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{{Short description|Christian icons or images depicting Jesus}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
[[File:Christ with beard.jpg|thumb|A mural painting from the [[catacomb of Commodilla]]. One of the first bearded images of Jesus, late 4th century.]]
{{Jesus |expanded=in culture}}

The '''depiction of Jesus''' in pictorial form dates back to [[early Christian art and architecture]], as [[aniconism in Christianity]] was rejected within [[Christianity in the ante-Nicene period|the ante-Nicene period]].<ref name=Irenaeus1>Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF</ref><ref name=Elvira36>[[Synod of Elvira]], 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36</ref><ref>[[Ernst Kitzinger|Kitzinger, Ernst]], "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'', Vol. 8, (1954), pp.&nbsp;83–150, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291064 JSTOR]</ref><ref name="The Westminster theological journal pp. 35–47">{{cite journal | title=The Early Church on the Aniconic Spectrum | journal=The Westminster Theological Journal | volume=83 | issue=1 | issn=0043-4388 | pages=35–47 | url=https://ixtheo.de/Record/1765247462 | access-date=March 2, 2022}}</ref> It took several centuries to reach a conventional standardized form for his physical appearance, which has subsequently remained largely stable since that time. Most images of [[Jesus]] have in common a number of traits which are now almost universally associated with Jesus, although variants are seen.

The conventional image of a fully bearded Jesus with long hair emerged around AD 300, but did not become established until the 6th century in [[Eastern Christianity]], and much later in the West. It has always had the advantage of being easily recognizable, and distinguishing Jesus from other figures shown around him, which the use of a [[cruciform halo]] also achieves.  Earlier images were much more varied.

Images of Jesus tend to show ethnic characteristics similar to those of the culture in which the image has been created. Beliefs that certain images are historically authentic, or have acquired an authoritative status from Church tradition, remain powerful among some of the faithful, in Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Roman Catholicism. The [[Shroud of Turin]] is now the best-known example, though the [[Image of Edessa]] and the [[Veil of Veronica]] were better known in medieval times.{{Not verified in body|date=April 2012}}

The representation of Jesus was controversial in the early period; the regional [[Synod of Elvira]] in Spain in 306 states in its 36th canon that no images should be in churches.<ref>Lisa Maurice, ''Screening Divinity'', Edinburgh University Press, Scotland, 2019, p. 30</ref> Later, in the [[Eastern church]], [[Byzantine iconoclasm]] banned and destroyed images of Christ for a period, before they returned in full strength. In the 16th-century [[Protestant Reformation]], the followers of [[John Calvin]] in particular saw images of Christ as [[idolatry|idolatrous]] and enforced their removal.<ref>Robin M. Jensen, ''The Cross: History, Art, and Controversy'', Harvard University Press, USA, 2017, p. 185</ref> Due to their understanding of the second of the [[Decalogue|Ten Commandments]], most [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical Protestants]] still avoid displaying representations of Jesus in their places of worship.<ref>Cameron J. Anderson, ''The Faithful Artist: A Vision for Evangelicalism and the Arts'', InterVarsity Press, USA, 2016, p. 124</ref><ref>Doug Jones, ''Sound of Worship'', Taylor & Francis, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2013, p. 90</ref>

== Early Christianity ==
=== Before Constantine ===
[[File:XV14 - Roma, Museo civiltà romana - Adorazione dei Magi - sec III dC - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 12-Apr-2008.jpg|thumb|Incised [[sarcophagus]] slab with the ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]'' from the [[Catacombs of Rome]], 3rd century. Plaster cast with added colour.]]
Except for Jesus wearing [[tzitzit]]—the tassels on a [[tallit]]—in Matthew 14:36<ref name=matthew14>[http://www.usccb.org/bible/mt/14:36 Matthew 14:46]</ref> and Luke 8:43–44,<ref name="luke8">[http://www.usccb.org/bible/luke/8:43 Luke 8:43–44]</ref> there is no physical description of Jesus contained in any of the canonical [[Gospel]]s.  In the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Jesus is said to have manifested as a "light from heaven" that temporarily blinded the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]], but no specific form is given. In the [[Book of Revelation]] there is [[John's vision of the Son of Man|a vision the author had]] of "someone like a [[Son of Man]]" in spirit form: "dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around his chest. The hair on his head were white like wool, and his eyes were like blazing fire. His feet were like burnt bronze glowing in a furnace (...) His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance" (Revelation 1:12–16, [[New International Version|NIV]]). Use in art of the Revelation description of Jesus has generally been restricted to illustrations of the book itself, and nothing in the scripture confirms the spiritual form's resemblance to the physical form Jesus took in his life on Earth.

In the first-century AD, many Jews understood Exodus 20:4–6 ("[[Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image]]") as a proscription against any depiction of humans or animals. Consequently, no figure art was produced for, or by, the Jewish communities in Judea and Galilee during Jesus' lifetime, or in the decades that followed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Joan E. |title=What did Jesus look like? |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury T&T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-67150-9 |location=London |page=1-14}}</ref> But attitudes towards the interpretation of this Commandment changed through the centuries, and by the third century, some Jewish communities were producing figure art. The frescos decorating the interior of [[Dura synagogue|Dura-Europos synagogue]] (c. 240 AD) depict many scenes from [[Hebrew Bible|the Tanakh]]. They are the earliest-known examples of Jewish figure art.<ref>[[Harold W. Attridge]], Gohei Hata, et al. ''Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism''. Wayne, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1992. pp. 283–284.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Baird |first=Jennifer A. |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4725-2365-5 |series=Archaeological histories |location=London New York Oxford New Delhi Sydney |page=139-141}}</ref>

During the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire]], Christian art was necessarily furtive and ambiguous, and there was hostility to [[Cult image|idols]] in a group still with a large component of members with Jewish origins, surrounded by, and polemicising against, sophisticated pagan images of gods. [[Irenaeus]] (d. c. 202), [[Clement of Alexandria]] (d. 215), [[Lactantius]] (c. 240–c. 320) and [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] (d. c. 339) disapproved of portrayals in images of Jesus.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} The 36th canon of the non-ecumenical [[Synod of Elvira]] in 306 AD reads, "It has been decreed that no pictures be had in the churches, and that which is worshipped or adored be not painted on the walls",<ref name="Elvira2">English translation found at Catholic University of America, accessed 5 September 2012 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716202800/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Canon%20Law/ElviraCanons.htm]</ref> which has been interpreted by [[John Calvin]] and other [[Protestants]] as an interdiction of the making of images of Christ.<ref name=Calvin>John Calvin ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' Book 1, Chapter V. Section 6.</ref> The issue remained the subject of controversy until the end of the 4th century.<ref>Hellemo, pp. 3–6, and Cartlidge and Elliott, 61 (Eusebius quotation) and ''passim''. Clement approved the use of symbolic pictograms.</ref>

The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of tombs belonging, most likely, to wealthy<ref>''The Second Church: Popular Christianity A.D. 200–400'' by Ramsay MacMullen, The Society of Biblical Literature, 2009</ref> Christians in the [[catacombs of Rome]], although from literary evidence there may well have been panel [[icon]]s which, like almost all [[classical painting]], have disappeared.

[[File:Christ Healing the Paralytic - Dura-Europos circa 232.jpg|left|thumb|230px|Dura Europos fresco which was dubbed The Healing of the Paralytic – one of the oldest possible depictions of Jesus, although there are different interpretations of the scene.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McKay |first1=John|last2=Hill|first2=Bennett |title=A History of World Societies, Combined Volume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM0BrBDztzgC&pg=PA166 |edition=9|access-date=5 August 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=Macmillan |location=United States |isbn=978-0-312-66691-0 |page=166}}</ref>{{sfn|Kraeling|Welles|1967|pp=57-61}} from the Syrian city of [[Dura Europos]], dating from about 235]]

Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by [[pictogram]] symbols such as the [[ichthys]] (fish), the [[peacock]], or an anchor (the [[Labarum]] or Chi-Rho was a later development). The [[staurogram]] seems to have been a very early representation of the crucified Jesus within the sacred texts. Later personified symbols were used, including [[Jonah]], whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between Christ's death and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]; [[Daniel (biblical figure)|Daniel]] in the lion's den; or [[Orpheus]] charming the animals.<ref>Orpheus as a symbol for [[David]] was already found in hellenized Jewish art. Hall, 66</ref> The image of "[[The Good Shepherd (Christianity)|The Good Shepherd]]", a [[beard]]less youth in [[pastoral]] scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images, and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus at this period.<ref>Syndicus, 21–3</ref> It continues the classical [[Kriophoros]] ("ram-bearer" figure), and in some cases may also represent the [[the Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd of Hermas]], a popular Christian literary work of the 2nd century.<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 53–55. See also ''The Two Faces of Jesus'' by Robin M. Jensen, ''Bible Review'', 17.8, October 2002, and ''Understanding Early Christian Art'' by Robin M. Jensen, Routledge, 2000</ref>

Among the earliest depictions clearly intended to directly represent Jesus himself are many showing him as a baby, usually held by his mother, especially in the ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]'', seen as the first [[theophany]], or display of the [[Incarnation|incarnate]] Christ to the world at large.<ref>Hall, 70–71</ref> The oldest known portrait of Jesus, found in [[Syria Palaestina|Syria]] and dated to about 235, shows him as a beardless young man of authoritative and dignified bearing. He is depicted with close-cropped hair and wearing a tunic and [[pallium (Roman cloak)|pallium]]—the common male dress for much of Greco-Roman society, and similar to that found in the figure art in the Dura-Europos Synagogue.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Katie |title=Bloomsbury CJL |chapter=Clothing and Dress in the Time of Jesus |date=2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-92807-7 |edition=1 |doi=10.5040/9781350928077.003}}</ref> 

The appearance of Jesus had some theological implications. While some Christians thought Jesus should have the beautiful appearance of a young classical hero,<ref>Zanker, 299</ref> and the [[Gnostic]]s tended to think he could change his appearance at will, for which they cited the [[Meeting at Emmaus]] as evidence,<ref>Every, George; ''Christian Mythology'', p. 65, Hamlyn 1988 (1970 1st edn.) {{ISBN|0-600-34290-5}}</ref> others including the Church Fathers [[Justin Martyr|Justin]] (d. 165) and [[Tertullian]] (d. 220) believed, following [[Isaiah]] 53:2, that Christ's appearance was unremarkable:<ref>Syndicus, 92</ref> "he had no form nor comeliness, that we should look upon him, nor beauty that we should delight in him." But when the pagan [[Celsus]] ridiculed the Christian religion for having an ugly God in about 180, [[Origen]] (d. 248) cited [[Psalm]] 45:3: "Gird thy sword upon thy thigh, mighty one, with thy beauty and fairness".<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 53 – this is Psalm 44 in the Latin [[Vulgate]]; English bible translations prefer "glory" and "majesty"</ref> Later the emphasis of leading Christian thinkers changed; [[Jerome]] (d. 420) and [[Augustine of Hippo]] (d. 430) argued that Jesus must have been ideally beautiful in face and body. For Augustine he was "beautiful as a child, beautiful on earth, beautiful in heaven."

[[File:ChristPeterPaul.jpg|thumb|left|Bearded Jesus between Peter and Paul, [[Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter]], Rome. Second half of the 4th century. Such works "first present us with the fully formed image of [[Christ in Majesty]] that will so dominate Byzantine art."<ref>Zanker, 302.</ref> For detail of Christ, see [[:File:ChristPeterPaul detail.jpg|this file]].]]
[[File:Apsis mosaic, Santa Pudenziana, Rome W3.JPG|thumb|[[Christ Pantocrator]] in a [[Roman mosaic]] in the church of [[Santa Pudenziana]], Rome, c. 400–410 AD during the [[Western Roman Empire]]]]

From the 3rd century onwards, the first narrative scenes from the ''[[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]]'' to be clearly seen are the ''[[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]]'', painted in a catacomb in about 200,<ref>Schiller, I 132. The image comes from the crypt of [[Lucina (saint)|Lucina]] in the [[Catacombs of Rome#Catacombs of San Callisto|Catacombs_of_San_Callisto]]. There are a number of other 3rd-century images.</ref> and the miracle of the ''[[Raising of Lazarus]]'',<ref>Painted over 40 times in the catacombs of Rome, from the early 3rd century on, and also on sarcophagii. As with the ''Baptism'', some early examples are from [[Gaul]].  Schiller, I, 181</ref> both of which can be clearly identified by the inclusion of the dove of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] in ''Baptisms'', and the vertical, shroud-wrapped body of Lazarus.  Other scenes remain ambiguous—an ''[[agape feast]]'' may be intended as a ''[[Last Supper in Christian art|Last Supper]]'', but before the development of a recognised physical appearance for Christ, and attributes such as the [[halo (religious iconography)|halo]], it is impossible to tell, as ''tituli'' or captions are rarely used. There are some surviving scenes from Christ's ''Works'' of about 235 from the [[Dura Europos church]] on the Persian frontier of the Empire. During the 4th century a much greater number of scenes came to be depicted,<ref>Syndicus, 94–95</ref> usually showing Christ as youthful, beardless and with short hair that does not reach his shoulders, although there is considerable variation.<ref>Syndicus, 92–93, [https://archive.today/20120708110958/http://campus.belmont.edu/honors/CatPix/CatPix.html Catacomb images]</ref>[[File:Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg|thumb|The oldest surviving panel [[icon]] of ''[[Christ Pantocrator]]'', [[Encaustic painting|encaustic on panel]], {{circa}} 6th century, showing the appearance of Jesus that is still immediately recognised today.]]

Jesus is sometimes shown performing miracles by means of a wand,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12294b.htm | title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Portraits of the Apostles | access-date=10 August 2008}}</ref> as on the doors of [[Santa Sabina]] in Rome (430–32). He uses the [[wand]] to [[Marriage at Cana|change water to wine]], [[Feeding the multitude|multiply the bread and fishes]], and raise [[Lazarus of Bethany|Lazarus]].<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 60</ref> When pictured healing, he only [[laying on of hands|lays on hands]]. The wand is thought to be a symbol of power. The bare-faced youth with the wand may indicate that Jesus was thought of as a user of magic or wonder worker by some of the early Christians.<ref>'' The Two Faces of Jesus'' by Robin M. Jensen, ''Bible Review, 17.8, Oct 2002</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''New Catholic Encyclopedia: Portraits of the Apostles''</ref> No art has been found picturing Jesus with a wand before the 2nd century. Some scholars suggest that the [[Gospel of Mark]], the [[Secret Gospel of Mark]] and the [[Gospel of John]] (the so-called [[Signs Gospel]]), portray such a wonder worker, user of magic, a magician or a Divine man.<ref>''Jesus, the Magician'' by Morton Smith, Harper & Row, 1978</ref> Only the Apostle Peter is also depicted in ancient art with a wand.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Research by Lee M. Jefferson however, argued that the depiction of Jesus holding a wand is not an attempt to portray Jesus as a magician or magic user, but rather a continuity of biblical tradition of Moses's staff. It is also argued that early Christians were strong in their rejection of magic and anything related to it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/article/jesus-the-magician-why-jesus-holds-a-wand-in-early-christian-art/ |title=Jesus the Magician? Why Jesus holds a wand in early Christian art |last=Jefferson |first=Lee M. | date= 2020| website=Biblical Archaeology Society Library |access-date= February 25, 2024}}</ref>

Another depiction, seen from the late 3rd century or early 4th century onwards, showed Jesus with a beard, and within a few decades can be very close to the conventional type that later emerged.<ref>Zanker, 302</ref> This depiction has been said to draw variously on Imperial imagery, the type of the classical philosopher,<ref>Zanker, 300–303, who is rather dismissive of other origins for the type</ref> and that of [[Zeus]], leader of the Greek gods, or [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], his Roman equivalent,<ref>Syndicus, 93</ref> and the protector of Rome. According to art historian Paul Zanker, the bearded type has long hair from the start, and a relatively long beard (contrasting with the short "classical" beard and hair always given to St Peter, and most other apostles);<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 56–57. St Paul often has a long beard, but short hair, as in the catacomb fresco illustrated. St [[John the Baptist]] also often has long hair and a beard, and often retains in later art the thick shaggy or wavy long hair seen on some of the earliest depictions of Jesus, and in images of philosophers of the Charismatic type.</ref> this depiction is specifically associated with "Charismatic" philosophers like [[Euphrates the Stoic]], [[Dio of Prusa]] and [[Apollonius of Tyana]], some of whom were claimed to perform miracles.<ref>Zanker, 257–266 on the charismatics; 299–306 on the type used for Christ</ref>

After the very earliest examples of c. 300, this depiction is mostly used for hieratic images of Jesus, and scenes from his life are more likely to use a beardless, youthful type.<ref>Zanker, pp. 299, note 48, and 300.  [http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft3f59n8b0&chunk.id=nsd0e5616&toc.id=endnotes&toc.depth=1&brand=eschol;query=Monza&anchor.id=d0e6396#X]. See also Cartlidge and Elliott, 55–61.</ref>  The tendency of older scholars such as Talbot Rice to see the beardless Jesus as associated with a "classical" artistic style and the bearded one as representing an "Eastern" one drawing from ancient Syria, [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Persia]] seems impossible to sustain, and does not feature in more recent analyses.  Equally attempts to relate on a consistent basis the explanation for the type chosen in a particular work to the differing theological views of the time have been unsuccessful.<ref>Grabar, 119</ref>  From the 3rd century on, some Christian leaders, such as [[Clement of Alexandria]], had recommended the wearing of beards by Christian men.<ref>Zanker, 290</ref> The centre parting was also seen from early on, and was also associated with long-haired philosophers.
[[File:Christ treading the beasts - Chapel of Saint Andrew - Ravenna 2016.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Christ as Emperor, wearing military dress, and crushing the serpent representing [[Satan]]. "I am the way and the truth and the life" (John 14:6) reads the inscription. [[Ravenna]], after 500]]

=== After Constantine ===
From the middle of the 4th century, after Christianity was legalized by the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313, and gained Imperial favour, there was a new range of images of [[Christ the King]],<ref>Syndicus, 92–97, though images of Christ the King are found in the previous century also – Hellemo, 6</ref> using either of the two physical types described above, but adopting the costume and often the poses of Imperial [[iconography]].  These developed into the various forms of [[Christ in Majesty]].  Some scholars reject the connection between the political events and developments in iconography, seeing the change as a purely theological one, resulting from the shift of the concept and title of [[Pantocrator]] ("Ruler of all") from [[God the Father]] (still not portrayed in art) to Christ, which was a development of the same period, perhaps led by [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] (d. 373).<ref>Hellemo, 7–14, citing K. Berger in particular.</ref>

Another depiction drew from classical images of philosophers, often shown as a youthful "intellectual [[wunderkind]]" in Roman sarcophagii; the ''[[Traditio Legis]]'' image initially uses this type.<ref>Zanker, 299.  Zanker has a full account of the development of the image of Christ at pp. 289–307.</ref>  Gradually Jesus became shown as older, and during the 5th century the image with a beard and long hair, now with a cruciform [[halo (religious iconography)|halo]], came to dominate, especially in the [[Eastern Empire]].  In the earliest large [[New Testament]] [[mosaic]] cycle, in [[Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]], [[Ravenna]] (c. 520), Jesus is beardless through the period of his ministry until the scenes of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]], after which he is shown with a beard.<ref>The two parts of the cycle are on opposite walls of the nave; Talbot Rice, 157.  [http://www.bridgemanart.com/search.aspx?key=Ravenna%20Apollinare%20nuovo&filter=CBPOIHV#2|CBPOIHV|15|x150 Bridgeman Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311034755/http://www.bridgemanart.com/search.aspx?key=Ravenna%20Apollinare%20nuovo&filter=CBPOIHV#2%7CCBPOIHV%7C15%7Cx150 |date=11 March 2012 }}</ref>

The Good Shepherd, now clearly identified as Christ, with halo and often rich robes, is still depicted, as on the [[apse]] [[mosaic]] in the church of [[Santi Cosma e Damiano, Rome|Santi Cosma e Damiano]] in Rome, where the [[twelve apostles]] are depicted as twelve sheep below the imperial Jesus, or in the [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] at Ravenna.

Once the bearded, long-haired Jesus became the conventional representation of Jesus, his facial features slowly began to be standardised, although this process took until at least the 6th century in the [[Eastern Church]], and much longer in the West, where clean-shaven Jesuses are common until the 12th century, despite the influence of [[Byzantine art]].  But by the late Middle Ages the beard became almost universal and when [[Michelangelo]] showed a clean-shaven Apollo-like Christ in his [[The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)|''Last Judgment'']] fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]] (1534–41) he came under persistent attack in the [[Counter-Reformation]] climate of Rome for this, as well as other things.<ref>[https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/high-ren-florence-rome/michelangelo/a/michelangelo-last-judgment "Last Judgment"], Esperanca Camara, Khan Academy; [[Anthony Blunt|Blunt Anthony]], ''Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600'', 112–114, 118–119 [1940] (refs to 1985 edn), [[OUP]], {{ISBN|0198810504}}</ref>

French scholar Paul Vignon has listed fifteen similarities, or "marks", between most of the icons of Jesus after this point, particularly in the icons of "Christ Pantocrator" ("The all-powerful Messiah").<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cQcBJx0ryjcC&q=marks ''The Shroud of Christ'' ("marks")] by Paul Vignon, Paul Tice, (2002 – {{ISBN|1-885395-96-5}})</ref>{{notinref|date=November 2023}} He claims that these are due to the availability of the [[Image of Edessa]] (which he claims to be identical to the [[Shroud of Turin]]) to the artists, via Constantinople.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cQcBJx0ryjcC&q=Constantinople ''The Shroud of Christ'' ("Constantinople")] by Paul Vignon, Paul Tice, ''op. cit.''</ref>{{notinref|date=November 2023}}  Certainly images believed to have miraculous origins, or the [[Hodegetria]], believed to be a portrait of Mary from the life by [[Saint Luke]], were widely regarded as authoritative by the [[Early Medieval]] period and greatly influenced depictions.  In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] the form of images was, and largely is, regarded as revealed truth, with a status almost equal to scripture, and the aim of artists is to copy earlier images without originality, although the style and content of images does in fact change slightly over time.<ref>Grigg, 5–7</ref>

As to the historical appearance of Jesus, in one possible translation of the apostle Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]], Paul urges Christian men of first-century [[Corinth#Roman era|Corinth]] not to have long hair.<ref>Regarding the [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Corinthians+11&version=NIV#fen-NIV-28592b alternate NIV translation of 1 Corinthians 11:7], and in agreement with modern interpretations of the New Testament, Walvoord and Zuck note, "The alternate translation in the NIV margin, which interprets the man's covering as long hair, is largely based on the view that verse 15 equated the covering with long hair. It is unlikely, however, that this was the point of verse 4." John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., ''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament'', "1 Corinthians 11:4", (Wheaton: Victor Books, 1983)</ref> An early commentary by [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]] (c. AD 354 – c. AD 420/440) says, "Paul was complaining because men were fussing about their hair and women were flaunting their locks in church. Not only was this dishonoring to them, but it was also an incitement to fornication."<ref>Institute for Classical Christian Studies (ICCS) and Thomas Oden, eds., ''The Ancient Christian Commentary Series'', "1 Corinthians 1:4", (Westmont: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005), {{ISBN|0-8308-2492-8}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OiHKpKh0cVMC&dq=0830824928&pg=PA104 Google Books]</ref> Some{{who|date=March 2013}} have speculated that Jesus and/or Paul were [[Nazirite#Nazirites in the New Testament|Nazirites]], a temporary vow during which hair is not cut.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} Critics{{who|date=March 2013}} emphasize that at the time, long hair on men was considered shameful as Paul states in I Corinthians 11:14. Jesus was a practicing Jew so presumably had a beard.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}}

== Later periods ==
[[File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio004vChristInMajesty (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Christ in Majesty]], still with no beard, from an English 12th-century [[illuminated manuscript]].]]By the 5th century depictions of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] began to appear, perhaps reflecting a change in the theological focus of the early Church.<ref name=Benedetto51>''The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' by Robert Benedetto 2006 {{ISBN|0-8264-8011-X}} pp. 51–53</ref> The 6th-century [[Rabbula Gospels]] includes some of the earliest surviving images of the crucifixion and resurrection.<ref name= Benedetto51 /> By the 6th century the bearded depiction of Jesus had become standard in the [[Eastern Church|East]], though the [[Western Church|West]], especially in northern Europe, continued to mix bearded and unbearded depictions for several centuries. The depiction with a longish face, long straight brown hair parted in the middle, and almond shaped eyes shows consistency from the 6th century to the present. Various legends developed which were believed to authenticate the historical accuracy of the standard depiction, such as the [[image of Edessa]] and later the [[Veil of Veronica]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Robin M. |last=Jensen |title=Jesus in Christian art|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus|editor-first=Delbert|editor-last= Burkett|year= 2010 |isbn= 978-1-4443-5175-0 |pages= 477–502 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> The earliest depiction of Jesus on a coin is a Byzantine gold solidus of the emperor Justinian II issued in 685 AD.<ref>[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/463390]</ref>

Partly to aid recognition of the scenes, narrative depictions of the [[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]] focused increasingly on the events celebrated in the major feasts of the [[church calendar]], and the events of the Passion, neglecting the miracles and other events of Jesus' public ministry, except for the [[raising of Lazarus]], where the mummy-like wrapped body was shown standing upright, giving an unmistakable visual signature.<ref name="Schiller181">''Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I'' by G. Schiller 1971 Lund Humphries, London. figs 150-53, 346-54. {{ISBN|0-85331-270-2}} pp. 181–184</ref> A [[cruciform halo]] was worn only by Jesus (and the other persons of the Trinity), while plain halos distinguished Mary, the Apostles and other saints, helping the viewer to read increasingly populated scenes.<ref name="Schiller181" />

The period of [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again. The [[Transfiguration of Jesus]] was a major theme in the East and every [[Eastern Orthodox]] monk who had trained in [[icon]] painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration.<ref name=Bigham226>''The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography'' by Steven Bigham 1995 {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} pp. 226–227</ref> However, while Western depictions increasingly aimed at [[realism (visual art)|realism]], in Eastern icons a low regard for perspective and alterations in the size and proportion of an image aim to reach beyond earthly reality to a spiritual meaning.<ref>[[Archimandrite]] Vasileios of [[Stavronikita]], "Icons as Liturgical Analogies" in ''Hymn of entry: liturgy and life in the Orthodox church'' 1997 {{ISBN|978-0-88141-026-6}} pp. 81–90</ref>

The 13th century witnessed a turning point in the portrayal of the powerful [[Kyrios]] image of Jesus as a [[Miracles of Jesus|wonder worker]] in the [[Western Church|West]], as the [[Order of Saint Francis|Franciscans]] began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death via the nativity scene as well as the crucifixion.<ref name=Brooke>''The image of St Francis'' by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 {{ISBN|0-521-78291-0}} pp. 183–184</ref><ref name=Raab>''The tradition of Catholic prayer'' by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 {{ISBN|0-8146-3184-3}} pp. 86–87</ref><ref name=GFinger>''The vitality of the Christian tradition'' by George Finger Thomas 1944 {{ISBN|0-8369-2378-2}} pp. 110–112</ref> The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions and as the joys of the [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity]] of were added to the agony of crucifixion a whole new range of emotions were ushered in, with wide-ranging cultural impact on the image of Jesus for centuries thereafter.<ref name=Brooke /><ref name=GFinger /><ref>''La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental theology'' by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 {{ISBN|0-7425-5157-1}} pp. 3–5</ref><ref>''Philippines'' by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan-Mercado 2005 {{ISBN|0-7614-1475-4}} p. 109</ref>
[[File:Christ Carrying the Cross 1580.jpg|thumb|''[[Christ Carrying the Cross]]'', 1580, by [[El Greco]], whose art reflects both his roots in Greek Orthodox traditions and the Catholic [[Counter-Reformation]]]]

After [[Giotto]], [[Fra Angelico]] and others systematically developed uncluttered images that focused on the depiction of Jesus with an ideal human beauty, in works like [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)|Last Supper]]'', arguably the first [[High Renaissance]] painting.<ref>''Experiencing Art Around Us'' by Thomas Buser 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-534-64114-6}} pp. 382–383</ref><ref>''Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper: a Cosmic Drama and an Act of Redemption'' by Michael Ladwein 2006 pp. 27, 60</ref> Images of Jesus now drew on classical sculpture, at least in some of their poses. However [[Michelangelo]] was considered to have gone much too far in his beardless Christ in his ''[[The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)|The Last Judgment]]'' fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]], which very clearly adapted classical sculptures of [[Apollo]], and this path was rarely followed by other artists.

The High Renaissance was contemporary with the start of the [[Protestant Reformation]] which, [[The Reformation and art|especially in its first decades]], violently [[Religious images in Christian theology|objected to almost all public religious images as idolatrous]], and vast numbers were destroyed.  Gradually images of Jesus became acceptable to most Protestants in various contexts, especially in narrative contexts, as book illustrations and prints, and later in larger paintings.  Protestant art continued the now-standard depiction of the physical appearance of Jesus.  Meanwhile, the Catholic [[Counter-Reformation]] re-affirmed the importance of art in assisting the devotions of the faithful, and encouraged the production of new images of or including Jesus in enormous numbers, also continuing to use the standard depiction.

During the 17th century, some writers, such as [[Thomas Browne]] in his [[Pseudodoxia Epidemica]] criticized depictions of Jesus with long hair. Although some scholars believed that Jesus wore long hair because he was a [[Nazarite]] and therefore could not cut his hair, Browne argues "that our Saviour was a Nazarite after this kind, we have no reason to determine; for he drank Wine, and was therefore called by the Pharisees, a Wine-bibber; he approached also the dead, as when he raised from death Lazarus, and the daughter of Jairus."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Browne |first1=Thomas |title=The Works of Thomas Browne Vol. 2 |publisher=Gutenberg |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/39961/39961-h/39961-h.htm}}</ref>

By the end of the 19th century, new reports of miraculous images of Jesus had appeared and continue to receive significant attention, e.g. [[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 photograph of the [[Shroud of Turin]], one of the most controversial artifacts in history, which during its May 2010 exposition it was visited by over 2 million people.<ref>Arthur Barnes, 2003 ''Holy Shroud of Turin'' Kessinger Press {{ISBN|0-7661-3425-3}} pp. 2–9</ref><ref name=WMeacham>William Meacham, ''The Authentication of the Turin Shroud:An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology'', [[Current Anthropology]], Volume 24, No 3, June 1983</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146 |title=Zenit, May 5, 2010 |publisher=Zenit.org |date=5 May 2010 |access-date=4 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927020556/http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146 |archive-date=27 September 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Another 20th-century depiction of Jesus, namely the [[Divine Mercy image]] based on [[Faustina Kowalska]]'s reported vision has over 100 million followers.<ref>Catherine M. Odell, 1998, ''Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy'' OSV Press {{ISBN|978-0-87973-923-2}} p. 165</ref><ref name="With You Always' page 548">''Am With You Always'' by Benedict Groeschel 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-58617-257-2}} p. 548</ref> The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 film ''La Passion du Christ'' produced in Paris, which lasted 5 minutes.<ref>''The Challenge of the Silver Screen (Studies in Religion and the Arts)'' By Freek L. Bakker 2009 {{ISBN|90-04-16861-3}} p. 1</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of early cinema'' by Richard Abe 2005 {{ISBN|0-415-23440-9}} p. 518</ref> Thereafter cinematic portrayals have continued to show Jesus with a beard in the standard western depiction that resembles traditional images.<ref name=BWell526>''The Blackwell Companion to Jesus'' edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 {{ISBN|1-4051-9362-X}} p. 526</ref>

A scene from the documentary film ''[[Super Size Me]]'' showed American children being unable to identify a common depiction of Jesus, despite recognizing other figures like [[George Washington]] and [[Ronald McDonald]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.preachingtoday.com/illustrations/2004/december/15702.html|title="Super Size Me": Recognizing Jesus|access-date=13 August 2020|archive-date=5 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705192208/https://www.preachingtoday.com/illustrations/2004/december/15702.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Conventional depictions ==
Conventional depictions of Christ developed in medieval art include the narrative scenes of the Life of Christ, and many other conventional depictions:

Common narrative scenes from the [[Life of Christ in art]] include:
* [[Nativity of Jesus in art]]
* [[Adoration of the Shepherds]]
* [[Adoration of the Magi]]
* [[Finding in the Temple]]
* [[Baptism of Jesus]]
* [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]
* [[Descent from the Cross]]
* [[Doom (painting)|Last Judgement]]
Devotional images include:
* [[Madonna and child]]
* [[Christ in Majesty]]
* [[Christ Pantokrator]]
* [[Sacred Heart]]
* [[Pietà]] (mother and dead son)
* [[Lamb of God]]
* [[Man of sorrows]]
* [[Pensive Christ]]

== Range of depictions ==
{{See also|God the Father in Western art}}
[[File:Iyesus (Ethiopia).jpg|thumb|An 18th-century [[Ethiopian art|Ethiopian image]] of Jesus]]
Certain local traditions have maintained different depictions, sometimes reflecting local racial characteristics, as do the Catholic and Orthodox depictions. The [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Church]] of [[Egypt]] separated in the 5th century, and has a distinctive depiction of Jesus, consistent with [[Coptic art]].  The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Church]], also Coptic, developed on Coptic traditions, but shows Jesus and all Biblical figures with the [[Ethiopian]] appearance of its members.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}}  Other traditions in China, Central Asia and elsewhere generally depict the [[appearance of Jesus]] as that of the local population (see the gallery below).{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In modern times such variation has become more common, but images following the traditional depiction in both physical appearance and clothing are still dominant, perhaps surprisingly so. In Europe, local ethnic tendencies in depictions of Jesus can be seen, for example in Spanish, German, or [[Early Netherlandish painting]], but almost always surrounding figures are still more strongly characterised.  For example, the [[Virgin Mary]], after the vision reported by [[Bridget of Sweden]], was often shown with blonde hair, but Christ's is very rarely paler than a light brown.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Some medieval Western depictions, usually of the [[Meeting at Emmaus]], where his disciples do not recognise him at first (Luke.24.13–32), showed Jesus wearing a [[Jewish hat]].<ref>A 12th-century English example [http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=311098&handle=book&pg=3 is in the Getty Museum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607133945/http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=311098&handle=book&pg=3 |date=7 June 2010 }}</ref>

[[File:Race of Jesus.ogv|thumb|The CGI model created in 2001 depicted Jesus' skin color as being darker and more [[olive skin|olive-colored]] than his traditional depictions in Western art.]]
In 2001, the television series ''[[Son of God (TV series)|Son of God]]'' used one of three first-century Jewish skulls from a leading department of [[forensic science]] in Israel to depict Jesus in a new way.<ref name=G1>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/mar/27/broadcasting.uknews2|title=Is this the real face of Jesus Christ?|first=Matt|last=Wells|date=27 March 2001|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|publisher=[[Guardian News and Media|Guardian]]|location=London|issn=0261-3077|oclc=60623878|access-date=12 May 2011}}</ref> A face was constructed using [[forensic anthropology]] by [[Richard Neave]], a retired medical artist from the Unit of Art in Medicine at the [[University of Manchester]].<ref name=CNN /> The face that Neave constructed suggested that Jesus would have had a broad face and large nose, and differed significantly from the traditional depictions of Jesus in renaissance art.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3958241.stm|title=So what color was Jesus?|first=Giles|last=Wilson|date=27 October 2004|work=BBC News  |location=London|access-date=12 May 2011}}</ref> Additional information about Jesus' skin color and hair was provided by [[Mark Goodacre]], a New Testament scholar and professor at Duke University.<ref name=BBC />

Using third-century images from a synagogue—the earliest pictures of Jewish people<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/experts-reconstruct-face-of-jesus/|title=Experts Reconstruct Face Of Jesus|date=27 March 2001|publisher=[[CBS]]|location=London|access-date=12 May 2011}}</ref>—Goodacre proposed that Jesus' skin color would have been darker and swarthier than his traditional Western image. He also suggested that he would have had short, curly hair and a short cropped beard.<ref name="Popular Mechanics">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/health/forensics/1282186|title=The Real Face Of Jesus|first=Mike|last=Fillon|date=7 December 2002|journal=[[Popular Mechanics]]|publisher=[[Hearst Corporation|Hearst]]|location=San Francisco|issn=0032-4558|oclc=3643271|access-date=12 May 2011}}</ref> Although entirely speculative as the face of Jesus,<ref name=CNN>{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/TECH/science/12/25/face.jesus/|title=From science and computers, a new face of Jesus|first=Jeordan|last=Legon|date=25 December 2002|publisher=CNN|access-date=12 May 2011}}</ref> the result of the study determined that Jesus' skin would have been more olive-colored than white or black,<ref name=BBC /> and that he would have looked like a typical Galilean Semite. Among the points made was that the Bible records that Jesus's disciple Judas had to point him out to those arresting him in [[Gethsemane]]. The implied argument is that if Jesus's physical appearance had differed markedly from his disciples, then he would have been relatively easy to identify.<ref name="Popular Mechanics" />

== Miraculous images of Jesus ==
{{Main|Acheiropoieta|Divine Mercy image|Head of Christ}}
[[File:Turin plasch.jpg|thumb|[[Secondo Pia]]'s negative of his 1898 photo of the [[Shroud of Turin]]. Many Christians believe this image to be the [[Holy Face of Jesus]].]]
There are, however, some images which have been claimed to realistically show how Jesus looked. One early tradition, recorded by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], says that Jesus once washed his face with water and then dried it with a cloth, leaving an image of his face imprinted on the cloth. This was sent by him to King [[Abgarus of Edessa]], who had sent a messenger asking Jesus to come and heal him of his disease.  This image, called the ''Mandylion'' or [[Image of Edessa]], appears in history in around 525. Numerous replicas of this "[[Acheiropoieta|image not made by human hands]]" remain in circulation. There are also [[icon]] compositions of Jesus and Mary that are traditionally believed by many [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] to have originated in paintings by [[Luke the Evangelist]].

A currently familiar depiction is that on the [[Shroud of Turin]], whose records go back to 1353. Controversy surrounds the shroud and its exact origin remains subject to debate.<ref>William Meacham, ''The Authentication of the Turin Shroud: An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology'', Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983</ref> The Shroud of Turin is respected by Christians of several traditions, including Baptists, Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Orthodox, Pentecostals, and Presbyterians.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Shroud of Turin: Its Ecumenical Implications|last=The Rev. Albert R. Dreisbach|year=1997|quote= Returning to the ecumenical dimension of this sacred linen, it became very evident to me on the night of August 16, 1983, when local judicatory leaders offered their corporate blessing to the TURIN SHROUD EXHIBIT and participated in the Evening Office of the Holy Shroud.  The Greek Archbishop, the Roman Catholic Archbishop, the Episcopal Bishop and the Presiding Bishop of the AME Church gathered before the world's first full size, backlit transparency of the Shroud and joined clergy representing the Assemblies of God, Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists and Presbyterians in an amazing witness to ecumenical unity.  At the conclusion of the service, His Grace Bishop John of the Greek Orthodox Diocese of Atlanta, turned to me and said: "Thank you very much for picking our day."  I didn't fully understand the significance of his remark until he explained to me that August 16th is the Feast of the Holy Mandylion commemorating the occasion in 944 A.D. when the Shroud was first shown to the public in Byzantium following its arrival the previous day from Edessa in southeastern Turkey. }}</ref> It is one of the [[Catholic devotion]]s approved by the Holy See, that to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]], now uses the image of the face on the shroud as it appeared in the negative of the photograph taken by amateur photographer [[Secondo Pia]] in 1898.<ref>Joan Carroll Cruz, 1984, ''Relics'' OSV Press {{ISBN|0-87973-701-8}} p. 49</ref><ref name=Ball635>Ann Ball, 2003 ''Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices'' {{ISBN|0-87973-910-X}} pp. 239, 635</ref> The image cannot be clearly seen on the shroud itself with the naked eye, and it surprised Pia to the extent that he said he almost dropped and broke the photographic plate when he first saw the developed negative image on it in the evening of 28 May 1898.<ref name=Ball635 />

Before 1898, devotion to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]] used an image based on the [[Veil of Veronica]], where legend recounts that Veronica from Jerusalem encountered Jesus along the [[Via Dolorosa]] on the way to [[Calvary]]. When she paused to wipe the sweat from Jesus's face with her veil, the image was imprinted on the cloth. The establishment of these images as [[Catholic devotions]] traces back to Sister [[Marie of St Peter]] and the [[Venerable]] [[Leo Dupont]] who started and promoted them from 1844 to 1874 in [[Tours]] France, and Sister [[Maria Pierina]] De Micheli who associated the image from the Shroud of Turin with the devotion in 1936 in [[Milan]] Italy.
[[File:Christos Acheiropoietos.jpg|thumb|"The Saviour Not Made by Hands", a [[Novgorod]]ian icon from c. 1100 based on a Byzantine model]]

A very popular 20th-century depiction among Roman Catholics and Anglicans is the [[Divine Mercy image]],<ref name="Brockman2011">{{cite book|last=Brockman|first=Norbert|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places|date= 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-654-6|page=140}}<!--|access-date=26 April 2014--></ref> which was approved by Pope [[John Paul II]] in April 2000.<ref name="Drake85">Tim Drake, 2002, Saints of the Jubilee, {{ISBN|978-1-4033-1009-5}} pp. 85–95</ref> The Divine Mercy depiction is formally used in celebrations of [[Divine Mercy Sunday]] and is venerated by over 100 million Catholics who follow the devotion.<ref name="With You Always' page 548" /> The image is not part of Acheiropoieta in that it has been depicted by modern artists, but the pattern of the image is said to have been miraculously shown to Saint [[Faustina Kowalska]] in a vision of Jesus in 1931 in [[Płock]], Poland.<ref name="Drake85" />

Faustina wrote in her diary that Jesus appeared to her and asked her to "Paint an image according to the pattern you see".<ref name="Drake85" /><ref name=Torretto84 /> Faustina eventually found an artist ([[Eugene Kazimierowski]]) to depict the Divine Mercy image of Jesus with his right hand raised in a sign of blessing and the left hand touching the garment near his breast, with two large rays, one red, the other white emanating from near his heart.<ref name=Torretto84>''A Divine Mercy Resource'' by Richard Torretto 2010 {{ISBN|1-4502-3236-1}} "The Image of Divine Mercy" pp. 84–107</ref><ref name=Odell63>Catherine M. Odell, 1998, Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy OSV Press {{ISBN|978-0-87973-923-2}}  pp. 63–64</ref> After Faustina's death, a number of other artists painted the image, with the depiction by [[Adolf Hyla]] being among the most reproduced.<ref>''Butler's lives of the saints: the third millennium'' by Paul Burns, Alban Butler 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-86012-383-5}} p. 252</ref>

[[Warner Sallman]] stated that ''[[The Head of Christ]]'' was the result of a "miraculous vision that he received late one night", proclaiming that "the answer came at 2 A.M., January 1924" as "a vision in response to my prayer to God in a despairing situation."<ref name="Morgan1996">{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=David|title=Icons of American Protestantism: The Art of Warner Sallman|year=1996|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06342-4|page=62|quote=Sallman always insisted that his initial sketch of Jesus was the result of spiritual "picturization", a miraculous vision that he received late one night. "The answer came at 2 A.M., January 1924," he wrote. "It came as a vision in response to my prayer to God in a despairing situation." The situation was a deadline: Sallman had been commissioned to paint the February cover for the ''Covenant Companion'', the monthly magazine of the Evangelical Covenant Church, and he had artist's block for weeks. The February issue was focusing on Christian youth, and Sallman's assignment was to provide an inspirational image of Christ that would "challenge our young people." "I mused over it for a long time in prayer and meditation," Sallman recalled, "seeking for something which would catch the eye and convey the message of the Christian gospel on the cover."}}<!--|access-date=30 April 2014--></ref> The ''Head of Christ'' is venerated in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]],<ref>{{cite journal|date=Fall 1997|journal=Coptic Church Review|volume=18|issue=3|title=Theological Issues of the Coptic Orthodox Inculturation in Western Society|author=Otto F.A. Meinardus, Ph.D.|issn=0273-3269|quote=An interesting case of inculturation occurred on Monday, November 11, 1991 when the 12-year-old Isaac Ayoub of Houston, Texas, suffering from leukemia, saw that the eyes of Jesus in the famous Sallman ''Head of Christ'' began moving and shedding an oily liquid like tears. On the same day, Fr. Ishaq Soliman, the Coptic priest of St. Mark’s Coptic Church in Houston, testified to the miracles. On the following day, Dr. Atef Rizkalla, the family physician, examined the youth and certified that there were no traces of leukemia. Sallman’s ''Head of Christ'' was exhibited in the Coptic Church and more than 50,000 people visited the church. Two Coptic bishops, Anbâ Tadros of Port Said and Anbâ Yuhanna of Cairo verified the story.}}</ref> after twelve-year-old Isaac Ayoub, who diagnosed with cancer, saw the eyes of [[Jesus]] in the painting shedding tears; Fr. Ishaq Soliman of St. Mark's Coptic Church in Houston, on the same day, "testified to the miracles" and on the next day, "Dr. Atef Rizkalla, the family physician, examined the youth and certified that there were no traces of [[leukemia]]".<ref name="Meinardus2006" />

With episcopal approval from Bishop Tadros of Port Said and Bishop Yuhanna of Cairo, "Sallman's ''Head of Christ'' was exhibited in the Coptic Church", with "more than fifty thousand people" visiting the church to see it.<ref name="Meinardus2006">{{cite book|last=Meinardus|first=Otto F. A.|title=Christians In Egypt: Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant Communities – Past and Present|date=2006|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-1-61797-262-1|page=70|quote=An interesting case of inculturation took place on Monday, November 11, 1991 when the twelve-year-old Isaac Ayoub of Houston, Texas, suffering from leukemia, saw that the eyes of Jesus in the famous Sallman "Head of Christ" began moving and shedding an oily liquid like tears. On the same day, Father Ishaq Soliman, the Coptic priest of St. Mark's Coptic Church in Houston, testified to the miracles. On the following day, Dr. Atef Rizkalla, the family physician, examined the youth and certified that there were no traces of leukemia. Sallman's ''Head of Christ'' was exhibited in the Coptic Church and more than fifty thousand people visited the church. Two Coptic bishops, Bishop Tadros of Port Said and Bishop Yuhanna of Cairo, verified the story.}}<!--|access-date=28 April 2014--></ref> In addition, several [[Christian media|religious magazines]] have explained the "power of Sallman's picture" by documenting occurrences such as [[Headhunting|headhunters]] letting go of a businessman and fleeing after seeing the image, a "thief who aborted his misdeed when he saw the ''Head of Christ'' on a living room wall", and [[conversion to Christianity|deathbed conversions]] of non-believers to Christianity.<ref name="Morgan96">{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=David|title=The Art of Warner Sallman|year=1996|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06342-4|page=192|quote=Articles published in popular religious magazines during this time gathered together in an obviously didactic way several anecdotes concerning the power of Sallman's picture among nonwhites, non-Christians, and those exhibiting unacceptable behavior. We read of a white businessman, for instance, in a remote jungle, assaulted by a vicious group of headhunters who demand that he remove his clothes. In going through his billfold, they discover a small reproduction of Sallman's Christ, quickly apologize, then vanish "into the jungle without inflicting further harm." A second article relates the story of the thief who aborted his misdeed when he saw the ''Head of Christ'' on a living room wall. Another tells of the conversion of a Jewish woman on her deathbed, when a hospital chaplain shows her Sallman's picture.}}<!--|access-date=1 May 2014--></ref> As an extraordinarily successful work of [[Christian art|Christian popular devotional art]],<ref name="Lippy1994">{{cite book|last=Lippy|first=Charles H.|title=Being Religious, American Style: A History of Popular Religiosity in the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3yB1R5485dUC&pg=PA185|access-date=30 April 2014|date=1994|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-27895-2|page=185|quote=Of these one stands out as having deeply impressed itself of the American religious consciousness: the ''Head of Christ'' by artist Warner Sallman (1892–1968). Originally sketched in charcoal as a cover illustration for the ''Covenant Companion'', the magazine of the Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant of America denomination, and based on an image of Jesus in a painting by the French artist Leon Augustin Lhermitte, Sallman's ''Head of Christ'' was painted in 1940. In half a century, it had been produced more than five hundred million times in formats ranging from large-scale copies for use in churches to wallet-sized ones that individuals could carry with them at all times.}}</ref> it had been reproduced over half a billion times worldwide by the end of the 20th century.<ref name="BlumHarvey2012">{{cite book|last1=Blum|first1=Edward J.|last2=Harvey|first2=Paul|title=Color of Christ|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPSB1QZkFU0C&pg=PA211|access-date=30 April 2014|date=2012|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-3737-5|page=211|quote=By the 1990s, Sallman's Head of Christ had been printed more than 500 million times and had achieved global iconic status.}}</ref>

== Examples ==
<gallery>
File:ChristAsSol.jpg|A representation of Jesus as [[Sol Invictus]]. Mosaic of the 3rd century on the [[Tomb of the Julii]] under [[St. Peter's Basilica]].
File:Syriac miniature of Christ.jpg|Christ holding [[Gospel of John]], miniature in Syriac manuscript DIYR 339, a 6th-century gospel book from [[St. Mary Church, Diyarbakır]]
File:Solidus-Justinian II-Christ b-sb1413.jpg|Jesus depicted on an early 8th-century Byzantine coin. After the [[Byzantine iconoclasm]] all coins had Christ on them.
File:Restored Mogao Christian painting 3.jpg|Restored [[Church of the East]] [[Mogao Christian painting|painting of Jesus Christ]], 9th century
File:Edgar from Winchester Charter.png|A beardless Christ in the [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] New Minster Charter, [[Winchester]], mid-10th century
File:Jesus Image on a Manichaean Temple Banner.jpg|Reconstruction of the enthroned Jesus ({{transliteration|pal|Yišō}}) image on a Manichaean temple banner from c. 10th-century [[Qocho]] (East Central Asia)
File:Christ pantocrator daphne1090-1100.jpg|11th-century [[Christ Pantocrator]] with the [[halo (religious iconography)|halo]] in a [[Christian cross|cross]] form, used throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. Characteristically, he is portrayed as similar in features and skin tone to the culture of the artist.
File:Christ All Mercy (13 c.).jpg|"Christ All Mercy" Eastern Orthodox icon
File:Jesus as a Manichaean Prophet, 13th century.jpg|''[[Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus]]'', a 12th- or 13th-century Chinese hanging scroll depicting Jesus Christ as the [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] prophet [[Jesus in Manichaeism|Yišō]]
File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|Jesus Christ [[Pantocrator]] – 13th-century [[mosaic]] from [[Hagia Sophia]]
File:Jesus Coat of Arms 1.jpg|An unusual 15th-century image of Jesus as a medieval knight bearing an [[Attributed arms|attributed]] [[coat of arms]] based on the [[Veil of Veronica]]
File:Piero, battesimo di cristo 04.jpg|''[[The Baptism of Christ (Piero della Francesca)|The Baptism of Jesus Christ]]'', by [[Piero della Francesca]], c. 1448-1450
File:Cima da Conegliano, Christus. Dresda.jpg|Portrait of Jesus by [[Cima da Conegliano]] (1459–1517)
File:Pietro Perugino 040.jpg|[[Pietro Perugino]]'s depiction of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]] as ''[[Stabat Mater (art)|Stabat Mater]]'', 1482
File:Kristus som den lidende frelser.jpg|''[[Christ as the Suffering Redeemer (Mantegna)|Christ as the Suffering Redeemeer]]'', c. 1488–1500, by [[Andrea Mantegna]]
File:Nestorian Evangelion (Folio 4v).jpg|A [[Church of the East|Nestorian]] "Crucifixion of Jesus", illustration from the ''[[Nestorian Evangelion]]'', 16th century
File:SAAM-1956.11.21 1.jpg|Palma il Vecchio, Head of Christ, 16th century, Italy
File:Michelangelo, Giudizio Universale 03.jpg|Mary and Christ, in [[The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)|''The Last Judgement'']] by [[Michelangelo]] (1541). This depiction was much criticised.
File:Titian 1558 Ancona Crucifixion.jpg|The [[Crucifixion (Titian)|''Crucifixion'']] of Christ, 1558, by [[Titian]]
File:Transfiguration by Lodovico Carracci.jpg|''[[Transfiguration of Jesus]]'' depicting him with [[Elijah]], [[Moses]] and three apostles by [[Lodovico Carracci|Carracci]], 1594
File:Follower of Ribera - Christ among the Doctors.jpg|Jesus, aged 12, ''Jesus among the Doctors (as a child debating in the temple)'', 1630 by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]
File:Noel-coypel-the-resurrection-of-christ-1700.jpg|[[Resurrection of Jesus|''Resurrection'']] by [[Noël Coypel]], 1700, using a [[Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art|hovering depiction]] of Jesus
File:Trevisani baptism christ.JPG|[[Francesco Trevisani|Trevisani]]'s depiction of the typical baptismal scene with the sky opening and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] descending as a dove, 1723
File:Christ, the Pantocrator.jpg|19th-century Russian icon of Christ Pantocrator
File:Ethiopia African potrayal of Jesus.JPG|A traditional [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian]] depiction of Jesus and Mary with distinctively Ethiopian features
File:Enrique Simonet - Cabeza de Jesús.jpg|''Head of Jesus'' (1890) by [[Enrique Simonet]]
File:Christ Pantocrator, Church of the Holy Sepulchre.png|[[Christ Pantocrator]] mosaic in the dome above the [[Katholikon]] of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem
Alwan Codex 28 Ethiopian Biblical Manuscript (a).jpg|[[Crucifixion of Jesus]] as depicted in the Ethiopian Alwan Codex, 20th century
File:Jesus by Georg Hansen.jpg|Jesus Christ as painted in the {{ill|Hässleholms kyrka|sv|lt=Church}} of [[Hässleholm]], Sweden, by the painter Georg Hansen (1868-1932)
File:StJohnsAshfield StainedGlass GoodShepherd-frame crop.jpg|Jesus as [[Good Shepherd]] (1932) in [[stained glass]] at [[St John's Ashfield]]
File:PortAuPrinceMural.jpg|A mural (1951) depicting the [[baptism of Jesus]] in a typical Haitian rural scenery, [[Holy Trinity Cathedral, Port-au-Prince|Cathédrale de Sainte Trinité]], [[Port-au-Prince]], Haiti
File:Touchdown Jesus at Notre Dame.jpg|The ''[[Word of Life (mural)|Word of Life]]'' (1964) mural on the side of the [[Hesburgh Library]] at the [[University of Notre Dame]]
File:SantuariodeSanJosejf0188 14.JPG|Depiction of Jesus at the ''[[Santuario de San Jose]]'' in Mandaluyong, Philippines

</gallery>

=== Sculpture ===
{{main|List of statues of Jesus}}
<gallery>
File:SalvadorDelMundo.jpg|[[Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo]] is an iconic landmark that represents [[San Salvador]] city. It symbolizes the [[Transfiguration of Jesus]] standing on top of Earth as the savior of the world
File:CristoreiPortugal.jpg|[[Christ the King (Almada)|''Christ the King'']] in [[Portugal]]
File:Christ the Redeemer - Cristo Redentor.jpg|[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|''Christ the Redeemer'']], the most famous icon in [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil
File:Chartres2006 092.jpg|''[[Christ in Majesty]]'', [[Chartres Cathedral]]
File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]]'', 1498–99, shows Mary holding the dead body of Jesus
File:Cristo de la Concordia 02.jpg|''[[Cristo de la Concordia]]'' in [[Bolivia]], claimed to be the largest statue of Jesus ever made
File:Cristo del Otero (Palencia).jpg|''[[Cristo del Otero]]'', above [[Palencia]], Spain
File:Thorvaldsen Christus.jpg|[[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]'s ''[[Christus (statue)|Christus]]'', [[Church of Our Lady (Copenhagen)|Church of Our Lady]], Copenhagen
File:Infant Jesus of Prague.jpg|[[Infant Jesus of Prague]], one of several miniature statues of an infant Christ that are much venerated by the faithful
File:Lux Mundi, the sculpture of Jesus at Solid Rock Church.jpg|''[[Lux Mundi (statue)|Lux Mundi]]'', a statue of Jesus by [[Tom Tsuchiya]] completed in 2012<ref name=WCPO>{{cite news|work=WCPO|title=Construction progressing on new Jesus statue along I-75|date=15 June 2012|url=http://www.wcpo.com/dpp/news/region_north_cincinnati/monroe/Construction-to-begin-on-new-Jesus-statue-along-I-75#ixzz1y1CWlU3h|access-date=7 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629192543/http://www.wcpo.com/dpp/news/region_north_cincinnati/monroe/Construction-to-begin-on-new-Jesus-statue-along-I-75#ixzz1y1CWlU3h|archive-date=29 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
File:Christ the Good Shepherd, Church of the Good Shepherd (Rosemont, Pennsylvania).jpg|The [[Unknown years of Jesus|boy Jesus]] as the [[Good Shepherd]], [[Church of the Good Shepherd (Rosemont, Pennsylvania)]]
File:Cristo Negro (Black Christ) - Iglesia de San Felipe (01).jpg|The ''[[Cristo Negro (Portobelo)|Cristo Negro]]'', at the  ''[[Iglesia de San Felipe, Portobelo|Iglesia de San Felipe]]'', Portobelo, Panama.
File:Bolestný Kristus (poč. 16. stol.), Cheb.jpg|16th century {{ill|Bolestný Kristus z Chebu|cs|lt=sculpture of suffering Christ}}, [[Cheb]], Czechia.
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Jesus look]]
* [[:Category:Cultural depictions of Jesus]]
* [[Crucifixion]]
* [[God the Father in Western art]]
* [[Holy card]]
* [[Ichthys]]
* [[List of statues of Jesus]]
* [[Ostentatio genitalium]]
* [[Perceptions of religious imagery in natural phenomena]]
* [[Race and appearance of Jesus]]
* [[Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art]]
* [[Salvator Mundi]]
* [[Veil of Veronica]]
* [[Alexamenos graffito]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* [[Ralf van Bühren|Bühren, Ralf van]] and Maciej Jan Jasiński, ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23753234.2024.2322546 The invisible divine in the history of art. Is Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) still relevant for decoding Christian iconography?]'', in ''Church, Communication and Culture'' 9 (2024), pp.&nbsp;1–36. DOI: 10.1080/23753234.2024.2322546.
* Cartlidge, David R., and Elliott, J. K. ''Art and the Christian Apocrypha'', Routledge, 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-415-23392-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=o0LBvOMYArYC&dq=Dura+Europas+Christian&pg=PA240 Google books]
* Every, George. Christian Mythology, Hamlyn 1988 (1970 1st edn.) {{ISBN|0-600-34290-5}}
* Grabar, André. ''Christian iconography: a study of its origins'', Taylor & Francis, 1968, {{ISBN|978-0-7100-0605-9}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=ha89AAAAIAAJ&dq=Christ-Logos+iconography&pg=PA119 Google books]
* Grigg, Robert. "Byzantine Credulity as an Impediment to Antiquarianism", ''Gesta'', Vol. 26, No. 1 (1987), pp.&nbsp;3–9, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the International Center of Medieval Art, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/767073 JSTOR]
*{{cite book |last1=Kraeling |first1=Carl Hermann |last2=Welles |first2=Charles Bradford |title=The excavations at Dura-Europos: conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Letters, Final Report 8 Part 2, The Christian building |date=1967 |publisher=New Haven: Dura-Europos Publications, Locust Valley|location= New York |oclc=490392414 |language=English}}
* James Hall. ''A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art'', 1983, John Murray, London, {{ISBN|0-7195-3971-4}}
* Hellemo, Geir. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hWbqS96Gii8C Adventus Domini: eschatological thought in 4th-century apses and catecheses]''. Brill; 1989. {{ISBN|978-90-04-08836-8}}.
* Schiller, Gertrud. ''Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I'', 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, {{ISBN|0-85331-270-2}}
* Syndicus, Eduard. Early Christian Art; Burns & Oates, London, 1962 
* [[David Talbot Rice]], Byzantine Art, 3rd edn 1968, Penguin Books Ltd 
* Zanker, Paul. [[:de:Paul Zanker]]. ''The Mask of Socrates, The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity'', University of California Press, 1995 [http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft3f59n8b0&chunk.id=d0e5616&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e5616&brand=eschol;query=Monza#1 Online Scholarship editions]

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Iconography of Jesus Christ}}
* [http://www.shroudstory.com/art.htm Pictures of Jesus Perhaps Derived from the Shroud of Turin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304220324/http://www.shroudstory.com/art.htm |date=4 March 2012 }} December 2005
* [http://www.godweb.org/sallman.htm Warner Sallman's Head of Christ: An American Icon]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/mar/27/broadcasting.uknews2 Is this the real face of Jesus Christ?]
* [http://www.pallasweb.com/deesis Images of Christ – the Deesis Mosaic of Hagia Sophia]

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{{Life of Jesus in Christian art}}
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[[Category:Iconography of Jesus]]
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