas research by Karraker (1990) demonstrates that a caregiver's attention and involvement in the male infant's protection could be solely based on the perception of happiness and attractiveness of the child.<ref name=Karraker />

The gender of an observer can determine their perception of the difference in cuteness. In a study by Sprengelmeyer et al. (2009), it was suggested that women were more sensitive to small differences in cuteness than the same aged men. This suggests that reproductive [[hormone]]s in women are important for determining cuteness.<ref name="Sprengelmeyer, R 2009 PP 149-154">{{cite journal | last1 = Sprengelmeyer | first1 = R | last2 = Perrett | first2 = D. | last3 = Fagan | first3 = E. | last4 = Cornwell | first4 = R. | last5 = Lobmaier | first5 = J. | last6 = Sprengelmeyer | first6 = A. | last7 = Aasheim | first7 = H. | last8 = Black | first8 = I. | last9 = Cameron | first9 = L. | last10 = Crow | first10 = S. | last11 = Milne | first11 = N. | last12 = Rhodes | first12 = E. | last13 = Young | first13 = A. | year = 2009 | title = The Cutest Little Baby Face: A Hormonal Link to Sensitivity to Cuteness in Infant Faces | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 20 | issue = 9| pages = 149–154 | pmid = 19175530 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02272.x| citeseerx = 10.1.1.468.7485 | s2cid = 1040565 }}</ref>

This finding has also been demonstrated in a study conducted by T. R. Alley in which he had 25 undergraduate students (consisting of 7 men and 18 women) rate the cuteness of infants depending on different characteristics such as age, behavioral traits, and physical characteristics such as head shape, and facial feature configuration.<ref name="Alley"/>

==Preference in young children==
Borgi et al. stated that young children demonstrate a preference for faces with a more "infantile facial" arrangement i.e. a rounder face, a higher forehead, bigger eyes, a smaller nose and a smaller mouth.<!-- This was found in the "BABY SCHEMA AND CUTENESS PERCEPTION" section. --> In a study that used three- to six-year-old children, Borgi et al. (2014) asserted that the children showed a viewing time preference toward the eyes of "high infantile" faces of dogs, cats and humans as opposed to "low infantile" faces of those three species.<!-- This was found in the paragraph immediately before the "Discussion" section. --><ref>Borgi, M. et al. (2014). Baby schema in human and animal faces induces cuteness perception and gaze allocation in children. In Frontiers in Psychology. 5(411).</ref>

== Hormones and cuteness variation ==
There are suggestions that hormone levels can affect a person's perception of cuteness. Konrad Lorenz suggests that "caretaking behaviour and affective orientation" towards infants as an innate mechanism, and this is triggered by cute characteristics such as "chubby cheeks" and large eyes. The Sprengelmeyer et al. (2009) study expands on this claim by manipulating baby pictures to test groups on their ability to detect differences in cuteness. The studies show that [[menopause|premenopausal]] women detected cuteness better than same aged postmenopausal women. Furthermore, to support this claim, women taking [[birth control pill]]s that raise levels of reproductive hormones detect cuteness better than same aged women not taking the pill.<ref name="Sprengelmeyer, R 2009 PP 149-154"/>

Sprengelmeyer gathered 24 young women, 24 young men, and 24 older women to participate in his study. He ran three studies in which images of white European babies were shown, and the participants were asked to rate them on a cuteness scale of one to seven. The study found differences among the groups in cuteness discrimination, which ruled out [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]] and social influences on perceived cuteness. In the second study it was found that premenopausal women discriminated cuteness at a higher level than their postmenopausal female peers. This finding suggested a biological factor, which was then investigated further in the third study. Here, Sprengelmeyer compared cuteness sensitivity between premenopausal women who were, and were not taking oral contraceptives. The study concluded that post-perceptual processes were impacted by hormone levels ([[progesterone]] and [[estrogen]] specifically) in females, and thus impacted sensitivity to cuteness.<ref name="Sprengelmeyer, R 2009 PP 149-154"/>

== Caregiving correlates ==
A study by Konrad Lorenz in the early 1940s found that the shape of an infant's head positively correlated with adult caregiving and an increased perception of "cute". However a study by Thomas Alley found no such correlation and pointed out faulty procedures in that study. Alley's study found that cephalic head shape of an infant did induce a positive response from adults, and these children were considered to be more "cute". In his study, Alley had 25 undergraduate students rate line drawings of an infant's face. The same drawing was used each time, however the cephalic head shape was changed using a cardioidal transformation (a transformation that models cephalic growth in relation to ageing process) to adjust the perceived age; other features of the face were not changed.  The study concluded that a large head shape increased perceived cuteness, which then elicited a positive response in adult caretaking. The study also noted that perceived cuteness was also dependent on other physical and behavioural characteristics of the child, including age.<ref name="Alley">{{cite journal|last=Alley|first=Thomas|title=Head shape and the perception of cuteness|journal=Developmental Psychology|year=1981|volume=17|issue=5|pages=650–654|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.17.5.650}}</ref>

In a study by McCabe (1984) of children whose ages ranged from toddlers to teenagers, the children with more "adult-like" facial proportions were more likely to have experienced physical abuse than children of the same age who had less "adult-like" facial proportions.<!--This is on the bottom of page 136.--><ref>Bruce, V. & Young, A. (2012). Face Perception. USA & Canada: Psychology Press. {{ISBN|978-1-84169-878-6}} (hbk)</ref>

A study by Karraker (1990) suggested that "an adult's beliefs about the [[personality]] and expected behavior of an infant can influence the adult's interaction with the infant", and gave evidence that in this way "basic cuteness effects may occasionally be obscured in particular infants".<ref name=Karraker /> Koyama (2006) said that an adult caregiver's perception of an infant's cuteness can motivate the amount of care and protection the caregiver provides, and the admiration demonstrated toward the infant, and concluded that "the adults' protective feeling for children appeared to be a more important criterion for the judgment of a boy's cuteness."<ref name=Koyama />

Melanie Glocker (2009) provided experimental evidence that infants' cuteness motivates caretaking in adults, even if they are not related to the infant.<ref name=Glocker>{{cite journal|last=Glocker|first=Melanie|author2=Daniel D. Langleben |author3=Kosha Ruparel |author4=James W. Loughead |author5=Ruben C. Gur |author6=Norbert Sachser |title=Baby Schema in Infant Faces Induces Cuteness Perception and Motivation for Caretaking in Adults|journal=Ethology|year=2008|volume=115|pages=257–263|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2008.01603.x|pmid=22267884|issue=3|pmc=3260535}}</ref> Glocker asked individuals to rate the level of cuteness of pictured infants and noted the motivation that these participants had to care for the infants. The research suggested that individuals' rating of the perceived cuteness of an infant corresponded to the level of motivation an individual had to care for this infant.<ref name=Glocker /> Glocker and colleagues then used [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), to demonstrate that baby faces with higher content of baby schema features, generated more activation in the [[nucleus accumbens]], a small brain area central to motivation and reward.<ref name="Glocker2" /> This work elucidated the neural mechanism through which baby schema (''Kindchenschema'') may motivate ("release") caretaking behavior. Furthermore, cute infants were more likely to be [[adoption|adopted]] and rated as more "likeable, friendly, healthy and competent" than infants who were less cute. There is an implication that baby schema response is crucial to human development because it lays the foundation for caregiving and the relationship between child and caretaker.<ref name=Glocker/>

Sherman, Haidt, & Coan (2009), in two [[experiment]]s, found that exposure to high cuteness [[Stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] increased performance when playing the [[Operation (game)|Operation]] game, a task that requires extreme carefulness.<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 285. The part about the Operation game being used for Experiment 1 is in the last sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 283, and the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 283. The part about the Operation game being used for Experiment 2 is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the right column, of page 284. The phrase "the two sets of stimuli used in Experiment 1," in the 1st sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 284, makes it clear the study regards the images of puppies and kittens in Experiment 1 as stimuli, a plural noun, rather than a stimulus, a singular noun.--> The study said that the shift in behavior toward greater carefulness is consistent with the viewpoint that cuteness is something that releases the human caregiving system.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 285.--> The study said that the shift in behavior toward greater carefulness also makes sense as an [[adaptation]] for caring for small children.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 285.--><ref name="Sherman2009">Sherman, G. D., Haidt, J., & Coan, J.A. (2009). Viewing Cute Images Increases Behavioral Carefulness. ''Emotion, 9''(2). Pages 283 - 285. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24259618_Viewing_Cute_Images_Increases_Behavioral_Carefulness Link].</ref>

== Cultural significance ==
[[File:Mickey-Mouse.png|thumb|[[Stephen Jay Gould]] and Nancy Etcoff cited [[Mickey Mouse]] as an example of a cartoon character intentionally designed to be cute]]
[[File:Monami Gentsuki and friends (white background).png|thumb|Examples of ''[[kawaii]]'' character designs]]
Doug Jones, a [[visiting scholar]] in anthropology at [[Cornell University]],<!-- His qualifications are given on the first page of the article. --> said that the faces of monkeys, dogs, birds and even the fronts of cars can be made to appear cuter by morphing them with a "[[cardioid]]al" ([[Heart (symbol)|heart-shaped]]) [[Transformation (function)|mathematical transformation]]. Jones said that negative cardioidal strain results in faces appearing less mature and cuter by causing facial features at the top of the face to expand outward and upward while causing features at the bottom of the face to contract inward and upward.<!-- This was at the bottom of page 728. --><ref name="DJones">{{cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=D.|display-authors=etal|title=Sexual Selection, Physical Attractiveness, and Facial Neoteny: Cross-cultural Evidence and Implications [and Comments and Reply]|journal=Current Anthropology|date=December 1995|volume=36|issue=5|pages=723–748|url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1601&context=fchd_facpub|access-date=22 January 2017|doi=10.1086/204427|s2cid=52840802|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

[[Stephen Jay Gould]] said that over time [[Mickey Mouse]] had been drawn to resemble a juvenile more with a relatively larger head, larger eyes, a larger and more bulging [[cranium]], a less sloping and more rounded forehead, shorter, thicker and "pudgier" legs, thicker arms and a thicker snout which gave the appearance of being less protrusive. Gould suggested that this change in Mickey's image was intended to increase his popularity by making him appear cuter and "inoffensive".<!-- This was at the bottom of the first page. --> Gould said that the neotenous changes to Mickey's form were similar to the [[Neoteny#Human evolution|neotenous changes that occurred in human evolution]].<!--This was at the bottom of the third page. --><ref name="Mickey">Gould, S.J. (1980).[https://web.archive.org/web/20100828081700/http://todd.jackman.villanova.edu/HumanEvol/HomageToMickey.pdf "A Biological Homage to Mickey Mouse"], in ''The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History''. W.W. Norton & Company.</ref>

Nancy Etcoff, Ph.D. in psychology from [[Boston University]],<!--These credentials are in "About the Author" before the table of contents.--> said "cartoonists capitalize on our innate preferences for juvenile features", and she mentioned Mickey Mouse and [[Bambi]] as examples of this trend. She said Mickey Mouse's bodily proportions "aged in reverse" since his inception, because "[h]is eyes and head kept getting bigger while his limbs kept getting shorter and thicker", culminating in him resembling a "human infant". She further mentioned the "exaggerated high forehead" and the "[[wikt:doe eyes|doe eyes]]" of Bambi as another example of this trend.<!-- This is in the second paragraph of the "Cuteness" section of chapter 2.--><ref>Etcoff, N. (1999). Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty. New York: Anchor Books. {{ISBN|978-0-307-77911-3}}</ref>

Mark J. Estren, Ph.D. in psychology from the [[University at Buffalo]],<!--These credentials are on the page after the index at the end of the book.--><ref>Estren, M.J. & Potter, B.A. (2013). Healing Hormones: How to Turn on Natural Chemicals to Reduce Stress. Oakland, CA: Ronin Publishing, Inc. {{ISBN|978-1-57951-180-7}}</ref> said cute animals get more public attention and scientific study due to having physical characteristics that would be considered neotenous from the perspective of [[Human development (biology)|human development]]. Estren said that humans should be mindful of their bias for cute animals, so animals that would not be considered cute are also valued in addition to cute animals.<!--This was written from reading the article's abstract.--><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Estren | first1 = M.J. | year = 2012 | title = The Neoteny Barrier: Seeking Respect for the Non-Cute | journal = Journal of Animal Ethics | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 6–11 | doi=10.5406/janimalethics.2.1.0006}}</ref>

The perception of cuteness is culturally diverse. The differences across cultures can be significantly associated to the need to be [[socially accepted]].<ref name=Kleck>{{cite journal|last=Kleck|first=Robert E. |author2=Stephen A. Richardson |author3=Ronald, Linda |title=Physical appearance cues and interpersonal attraction in children|journal=Child Development|year=1974|volume=45|issue=2|pages=305–310|doi=10.2307/1127949|jstor=1127949}}</ref> ''[[Kawaii]]'' is a concept in [[Japanese popular culture]] that describes cuteness and innocence. ''Kawaii'' aesthetics are commonly found in [[anime]] and [[manga]], and elements of it also appear in contemporary [[Japanese street fashion]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bremner |first=Brian |title=In Japan, Cute Conquers All |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2002-06-24/in-japan-cute-conquers-all |access-date=2024-10-01 |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Cute animals==
[[File:Golde33443.jpg|thumb|[[Golden Retriever]] puppy]]
{{Expand section|date=October 2022}}
Sherman, Haidt, & Coan (2009) used images of [[puppy|puppies]] and [[kitten]]s for the study's "high cuteness" [[Stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] in two [[experiment]]s.<!--Experiment 1's high cuteness stimuli being puppies and kittens is in the 3rd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 283. Experiment 2's low cuteness stimuli being dogs, lions, and tigers is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 284. Experiment 2's other stimuli (other than "low-cuteness," meaning its high cuteness stimuli) being puppies and kittens is the last sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 284. The phrase "the two sets of stimuli used in Experiment 1," in the 1st sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 284, makes it clear the study regards the images of puppies and kittens in Experiment 1 as stimuli, a plural noun, rather than a stimulus, a singular noun.--><ref name="Sherman2009" />

William R. Miller, assistant professor of [[biology]] at [[Baker University]] in [[Kansas]],<!--Miller's credentials are in the italicized paragraph, at the bottom-left, of page 384.--> said that most people, upon seeing [[tardigrades]], say that they are the cutest [[invertebrate]]s.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 1st, non-italicized paragraph, of the left column, of page 384.--><ref>Miller, W.R. (2011). Tardigrades: These ambling, eight-legged microscopic "bears of the moss" are cute, ubiquitous, all but indestructible and a model organism for education. ''American Scientist, 99''(5). Page 384. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/23019349.pdf Link].</ref>

Kenta Takada (2016) said that Miyanoshita (2008) said that the design of [[chocolate]]s made to look like [[dynastinae|rhinoceros beetle]] [[larva|larvae]] is a design that is both cute and disgusting.<!--This is in the 4th-to-last sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the left column, of page 154.--><ref>Takada, K. (2016). Gummi Candy as a Realistic Representation of a Rhinoceros Beetle Larva. ''American Entomologist, 62''(3). Page 154. [https://academic.oup.com/ae/article/62/3/154/1710486 Link].</ref><ref>''[https://www.fecava.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/FLYER_Extreme-breeding_RVau21_06_18_BAT.pdf Breeding for extreme conformations]''</ref>

Evolutionary biologists suspect that "puppy dog eyes", a trait absent from wild wolves, were unintentionally selected for by humans during the [[domestication of dogs]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbur.org/npr/733615938/scientists-explain-puppy-dog-eyes|title=Scientists Explain Puppy Dog Eyes|website=www.wbur.org|date=18 June 2019 }}</ref> In order to obtain pets with particularly cute faces, some breeds of dogs have been bred with increasingly severe cranial deformities called [[Cephalic index#Modern use in animal breeding|brachycephaly]], for example, the [[French bulldog|French Bulldog]], who consequently suffer from [[Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome]].<ref>''[https://cutecrunch.wordpress.com/2014/12/11/33/ Suffocate me…WITH LOVE – The History & Realities of French Bulldogs]''</ref><ref>''[https://www.puppyleaks.com/done-bulldogs/ What Unethical Breeding Has Done To Bulldogs]''</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Beauty]]
* [[Cute aggression]]
* [[Kawaii]] – Japanese concept related to cuteness
* [[Kewpie doll effect]]
* [[Neoteny]]

== References ==
{{reflist|33em}}
==External links==
*{{wiktionary-inline}}
*{{Commonscat-inline}}

{{aesthetics}}

[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Animal developmental biology]]
[[Category:Physical attractiveness]]
[[Category:Concepts in aesthetics]]