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{{Short description|Sanskrit term found in ancient Indian texts}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Citation style|date=September 2024}}
'''''Dasa''''' is a Sanskrit word found in ancient Indian texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]], [[Pali Canon|Pali canon]], and the'' ''[[Arthasastra|Arthashastra]]''.<ref name=kangle/> The term may mean "slave", "enemy" or "servant," but ''Dasa'' or ''Das'' can also have the following connotations: "slave of god", "[[Faith|devotee]]," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God." Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "slave" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2014-08-03 |title=Dasa, Dāsa, Daśā, Dasā, Daśa, Dāśa, Daśan, Dasha, Dashan: 43 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/dasa |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=schopen/>

''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "[[demon]]", "harmful supernatural forces," "[[slave]]," "[[servant]]," or "[[barbarian]]," depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120800618}}, pages 159-169</ref>

== Etymology ==
''Dāsa'' first appears in [[Vedas|Vedic texts]] from the second millennium BCE.<ref name=bw/> There is no consensus on its origins.

Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographer [[Pomponius Mela]], noted etymological and phonological parallels between ''dasa'' and the ethnonyms of the [[Dahae]] – Persian داها; Sanskrit ''Dasa''; Latin ''Dahae''; Greek Δάοι ''Daoi'', Δάαι, Δᾶαι ''Daai'' and Δάσαι ''Dasai'' – a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea]] in ancient times (and from whom modern [[Dahae|Dehestan/Dehistan]] takes its name).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Society |first=Pali Text |date=1921–1925 |title=The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/pali_query.py?qs=d%C4%81sa&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=dsal.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

[[Monier Monier-Williams]] in 1899, stated that the meaning of ''dasa'' varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 475</ref> In later Indian literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of ''dasa'' is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages'', Motilal Banarsidass, page 476</ref> In the latter sense, ''dāsa'' is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is ''dāsi''.<ref name=monier /> Some early 20th century translators, such as [[P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar]] (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841–846</ref>

Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra – a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, {{ISBN|978-8120800427}}</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10–16, 30–71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw /> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic beliefs]], and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, {{ISBN|978-0816071098}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>

In Pali texts, the term ''dasa'' is mentioned to denote a slave.<ref name=":0" /> ''Dasa'' in [[Buddhist texts]] can mean "servant".<ref name=schopen>Gregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824827748}}, page 201</ref> In [[Pali]] language, it is used as suffix in Buddhist texts, where ''Amaya-dasa'' was translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth",<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811447}}, page 104</ref> ''Kila-dasa'' translated as a "bought slave",<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811447}}, page 217</ref> and ''Amata-dasa'' as "one who sees [[Amrita|''Amata'']] (Sanskrit: ''Amrita'', nectar of immortality) or ''[[Nibbana]]'' (Sanskrit: ''Nirvana'')".<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811447}}, page 73</ref>

According to [[B. R. Ambedkar|Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar]], regarding the Dasas, the question is whether there is any connection between the [[Zahhak|Azhi-Dahaka]] of the [[Avesta|Zend Avesta]]. The name Azhi-Dahaka is a compound name which consists of two parts. Azhi means serpent or dragon and Dahaka comes from the root "Dah" meaning "to sting, to do harm" <ref>{{Cite book|title=Who Were the Shudras|year=1946}}</ref>

[[Michael Witzel]] compares the etymological root of ''dasa'' to words from other [[Indo-European languages]] that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestan ''dahåka'' and ''dŋha'', Latin ''dahi'' and Greek ''daai''.<ref>Michael Witzel (1995), Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parameters, in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia (Editor: G. Erdosy), de Gruyter, pages 85–125</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] in 2015, has proposed that ''dasa'' is related to the ancient [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Saka language|proto-Saka]] word ''daha'', which means "man".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=100–106}} This is contrasted with ''arya'', the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-Iranian people from Central Asia.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=100–106}}

== Identification of Dasa ==

=== As people ===
Based on the Arya-Dasa conflict described in Rigvedic text, scholars have tried to identify the Dasa as a population in South India and the Caucasus.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

[[Max Müller]] proposed that {{Transliteration|sa|dasa}} referred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before the [[Indo-Aryan migrations|arrival]] of the [[Aryan]]s.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edwin |last=Bryant |year=2004 |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195169478 |pages=59–67}}</ref>

[[Michael Witzel]] in his review of [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] texts in 1995, states that {{Transliteration|sa|dasa}} in the Vedic literature represented a North [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, and {{Transliteration|sa|das-yu}} meant "enemy, foreigner." He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Witzel|year=2001|title=Autochthonous Aryans?|url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/118|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|volume=7|number=3|page=16}}</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] states that {{Transliteration|sa|dasa}} referred only to Central Asian peoples.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82–85, 96–106}} Vedic texts that include prayers for the defeat of the {{Transliteration|sa|dasa}} as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-called [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82–85, 96–106}} Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory. Among the evidences cited were recent BMAC excavation results where forts in circular shapes were found, the shape described in the early parts of the Rigveda as the enemy forts of Indra. He also found that Rigvedic words with vocalic ''ṛ'' in their first syllable - for instance, ''ṛbīsa''- “oven” or ''śṛgāla''- “jackal” - are likely loanwords from the unknown BMAC language.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization|last=Parpola|first=Asko|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0-19-022692-3}}</ref>

=== As spiritual entity ===

Authors like [[Sri Aurobindo]] believe that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted spiritually, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the spiritual attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.<ref>{{harvnb|Parpola|1988}}{{page needed|date=October 2024}}; {{harvnb|Sethna| 1992|p=329}}</ref>

Aurobindo<ref>{{harvnb|Sethna|1992|pp=114, 340}}; Aurobindo, The Secret of the Veda, p. 220-21</ref> commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Arya [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts, {{Transliteration|sa|sukram varnam asam}}, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9. [[Indra]] carries forward or increases the "colour" of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan "colour", {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|sahatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat}}."<ref>{{harvnb|Sethna|1992|pp=114, 340}}</ref>

According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:

:''Agni born shone out slaying the Dasyus, the darkness by the light, he found the Cows, the Waters, Swar.'' (transl. Aurobindo)<ref name="Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349">{{harvnb|Sethna|1992|pp=114–115, 348–349}}</ref><ref>Which is translated by Griffith thus: ''Agni shone bright when born, with light killing the Dasyus and the dark'' ''He found the Kine, the Floods, the Sun''. (trans. Griffith)</ref>

Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described.<ref name="Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349" />

== Hindu Texts ==

=== Rig Veda ===
''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw /> In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic beliefs]].<ref name="bw" /><ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Indian People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, {{ISBN|978-8172764401}}</ref>

[[A. A. Macdonell]] and [[A. B. Keith]] in 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."{{sfn|Sethna|1992|p=26}}{{sfn|Parpola, The Roots of Hinduism|2015|pp=209–210}}

==== Dasa with the meaning of Barbarians ====
Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.<ref name=washhale />

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
अकर्मा '''दस्यु'''रभि नो अमन्तुरन्यव्रतो अमानुषः <nowiki>।</nowiki>
त्वं तस्यामित्रहन्वध'''र्दास'''स्य दम्भय <nowiki>॥८॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>

Around us is the '''Dasyu''', riteless, void of sense, inhuman, keeping alien laws.
Baffle, thou Slayer of the foe, the weapon which this '''Dasa''' wields.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref>[[Wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 22|Rigveda, Mandala 10, Hymn 22]] Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource</ref>

The '''Dasyu''' practising no religious rites, not knowing us thoroughly, following other observances, obeying no human laws,
Baffle, destroyer of enemies [Indra], the weapon of that '''Dasa'''.
– Translated by [[H. H. Wilson]]<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/56/mode/2up Rigveda 10.22.8] [[H. H. Wilson]] (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 57–58</ref>
</poem>
|Rigveda 10.22.8}}

==== Dasa with the meaning of Demons ====
Within the Vedic texts, ''Dasa'' is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word ''Dasa'' in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120800618}}, page 163</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
स इ'''द्दासं''' तुवीरवं पतिर्दन्षळक्षं त्रिशीर्षाणं दमन्यत् <nowiki>।
अस्य त्रितो न्वोजसा वृधानो विपा वराहमयोअग्रया हन् ॥६॥</nowiki>

The sovereign [[Indra]] attacking him overcame the loud shouting, six eyed, three headed '''Dasa''',
Trita invigorated by his strength, smote the cloud with his iron-tipped finger.
</poem>
|Rigveda 10.99.6| translated by H. H. Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/284/mode/2up Rigveda 10.99.6] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 285</ref>}}

==== Dasa with the meaning of Servant ====
Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]], in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in [[Rigveda]] is ''dāsa'', and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3.<ref name=sharmasai24>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1990|pages=24–25, 50–51}}</ref> The translation of word ''dasa'' to servant or slave varies by scholars.<ref name=bw /> HH Wilson, for example, translates ''Dasa'' in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave,<ref name="Rigveda 10.62.10">[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref> as in verse 10.62.10:<ref name="Wash Edward Hale 1999 page 162">Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120800618}}, page 162</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
उत '''दासा''' परिविषे स्मद्दिष्टी गोपरीणसा <nowiki>। यदुस्तुर्वश्च मामहे ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.६२ Rigveda 10.62] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>

[[Yadu (legendary king)|Yadu]] and Indra speaking auspiciously, and possessed of numerous cattle, gave them like '''servants''', for the enjoyment.
</poem>
|Rigveda 10.62.10| Translated by HH Wilson<ref name="Rigveda 10.62.10">[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref>}}

R. S. Sharma translates ''dasi'' in a Vedic era [[Upanishads]] as "maid-servant".<ref name=sharmasai50 />

==== Aryan-Dasa conflict ====
{{See also|Vedic period}}
[[Hermann Oldenberg]] states that no distinction between historical events and mythology existed for the Vedic poets. For them, the conflict between the Aryans and Dasas extended into the realms of gods and demons with the hostile demon being on the same level as the hated and despised savages.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uKeubCiBOPQC&pg=PA81|title=The Religion of the Veda|author= Hermann Oldenberg|author-link= Hermann Oldenberg|year=1988|publisher= [[Motilal Banarsidass]]|page=81|isbn=9788120803923}}</ref>

Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin suggest [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryans]] were not the only inhabitants of the region when they arrived to ''[[Sapta Sindhu|Sapta-Sindhava]]'' or land of seven rivers and their encounter with Dasyu was not entirely peaceful.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC&pg=PA307|title=The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan|author= Bridget Allchin, Raymond Allchin|date=29 July 1982|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=307–308|isbn=9780521285506}}</ref>

[[Ram Sharan Sharma]] states that the [[Vedic period|Rig-Vedic society]] was primarily organized on basis of tribe, kin and lineage. The "[[Aryan]]" tribes mentioned by the ''Rig Veda'' therefore may not have been of the same ethnicity, but may have been united by a common language and way of life. He states that while it has been argued that Dasyu and Dasa were not non-Aryans, it is more true in the case of the latter. Further the Dasas are said to be organized into tribes called ''viś'', a term used for Vedic people or tribes. The god [[Indra]] is said to be the conqueror of Dasas, who appear mostly human. There are more references to the destruction of Dasyus by Indra instead of Dasas. He is said to have protected the Aryan varna by killing them.{{sfn|Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India|1990|pp=10–11}} The Aryans also fought between themselves. The god [[Manyu (deity)|Manyu]] is invoked to overcome both Aryans and Dasyus. Indra is asked to fight against the godless Dasyus and Aryans, who are the enemies of his followers. (X, 88, 3 & XX, 36, 10).{{sfn|Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India|1990|p=17}}

The fight between Aryans and their enemies consisted mostly of fortresses and walled settlements of the latter. Both Dasas and Dasyus were in the possession of them. Sharma states that this reminds us of the later discovery of fortifications of [[Harappan civilization|Harappan settlements]], though there is no clear archaeological evidence of mass-scale confrontation between Aryans and Harappans. He adds that the Aryans seemed to be attracted to their wealth over which regular warfare took place. The worshiper in the Rig Veda expects that those who offered no [[oblation]] should be killed and their wealth be divided (I, 176, 4). However, it was the cattle which held the most importance to Aryans who were cattle-herders. For example, it is argued that [[Kikatas]] didn't need cows because they made no use of milk products in sacrifice.{{sfn|Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India|1990|p=12}}

Sacrifice played an important part in Aryan way of life, however the Dasyus or Dasas did not offer sacrifices. An entire passage in the seventh book of Rig Veda uses adjectives such as ''akratün'', ''aśraddhān'' and ''ayajñān'' applied to Dasyus emphasizes their non-sacrificing character. [[Indra]] is asked to discriminate between them and the sacrificing Aryas. Sharma states that the word ''anindra'' (without Indra) may refer to Dasyus, Dasa and Aryan dissenters. Per the Aryan view, the Dasyus practiced black magic and ''[[Atharva Veda]]'' refers to them as evil spirits to be scared away from the sacrifice. The Atharva Veda states that the god-blaspheming Dasyus are to be offered as victims. The Dasyus are believed to be treacherous, not practicing Aryan observances, and are hardly human.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC&pg=PA13|title=Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down ..., Part 600|author= Ram Sharan Sharma|author-link= Ram Sharan Sharma|year=1990|publisher= [[Motilal Banarsidass]]|page=13|isbn=9788120807068}}</ref>

[[Tony Ballantyne (historian)|Tony Ballantyne]] states that ''Rig Veda'' depicts the cultural differences between the Aryan invaders and non-Aryans of Indus valley. He states that although the inter-Aryan conflict is prominent in its hymns, a cultural opposition is drawn between Aryans and the indigenous people of North India. According to him, it depicts the indigenous tribes such as the ''[[List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes#Vedic tribes|Pani]]'' and ''Dasas'' as godless, savage and untrustworthy. Panis are cattle thieves who seek to deprive Aryans of them. He states Dasas were savages, whose godless society, darker complexion and different language were culturally different from Aryans. They are called barbarians (''[[rakshasa|rakshas]]''), those without fire (''anagnitra'') and flesh-eaters (''kravyad''). The Aryas were on the other hand presented as noble people protected by their gods [[Agni]] and [[Indra]]. He adds that their names were extended beyond them to denote savage and barbarian people in general. He concurs that this continued into later Sanskritic tradition where ''dasa'' came to mean a slave while ''Arya'' meant noble.<ref name=Aryanism>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFnNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|title=Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire|last=Ballantyne |first=Tony  |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2016 |page=170|isbn=9780230508071}}</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] identifies the Dasyus with the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC) and states that term ''Dasyu'' might originate from the word ''Daha'' which was originally a noun meaning a "male person, man or a hero", and is connected to the [[Old Iranian language]] word ''dahyu''. He identifies [[Tripura]] with the BMAC settlements like Dashly-3 in northern Afghanistan which had forts with three concentric walls, a tradition which survived in [[Bactria]] until [[Achaemenid]] times. In addition, he states that the description of Rig Veda about the Aryans always losing to the Asuras who had forts in the earlier part of the text was due to them encountering the forts of the BMAC. The Rig Veda also describes the opulence and power of the Dasyus, who defend their cattle with sharp weapons, horses and chariots. Parpola identifies with the riches of the BMAC and their finely decorated weapons. In addition, the statement of Rig Veda about Dasas worshipping Asuras who were later worshipped in [[Zorastarianism]], with the foremost being [[Varuna]] who had a counterpart in [[Ahura Mazda]], and [[Mitra-Varuna (Indo-European)|Mitra-Varuna]] corresponding to [[Mithra]]-Ahura. Based on Rig Vedic hymns, Parpola states that Aryans adopted some of the Asuras as gods to please their new Dasyu subjects, and the attestation of both Indra and Varuna in the Mitanni oath of 1380 BCE shows that amalgamation of Aryans and Dasas happened before the former migrated to South Asia.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA368 |title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity |editor=George Erdosy |author=[[Asko Parpola]] |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |year=1995 |pages=368–369 |isbn=9783110816433}}</ref>

=== Later Vedic texts ===
The three words Dasa, Dasyu and Asura are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig Veda, the Saunaka recension of [[Atharvaveda|''Atharva Veda'']], the ''Paippalada [[Samhita]]'' of the ''Atharva Veda'' and the [[Brahmana|''Brahmanas'']] text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' may have been a synonym of ''Asura'' (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120800618}}, pages 157–174</ref>{{request quotation|date=February 2016}}

Sharma states that the word ''dasa'' occurs in [[Aitareya Brahmana|''Aitareya'']] and [[Gopatha Brahmana|''Gopatha Brahmanas'']], but not in the sense of a slave.<ref name=sharmasai50>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |title=Sudras in Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass |year=1990 | orig-year=first published in 1958 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC|pages=50–51|isbn=9788120807068 }}</ref>

=== Arthashastra ===
[[Kautilya]]'s ''[[Arthashastra]]'' dedicates the thirteenth chapter on ''dasas'', in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the [[Maurya Empire]] period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915,<ref name=ss /> Kangle's translation in the 1960s<ref name=Kangle2>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part II) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ag89KaFH8SsC&pg=PA237 |year=1986 |orig-year=first published 1969 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |edition=Second |isbn=978-81-208-0042-7 |pages=237–}}</ref> and Rangarajan's translation in 1987<ref name=Rangarajan>{{citation |last=Rangarajan |first=L. N. |title=Kautilya — The ARTHASHASTRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC |year=1992 |orig-year=first published in 1987 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-011-9 |at=Chapter VIII.x}}</ref> all map ''dasa'' as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to ''dasa'' by [[Kautilya]], such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary [[Ancient Greece|Greece]].<ref name=rpk>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part III) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzxwTS0-nbUC&pg=PA186 |year=1997 |orig-year=first published 1960 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0041-0 |page=186}}</ref> [[Edmund Leach]] points out that the ''Dasa'' was the antithesis of the concept of ''Arya''. As the latter term evolved through successive meanings, so did ''Dasa'': from "indigenous inhabitant" to "serf," "tied servant," and finally "[[chattel slave]]." He suggests the term "unfreedom" to cover all these meanings.<ref name="Leach review">{{citation |first=Edmund |last=Leach |title=Slavery in Ancient India by Dev Raj Chanana (Book review) |journal=Science & Society |volume=26 |number=3 |year=1962 |pages=335–338 |jstor=40400852}}</ref>

According to ''Arthashastra'', anyone who had been found guilty of ''nishpatitah'' (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=niSpAtita&script=&direction=SE&link=yes निष्पातित] Sanskrit English dictionary</ref> may mortgage oneself to become ''dasa'' for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the ''dasa'' for money and privileges.<ref name=ss /><ref name=rpk />

According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a ''dasa'' (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female ''dasa''.<ref name=ss />

{{blockquote|Employing a slave (''dasa'') to carry the dead or to sweep ordure, urine or the leavings of food; forcing a slave to be naked; hurting or abusing him; or violating the chastity of a female slave shall cause the forfeiture of the value paid for him or her. Violation of the chastity shall at once earn their liberty for them.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss>Shamasastry (Translator, 1915),  [https://archive.org/stream/Arthasastra_English_Translation/Arthashastra_of_Chanakya_-_English#page/n261/mode/2up/search/slave Arthashastra of Chanakya]</ref>}}

{{blockquote|When a master has connection (sex) with a pledged female slave (''dasi'') against her will, he shall be punished. When a man commits or helps another to commit rape with a female slave pledged to him, he shall not only forfeit the purchase value, but also pay a certain amount of money to her and a fine of twice the amount to the government.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss />}}

{{blockquote|A slave (''dasa'') shall be entitled to enjoy not only whatever he has earned without prejudice to his master's work, but also the inheritance he has received from his father.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss />}}

== Buddhist texts ==
Words related to ''dasa'' are found in early Buddhist texts, such as ''dāso na pabbājetabbo'', which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become a [[Buddhist monasticism|Bhikkhu]]".<ref name=davidsstedeped320>Thomas William Rhys Davids and William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811447}}, page 320</ref> This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monastic is found in ''Vinaya Pitakam'' i.93, ''[[Digha Nikaya]], [[Majjhima Nikāya]]'', [[Tibetan buddhism|Tibetan]] ''Bhiksukarmavakya'' and ''Upasampadajnapti''.<ref name=davidsstedeped320 /><ref>Gregory Schopen (2010), On Some Who Are Not Allowed to Become Buddhist Monks or Nuns: An Old List of Types of Slaves or Unfree Laborers, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 130, No. 2, pages 225–234</ref>


In Buddhist scriptures, slavery is a backdrop to the narratives, and ''dasas'' (slaves) were among the donations to the monastic community. Various terms were used, like "bondsmen," "proper slave," and "proper bondman", and individuals were treated as property and could be donated as such to monks and monasteries. In various [[Vinaya|''Vinayas'']], [[The Buddha]] permits the offering and utilization of household servants and slaves, along with land, mats, livestock, tools, and medicinal items. At times, slaves were tasked with carrying out actions that were explicitly prohibited for monks<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius P. |url= |title=The Historical encyclopedia of world slavery |date=1997 |publisher=Santa Barbara, Calif. : ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |pages=111}}</ref>

== Other uses ==

=== Use of religious "devotees" ===
In [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''dasa'' is commonly used to refer to devotees of [[Vishnu]] or [[Krishna]].<ref name="isbn0-19-532639-3">{{cite book| author= Steven P. Hopkins| title=An ornament for jewels: love poems for the Lord of Gods|publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=2007 |page=160|isbn=978-0-19-532639-0}}</ref>

In [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], devotees often use ''dasa'' (meaning slave of Krishna) as part of their names, as in ''Hari Dasa''.<ref name="Cynt01">{{cite book
| author=Talbot, Cynthia |title=Precolonial India in practice: society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] | year=2001 |page=81 |isbn=0-19-513661-6}}</ref>

=== As a surname or byname ===
{{Main|Das (surname)}}
Dasa or Das is also a surname or middle name found among [[Hindu]]s and [[Sikh]]s, typically in northern half of India, where it literally means "votary, devotee, slave of God."<ref>D Roy (2013), Rural Politics in India: Political Stratification and Governance in West Bengal, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|1107042356}}, page 67</ref> For example, [[Mohandas Gandhi]]'s first name, Mohandas, means slave of Mohan or [[Krishna]]. Also, the name Surdas means slave of Sur or [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]. In the past, many saints of the [[Bhakti movement]] added it to their names, signifying their total devotion or surrender to God.<ref name="Cynt01" />

== Comparative linguistics ==
Dasa and related terms have been examined by several scholars.<ref>e.g., [[Asko Parpola]] (1988), Mayrhofer (1986–1996), Benveniste (1973), Lecoq (1990), Windfuhr (1999)</ref> While the terms ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' have a negative meaning in Sanskrit, their Iranian counterparts ''Daha'' and ''Dahyu'' have preserved their positive (or neutral) meaning. This is similar to the Sanskrit terms ''[[deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' (a "positive" term) and ''[[Asura]]'' (a "negative" term). The Iranian counterparts of these terms (''[[Daeva]]'' and ''[[Ahura]]'') have opposite meanings.

[[Asko Parpola]] states the original ''Dasa'' is related to the [[Old Persian]] word ''Daha'' which also means "man", but refers specifically to a regional ethnic minority of Persia.<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), ''The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0190226923}}, pages 100–106</ref> Parpola contrasts ''Daha'' with ''Arya'', stating that the latter also referred to "man" but specifically to the incoming [[Indo-Iranians]] from Central Asia. The Vedic text that include prayers to help defeat the "Dasa as enemy people", states Parpola, may refer to the wars of the Indo-Iranians against the bearers of the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC) culture. The latter spoke a different language and opposed Indo-Iranian religious practices.<ref name=asko /> Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but his theory is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org">Colin Renfrew (1991), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25182273 The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dāsas by Asko Parpola], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 106–109</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Déisi]]
*[[Mleccha]]
*[[Adivasi]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
; Sources
* {{Cite journal |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title= The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dasas; The problem of the Aryans and the Soma |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |volume=64 |year=1988 |page=196 |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49745/14789}}
* {{citation |last=Parpola |first=Asko |author-link=Asko Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press Incorporated |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-022692-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eykCQAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Parpola, The Roots of Hinduism|2015}}}}
* {{citation |last=Sethna |first=Kaikhushru Dhunjibhoy |author-link=K.D. Sethna |title=The problem of Aryan origins from an Indian point of view |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pkNuAAAAMAAJ |date=1992 |orig-date=1958 |publisher=Aditya Prakasana |isbn=978-8-1851-7967-4}}
* {{citation |last=Sharma |first=Ram Sharan |author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma |title=Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC |edition=Third |year=1990 |orig-year=first published 1958|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0706-8 |ref={{sfnref|Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India|1990}}}}
* {{citation |last=Trautmann |first=Thomas R. |author-link=Thomas Trautmann |title=Aryans and British India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jR_LPnEH3GsC&pg=PA209 |date=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91792-7 |ref={{sfnref|Trautmann, Aryans and British India|1997}}}}

== Further reading ==
*[[Edwin Bryant (author)|Bryant, Edwin]]: [[The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture]]. 2001. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-513777-9}}
*J. Bronkhorst and M.M. Deshpande. 1999. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
*Hock, Hans. 1999b, Through a Glass Darkly: Modern "Racial" Interpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in Vedic Indo-Aryan Society." in Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.
*Iyengar, Srinivas. 1914. "Did the Dravidians of India Obtain Their Culture from Aran Immigrant [sic]." Anthropos 1–15.
*Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. 1912. The Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.
*Rg Veda 1854–57. Rig-Veda Samhita. tr. H.H. Wilson. London: H.Allen and Co.
*Schetelich, Maria. 1990, "The problem of the "Dark Skin" (Krsna Tvac) in the Rgveda." Visva Bharati Annals 3:244–249.
*Trautmann, Thomas R. 1997, Aryans and British India. Berkeley: University of California Press.
*Witzel, Michael. 1995b, 325, fn, "Rgvedic History" in The Indo-Aryans of South Asia.

[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]
[[Category:Slavery and religion]]
[[Category:Slavery in India]]