View source for Digraph (orthography)

{{Short description|Pair of characters used to write one phoneme}}
{{distinguish|Digraphia|Directed graph}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2019}}
{{IPA notice}}
[[File:Lldigraph.png|thumb|In [[Welsh orthography|Welsh]], the [[Ll|digraph {{vr|ll}}]] fused for a time into a [[Ligature (writing)|ligature]].]]

A '''digraph''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|δίς}}'' ({{grc-transl|δίς}})|double||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|γράφω}}'' ({{grc-transl|γράφω}})|to write}}) or '''digram''' is a pair of [[character (symbol)|character]]s used in the [[orthography]] of a [[language]] to write either a single [[phoneme]] (distinct sound), or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined.

Some digraphs represent phonemes that cannot be represented with a single character in the writing system of a language, like {{vr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} in Spanish ''chico'' and ''ocho''. Other digraphs represent phonemes that can also be represented by single characters. A digraph that shares its pronunciation with a single character may be a relic from an earlier period of the language when the digraph had a different pronunciation, or may represent a distinction that is made only in certain [[dialect]]s, like the English {{vr|[[English wh|wh]]}}. Some such digraphs are used for purely [[etymology|etymological]] reasons, like {{vr|[[ph (digraph)|ph]]}} in French.

In some orthographies, a digraph (or a [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]) is considered to constitute a [[letter (alphabet)|letter]], which means that it has its own place in the [[alphabet]] and cannot be separated into its constituent [[grapheme]]s for purposes of [[collation|sorting]], [[abbreviation|abbreviating]], or [[hyphen]]ating words. Digraphs are used in some [[romanization]] schemes, e.g. {{vr|[[zh (digraph)|zh]]}} as a romanisation of [[Russian language|Russian]] {{vr|[[ж]]}}.

The [[Capitalization|capitalisation]] of digraphs can vary, e.g. {{vr|sz}} in Polish is capitalized {{vr|Sz}} and {{vr|kj}} in [[Norwegian orthography|Norwegian]] is capitalized {{vr|Kj}}, while {{vr|[[IJ (digraph)|ĳ]]}} in [[Dutch orthography|Dutch]] is capitalized {{vr|Ĳ}} and word initial {{vr|dt}} in [[Irish orthography|Irish]] is capitalized {{vr|dT}}.

Digraphs may also develop into [[ligature (writing)|ligature]]s, but the two concepts are distinct; a digraph's essential feature is its sound, while a ligature is visual, graphically fusing two characters into one, e.g. when {{vr|o}} and {{vr|e}} become {{vr|œ}}, e.g. as in [[French orthography|French]] {{lang|fr|cœur}} "heart".

== Homogeneous digraph{{anchor|Homogeneous digraph}} ==
Digraphs may consist of two different characters (''heterogeneous digraphs'') or two instances of the same character (''homogeneous digraphs''). In the latter case, they are generally called ''double'' (or ''doubled'') ''letters''.

Doubled [[vowel]] letters are commonly used to indicate a [[long vowel]] sound. This is the case in [[Finnish orthography|Finnish]] and [[Estonian orthography|Estonian]], for instance, where {{vr|uu}} represents a longer version of the vowel denoted by {{vr|u}}, {{vr|ää}} represents a longer version of the vowel denoted by {{vr|ä}}, and so on. In [[Middle English orthography|Middle English]], the sequences {{vr|ee}} and {{vr|oo}} were used in a similar way, to represent lengthened "e" and "o" sounds respectively; both spellings have been retained in modern [[English orthography]], but the [[Great Vowel Shift]] and [[Phonological history of English vowels|other historical sound changes]] mean that the modern pronunciations are quite different from the original ones.

Doubled [[consonant]] letters can also be used to indicate a long or [[gemination|geminated]] consonant sound. In [[Italian orthography|Italian]], for example, consonants written double are pronounced longer than single ones. This was the original use of doubled consonant letters in [[Old English orthography|Old English]], but during the [[Middle English]] and [[Early Modern English]] period, phonemic consonant length was lost and a spelling convention developed in which a doubled consonant serves to indicate that a preceding vowel is to be pronounced short. In modern English, for example, the {{vr|pp}} of ''tapping'' differentiates the first vowel sound from that of ''taping''. In rare cases, doubled consonant letters represent a true geminate consonant in modern English; this may occur when two instances of the same consonant come from different [[morpheme]]s, for example {{vr|nn}} in ''unnatural'' (''un''+''natural'') or {{vr|tt}} in ''cattail'' (''cat''+''tail'').

In some cases, the sound represented by a doubled consonant letter is distinguished in some other way than length from the sound of the corresponding single consonant letter:
*In [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]], {{vr|ll}} stands for a voiceless [[lateral consonant]], while in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]] it stands for a [[palatal consonant]].
*In several languages of western Europe, including English, [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and Catalan, the digraph {{angbr|ss}} is used between vowels to represent the voiceless sibilant {{IPA|/s/}}, since an {{angbr|s}} alone between vowels normally represents the voiced sibilant {{IPA|/z/}}.
*In Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan and Basque, [[rr (digraph)|{{vr|rr}}]] is used between vowels for the [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|/r/}}, since an {{vr|r}} alone between vowels represents an [[alveolar flap]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}} (the two are different phonemes in those languages).
*In Spanish, the digraph {{vr|nn}} formerly indicated {{IPA|/ɲ/}} (a [[palatal nasal]]); it developed into the [[ñ|letter ñ]].
*In [[Basque language|Basque]], double consonant letters generally mark [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] versions of the single consonant letter, as in [[dd (digraph)|{{vr|dd}}]], {{vr|ll}}, [[tt (digraph)|{{vr|tt}}]]. However, {{vr|rr}} is a trill that contrasts with the single-letter flap, as in Spanish, and the palatal version of {{vr|n}} is written {{vr|ñ}}.

In several European writing systems, including the English one, the doubling of the letter {{angbr|c}} or {{angbr|k}} is represented as the heterogeneous digraph {{angbr|ck}} instead of {{angbr|cc}} or {{angbr|kk}} respectively. In native German words, the doubling of {{angbr|z}}, which corresponds to {{IPA|/ts/}}, is replaced by the digraph {{angbr|tz}}.

==Pan-dialectical digraphs==
Some languages have a unified orthography with digraphs that represent distinct pronunciations in different dialects ([[diaphoneme]]s). For example, in [[Breton language|Breton]] there is a digraph {{angbr|zh}} that represents {{IPA|[z]}} in most dialects, but {{IPA|[h]}} in ''Vannetais.'' Similarly, the [[Saintongeais]] dialect of French has a digraph {{angbr|jh}} that represents {{IPA|[h]}} in words that correspond to {{IPA|[ʒ]}} in standard French. Similarly, Catalan has a digraph {{angbr|ix}} that represents {{IPA|[ʃ]}} in [[Eastern Catalan]], but {{IPA|[jʃ]}} or {{IPA|[js]}} in [[Western Catalan]]–[[Valencian language|Valencian]].

==Split digraphs==
{{anchor|Split digraphs}}
The pair of letters making up a phoneme are not always adjacent. This is the case with English [[silent e]]. For example, the sequence ''a_e'' has the sound {{IPA|/eɪ/}} in English ''cake.'' This is the result of three historical sound changes: ''cake'' was originally {{IPA|/kakə/}}, the [[open syllable]] {{IPA|/ka/}} came to be pronounced with a [[long vowel]], and later the final [[schwa]] dropped off, leaving {{IPA|/kaːk/}}. Later still, the vowel {{IPA|/aː/}} became {{IPA|/eɪ/}}. There are six such digraphs in English, {{angle bracket|a_e, e_e, i_e, o_e, u_e, y_e}}.<ref>Brooks (2015) ''Dictionary of the British English Spelling System,'' p. 460 ''ff''</ref>

However, alphabets may also be designed with discontinuous digraphs. In the [[Tatar language|Tatar]] [[Cyrillic alphabets|Cyrillic alphabet]], for example, the letter ''ю'' is used to write both {{IPA|/ju/}} and {{IPA|/jy/}}. Usually the difference is evident from the rest of the word, but when it is not, the sequence ''ю...ь'' is used for {{IPA|/jy/}}, as in ''юнь'' {{IPA|/jyn/}} 'cheap'.

The [[Brahmic scripts|Indic alphabets]] are distinctive for their discontinuous vowels, such as Thai เ...อ {{IPA|/ɤː/}} in เกอ {{IPA|/kɤː/}}. Technically, however, they may be considered [[diacritic]]s, not full letters; whether they are digraphs is thus a matter of definition.

==Ambiguous letter sequences==
{{Wiktionary|Category:English terms with pseudo-digraphs}}
Some letter pairs are not digraphs but might be interpreted as digraphs because of [[compound (linguistics)|compounding]]: e.g. ''hog<u>sh</u>ead'' and ''c<u>oo</u>perate'' (the latter case of [[vowel hiatus]] is also called ''diaeresis''). In English, they are often unmarked and must therefore be memorized, or more likely deduced, as exceptions. Some authors, however, indicate it either by breaking up the digraph with a [[hyphen]], as in ''hogs-head'', ''co-operate'', or, in case of a vowel hiatus, with a [[diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis diacritic mark]], as in ''coöperate'' (this [[Diaeresis (diacritic)#In English|use of two dots in English]] is now archaic but continues to be used extensively in some other languages). When it occurs in names such as [[Clapham]], Townshend, and Hartshorne, it is never marked in any way. Positional alternative glyphs may help to disambiguate in certain cases: when round {{angbr|s}} was used as a final variant of long {{angbr|ſ}}, and the English digraph for {{IPA|/ʃ/}} would always be {{angbr|ſh}}.

Similar ambiguity also occurs frequently in German, where it is also unmarked and left to the reader to deduce.

In [[Romansh language|Romansh]], a hyphen is used to distinguish {{angbr|s-ch}} from {{angbr|sch}}.

In Dutch, a diaresis is frequently used to parse {{angbr|eee}}.

In [[romanization of Japanese]], the constituent sounds ([[Mora (linguistics)|morae]]) are usually indicated by digraphs, but some are indicated by a single letter, and some with a trigraph. The case of ambiguity is the syllabic [[ん]] (or [[ン]]) , which is written as ''n'' (or sometimes ''m''), except before vowels or ''y'' where it is followed by an [[apostrophe]] as ''n’''. For example, the given name じゅんいちろう is romanized as Jun’ichirō, so that it is parsed as "Ju-n-i-chi-rou", rather than as "Ju-ni-chi-rou". A similar use of the apostrophe is seen in [[pinyin]] where 嫦娥 is written [[Chang'e]] because the g belongs to the final (-ang) of the first syllable, not to the initial of the second syllable. Without the apostrophe, Change would be understood as the syllable chan (final -an) followed by the syllable ge (initial g-).

==In alphabetization==
In some languages, certain digraphs and [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s are counted as distinct letters in themselves, and assigned to a specific place in the [[alphabet]], separate from that of the sequence of characters that composes them, for purposes of [[orthography]] and [[collation]]:
*In the [[Gaj's Latin alphabet]] used to write [[Serbo-Croatian]], the digraphs {{vr|[[dž]]}}, {{vr|[[lj (digraph)|lj]]}} and {{vr|[[nj (digraph)|nj]]}}, which correspond to the single [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic letters]] {{vr|џ}}, {{vr|љ}}, {{vr|њ}}, are treated as distinct letters.
*In the [[Czech alphabet|Czech]] and [[Slovak alphabet]], {{vr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} is treated as a distinct letter, coming after {{vr|[[h]]}} in the alphabet. Also, in the [[Slovak alphabet]] the relatively rare digraphs {{vr|[[Dz (digraph)|dz]]}} and {{vr|[[dž]]}} are treated as distinct letters.
*In the [[Danish and Norwegian alphabet]], the former digraph {{vr|[[aa (digraph)|aa]]}}, where it appears in older names, is sorted as if it were the letter {{vr|[[å]]}}, which replaced it. 
*In the [[Norwegian alphabet]], there are several digraphs and letter combinations representing an isolated sound.
*In the [[Dutch alphabet]], the digraph {{vr|[[IJ (digraph)|ij]]}} is sometimes written as a [[typographic ligature|ligature]] and may be sorted with {{vr|[[y]]}} (in the [[Netherlands]], though not usually in [[Belgium]]); however, regardless of where it is used, when a Dutch word starting with {{vr|ij}} is capitalized, the entire digraph is capitalized (''[[IJmeer]]'', ''[[IJmuiden]]''). Other [[#Dutch|Dutch digraphs]] are never treated as single letters.
*In [[Hungarian alphabet|Hungarian]], the digraphs {{vr|[[cs (digraph)|cs]]}}, {{vr|[[Hungarian dz|dz]]}}, {{vr|[[gy (digraph)|gy]]}}, {{vr|[[Hungarian ly|ly]]}}, {{vr|[[Hungarian ny|ny]]}}, {{vr|[[sz (digraph)|sz]]}}, {{vr|[[ty (digraph)|ty]]}}, {{vr|[[Hungarian zs|zs]]}}, and the trigraph {{vr|[[Hungarian dzs|dzs]]}}, have their own places in the alphabet (where e.g. {{vr|ny}} comes right after {{vr|n}})
*In [[Spanish alphabet|Spanish]], the digraphs {{vr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} and {{vr|[[ll]]}} were formerly treated as distinct letters, but are now split into their constituent letters. 
*In [[Welsh alphabet|Welsh]], the alphabet includes the digraphs {{vr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}}, {{vr|[[dd (digraph)|dd]]}}, {{vr|[[ff (digraph)|ff]]}}, {{vr|[[ll]]}}, {{vr|[[ng (digraph)|ng]]}}, {{vr|[[ph (digraph)|ph]]}}, {{vr|[[rh (digraph)|rh]]}}, {{vr|[[th (digraph)|th]]}}. However, {{vr|[[mh (digraph)|mh]]}}, {{vr|[[nh (digraph)|nh]]}} and {{vr|[[ngh (letter)|ngh]]}}, which represent [[Consonant mutation|mutated]] voiceless consonants, are not treated as distinct letters.
*In the romanization of several Slavic countries that use the Cyrillic script, letters like ш, ж, and ю might be written as sh, zh and yu, however sometimes the result of the romanization might modify a letter to be a diacritical letter instead of a digraph.
*In [[Maltese alphabet|Maltese]], two digraphs are used, {{vr|[[gh (digraph)#Maltese|għ]]}} which comes right after {{vr|g}}, and {{vr|[[ie (digraph)|ie]]}} which comes right after {{vr|i}}.

Most other languages, including most of the Romance languages, treat digraphs as combinations of separate letters for alphabetization purposes.

==Examples==

===Latin script===
{{main|List of Latin-script digraphs}}

====English====
English has both homogeneous digraphs (doubled letters) and heterogeneous digraphs (digraphs consisting of two different letters). Those of the latter type include the following:

* {{angbr|sc}} normally represents {{IPA|/s/}} ([[voiceless alveolar fricative]] - ''scene'') or {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] - ''conscious'') before {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}}.
* {{angbr|ng}} can represent {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ([[velar nasal]]) as in ''thing''.
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} usually corresponds to {{IPA|/tʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar affricate]] - ''church''), to {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar plosive]]) when used as an etymological digraph in words of Greek origin (''christ''), less commonly to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) in words of French origin (''champagne'').
* {{angbr|ck}} corresponds to {{IPA|/k/}} as in ''check''.
* {{angbr|[[gh (digraph)|gh]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɡ/}} ([[voiced velar plosive]]) at the beginning of words (''ghost''), represents {{IPA|/f/}} ([[voiceless labiodental fricative]] in ''enough'') or is [[silent letter|silent]] at the end of words (''sigh'').
* {{angbr|ph}} represents {{IPA|/f/}} ([[voiceless labiodental fricative]]), as in ''siphon''.
* {{angbr|rh}} represents English {{IPA|/r/}} in words of Greek origin, such as ''rhythm''.
* {{angbr|[[sh (digraph)|sh]]}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]), as in ''sheep''.
* {{angbr|ti}} usually represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} word-medially before a vowel, as in ''education''.
* {{angbr|[[th (digraph)|th]]}} usually corresponds to {{IPA|/θ/}} ([[voiceless interdental fricative]]) in ''thin'' or {{IPA|/ð/}} ([[voiced interdental fricative]]) in ''then''. See also [[Pronunciation of English th|Pronunciation of English {{angbr|th}}]].
* {{angbr|wh}} represents {{IPA|/hw/}} in some conservative dialects; {{IPA|/w/}} in other dialects (''while''); and {{IPA|/h/}} in a few words in which it is followed by {{angbr|o}}, such as ''who'' and ''whole''. See also [[Phonological history of wh|Phonological history of {{angbr|wh}}]].
* {{angbr|zh}} represents {{IPA|/ʒ/}} in words transliterated from Slavic languages{{which|date=January 2019}}, and in American dictionary pronunciation spelling.
* {{angbr|ci}} usually appears as {{IPA|/ʃ/}} before vowels, like in ''facial'' and ''artificial''. Otherwise it is {{IPA|/si/}} as in ''fancier'' and ''icier'' or {{IPA|/sɪ/}} as in ''acid'' and ''rancid''.
* {{angbr|wr}} represents {{IPA|/r/}}. Originally, it stood for a [[labialisation|labialized]] sound, while {{angbr|r}} without {{angbr|w}} was non-labialized, but the distinction has been lost in most dialects, the two sounds merging into a single [[alveolar approximant]], [[allophone|allophonically]] labialized at the start of syllables, as in ''red'' {{IPA|[ɹʷɛd]}}. See also [[rhotic consonant]].
* {{angbr|qu}} usually represents {{IPA|/kw/}}; {{angbr|q}} is conventionally followed by {{angbr|u}} and a vowel letter as in ''quick'', with [[List of English words containing Q not followed by U|some exceptions.]]

Digraphs may also be composed of vowels. Some letters {{angbr|a, e, o}} are preferred for the first position, others for the second {{angbr|i, u}}. The latter have [[allograph]]s {{angbr|y, w}} in [[English orthography]].
{| class="wikitable"
|+ English vocalic digraphs
!style="text-align:center"| second letter →<br /> first letter ↓
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...e}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...i}} ¦ {{angbr|...y}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...u}} ¦ {{angbr|...w}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...a}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...o}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|o...}}
| {{angbr|oe¦œ}} > {{angbr|e}}&nbsp;– {{IPA|/i/}} || {{angbr|oi¦oy}} – {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}} || {{angbr|ou¦ow}} – {{IPA|/aʊ¦uː¦oʊ/}} || {{angbr|oa}} – {{IPA|/oʊ¦ɔː/}} || {{angbr|oo}} – {{IPA|/uː¦ʊ(¦ʌ)/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|a...}}
| {{angbr|ae¦æ}} > {{angbr|e}} – {{IPA|/i/}} || {{angbr|ai¦ay}} – {{IPA|/eɪ¦ɛ/}} || {{angbr|au¦aw}} – {{IPA|/ɔː/}}<br /><small>(in loanwords: {{IPA|/aʊ/}} )</small> || <small>(in loanwords and proper nouns: {{angbr|aa}} – {{IPA|/ə¦ɔː¦ɔl/}} )</small> || <small>(in loanwords from Chinese: {{angbr|ao}} – {{IPA|/aʊ/}} )</small>
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|e...}}
| {{angbr|ee}} – {{IPA|/iː/}} || {{angbr|ei¦ey}} – {{IPA|/aɪ¦eɪ¦(iː)/}} || {{angbr|eu¦ew}} – {{IPA|/juː¦uː/}} || {{angbr|ea}} – {{IPA|/iː¦ɛ¦(eɪ¦ɪə)/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|u...}}
| {{angbr|ue}} – {{IPA|/uː¦u/}} || {{angbr|ui}} – {{IPA|/ɪ¦uː/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|i...}}
| {{angbr|ie}} – {{IPA|/iː(¦aɪ)/}}
|}

====[[Serbo-Croatian]]====
* {{angbr|[[lj (digraph)|lj]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, ([[palatal lateral approximant]])
* {{angbr|[[nj (digraph)|nj]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|[[dž]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} ([[voiced postalveolar affricate]])
Note that in the [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic orthography]], those sounds are represented by single letters (љ, њ, џ).

====[[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]====
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/x/|}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]]), counted as a distinct letter
* {{angbr|[[dz (digraph)|dz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/d͡z/}} ([[voiced alveolar affricate]]), counted as a distinct letter in Slovak, relatively rare digraph
* {{angbr|[[dž]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} ([[voiced postalveolar affricate]]), counted as a distinct letter in Slovak, relatively rare digraph

====[[Danish and Norwegian alphabet|Danish and Norwegian]]====
* The digraph {{angbr|[[aa (digraph)|aa]]}} represented {{IPA|/ɔ/}} until 1917 in Norway and 1948 in Denmark, but is today spelt {{angbr|[[å]]}}. The digraph is still used in older names, but sorted as if it were the letter with the diacritic mark.

In [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], several sounds can be represented only by a digraph or a combination of letters. They are the most common combinations, but extreme regional differences exists, especially those of the [[Norwegian dialects|eastern dialects]]. A noteworthy difference is the [[Aspirated consonant|aspiration]] of {{vr|rs}} in eastern dialects, where it corresponds to {{vr|skj}} and {{vr|sj}}. Among many young people, especially in the western regions of Norway and in or around the major cities, the difference between {{IPAslink|ç}} and {{IPAslink|ʃ}} has been completely wiped away and are now pronounced the same.

* {{angbr|kj}} represents {{IPA|/ç/}}
* {{angbr|tj}} represents {{IPA|/ç/}}.
* {{angbr|skj}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.
* {{angbr|sj}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.
* {{angbr|sk}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (before i or y). 
* {{angbr|[[ng (character)|ng]]}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} as in '''ng''' in English ''thi'''ng'''''.

===={{anchor|Catalan}}[[Catalan language|Catalan]]====
* {{angbr|ll}} represents {{IPA|/ʎ/}} ([[palatal lateral approximant]])
* {{angbr|ny}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|rr}} represents {{IPA|/r/}} ([[post-alveolar trill]])
* {{angbr|ss}} represents {{IPA|/s/}} ([[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]])
* {{angbr|qu}} represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar plosive]])
* {{angbr|gu}} represents {{IPA|/g/}} ([[voiced velar plosive]])
* postvocalic {{angbr|ix}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) in [[Eastern Catalan|Eastern]] dialects, in [[Western Catalan|Western]] dialects it represents {{IPA|/jʃ/}}.

===={{anchor|Dutch}}[[Dutch language|Dutch]]====

* {{angbr|[[IJ (digraph)|ij]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɛi/|}} (see [[#In alphabetization|above]] for its possible status as a separate letter).
* {{angbr|[[ng (character)|ng]]}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ([[velar nasal]])
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} represents {{IPA|/x/}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]])
* {{angbr|sj}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|ie}} represents {{IPA|/i/}} ([[close front unrounded vowel]])
* {{angbr|oe}} represents {{IPA|/u/}} ([[close back rounded vowel]])
* {{angbr|eu}} represents {{IPA|/ø/}} ([[close-mid front rounded vowel]])

====[[French alphabet|French]]====
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|gn}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|qu}} represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar stop]]), typically before historic [[front vowel]]s
::{| class="wikitable"
|+ French vocalic digraphs
|
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...i}}
!style="text-align:center"| {{angbr|...u}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|a...}}
| {{angbr|ai}} – {{IPA|/ɛ¦e/}} || {{angbr|au}} – {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|e...}}
| {{angbr|ei}} – {{IPA|/ɛ/}} || {{angbr|eu}} – {{IPA|/œ¦ø/}}
|-
!style="text-align:left"| {{angbr|o...}}
| {{angbr|oi}} – {{IPA|/wa/}} || {{angbr|ou}} – {{IPA|/u(¦w)/}}
|}
See also [[French phonology]].

====[[German alphabet|German]]====
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} represents {{IPA|/x/}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]]) or {{IPA|/ç/}} ([[voiceless palatal fricative]])
* {{angbr|ck}} represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar plosive]])
* {{angbr|ei}} and {{angbr|ai}} represent {{IPA|/a͡ɪ/}} ([[open front unrounded vowel]]) followed by ([[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]])
* {{angbr|eu}} and {{angbr|äu}} represent {{IPA|/ɔ͡ʏ/}} ([[open-mid back rounded vowel]]) followed by ([[near-close near-front rounded vowel]])

====[[Hungarian alphabet|Hungarian]]====
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian cs|cs]]}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian zs|zs]]}} represents {{IPA|/ʒ/}} ([[voiced postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian gy|gy]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɟ/}} ([[voiced palatal plosive]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian ly|ly]]}} originally represented {{IPA|/ʎ/}} ([[palatal lateral approximant]]), but in the modern language stands for {{IPA|/j/}} ([[palatal approximant]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian ny|ny]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian ty|ty]]}} represents {{IPA|/c/}} ([[voiceless palatal plosive]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian dz|dz]]}} represents {{IPA|/dz/}} ([[voiced postalveolar affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[Hungarian sz|sz]]}} represents {{IPA|/s/}} ([[voiceless alveolar fricative]]) ({{angbr|s}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ʃ/}})
* The Hungarian alphabet additionally contains also a [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]], {{angbr|[[Hungarian dzs|dzs]]}} {{IPAslink|dʒ}}.

====[[Italian alphabet|Italian]]====
* {{angbr|sc}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) before -i and -e (but to {{IPA|/sk/}} before other letters)
* {{angbr|ch}} corresponds to {{IPA|/k/}} (only before i, e)
* {{angbr|gh}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɡ/}} (only before i, e)
* {{angbr|gl}} represents {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, [[palatal lateral approximant]], before -i (with some exceptions)
* {{angbr|gn}} represents {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])

====[[Manx Gaelic]]====
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/χ/}}, but {{angbr|çh}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}}.

====[[Polish language|Polish]]====
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/x/}} ([[voiceless velar fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[cz (digraph)|cz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/tʂ/}} ([[voiceless retroflex affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[dz (digraph)|dz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/dz/}} ([[voiced alveolar affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[dź (digraph)|dź]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/dʑ/}} ([[voiced alveolo-palatal affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[dż (digraph)|dż]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/dʐ/}} ([[voiced retroflex affricate]])
* {{angbr|[[rz (digraph)|rz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʐ/}} ([[voiced retroflex fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[sz (digraph)|sz]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ([[voiceless retroflex fricative]])

====[[Portuguese alphabet|Portuguese]]====
* {{angbr|[[ch (digraph)|ch]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[lh (digraph)|lh]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ʎ/}} ([[palatal lateral approximant]])
* {{angbr|[[nh (digraph)|nh]]}} corresponds to {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ([[palatal nasal]])
*{{vr|qu}} usually represents {{IPA|/k/}} ([[voiceless velar stop]])
*:

====[[Spanish alphabet|Spanish]]====
* [[ll|{{vr|ll}}]] is traditionally pronounced {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, but in dialects with [[yeísmo]] is pronounced {{IPA|/ʝ/}}
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}} ([[voiceless postalveolar affricate]]). Since 2010, neither is considered part of the alphabet. They used to be sorted as separate letters, but a reform in 1994 by the [[Spanish Royal Academy]] has allowed that they be split into their constituent letters for collation. The digraph {{angbr|[[rr (digraph)|rr]]}}, pronounced as a distinct [[alveolar trill]], was never officially considered to be a letter in the Spanish alphabet, and the same is true {{angbr|gu}} and {{angbr|qu}} (for {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} respectively before {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}}).
====Taiwanese Hokkien====
[[Daighi tongiong pingim]], a transcription system used for [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], includes [[or (Digraph)|or]] that represents {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[mid central vowel]]) or {{IPA|/o/}} ([[close-mid back rounded vowel]]), as well as other digraphs.
====[[Welsh alphabet|Welsh]]====
* {{angbr|ng}} represents {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ([[velar nasal]]), the same sound as in English (but in some words it represents two separate letters, and is pronounced {{IPA|/ng/}}).
* {{angbr|ch}} represents {{IPA|/χ/}} ([[voiceless uvular fricative]])
* {{angbr|rh}} represents {{IPA|/r̥/}} ([[alveolar trill|voiceless alveolar trill]]), pronounced roughly like the combination ''hr'' (but again in some words it represents two separate letters, and is pronounced {{IPA|/rh/}}).
* {{angbr|th}} represents {{IPA|/θ/}} ([[voiceless interdental fricative]])
* {{angbr|[[dd (digraph)|dd]]}} represents {{IPA|/ð/}} ([[voiced dental fricative]]), like the English {{angbr|th}} in ''then'' (but is pronounced as voiceless in many contexts).
* {{angbr|[[ff (digraph)|ff]]}} represents {{IPA|/f/}} ([[voiceless labiodental fricative]]), like English {{angbr|f}}, since Welsh {{angbr|f}} is pronounced {{IPA|/v/}} like an English {{angbr|v}}.
* {{angbr|ph}} also represents {{IPA|/f/}} (voiceless labiodental fricative) but, in modern orthography, is used only for the aspirate mutation of words starting with {{angbr|p}}.
* {{angbr|[[ll]]}} represents {{IPA|/ɬ/}} ([[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]])
The digraphs listed above represent distinct phonemes and are treated as separate letters for collation purposes. On the other hand, the digraphs {{angbr|[[mh (digraph)|mh]]}}, {{angbr|[[nh (digraph)|nh]]}}, and the trigraph {{angbr|[[ngh (letter)|ngh]]}}, which stand for [[voice (phonetics)|voiceless consonants]] but occur only at the beginning of words as a result of the [[Welsh morphology|nasal mutation]], are not treated as separate letters, and thus are not included in the alphabet.

Some words contain three or four consecutive {{angbr|D}}s or {{angbr|L}}s. In these cases hyphens are often used to indicate how the characters should be grouped into digraphs.

====[[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]====
* {{angbr|gb}} is a letter that represents a plosive most accurately pronounced by trying to say {{IPA|/g/}} and {{IPA|/b/}} at the same time.

===Cyrillic===
{{Main|Cyrillic digraphs}}
Modern Slavic languages written in the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] make little use of digraphs apart from {{angbr|дж}} for {{IPA|/dʐ/}}, {{angbr|дз}} for {{IPA|/dz/}} (in Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Bulgarian), and {{angbr|жж}} and {{angbr|зж}} for the uncommon Russian phoneme {{IPA|/ʑː/}}. In Russian, the sequences {{angbr|дж}} and {{angbr|дз}} do occur (mainly in loanwords) but are pronounced as combinations of an implosive (sometimes treated as an affricate) and a fricative; implosives are treated as allophones of the plosive {{IPA|/d̪/}} and so those sequences are not considered to be digraphs. Cyrillic has few digraphs unless it is used to write non-Slavic languages, especially [[Caucasian languages]].

===Arabic script===
Because vowels are not generally written, digraphs are rare in [[abjad]]s like Arabic. For example, if ''sh'' were used for ''š,'' then the sequence ''sh'' could mean either ''ša'' or ''saha.'' However, digraphs are used for the [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] and [[murmured consonant]]s (those spelled with ''h-''digraphs in Latin transcription) in languages of [[South Asia]] such as [[Urdu]] that are written in the [[Arabic script]] by a special form of the letter ''h'', which is used only for aspiration digraphs, as can be seen with the following connecting ''(kh)'' and non-connecting ''(ḍh)'' consonants:

:{|
|'''Urdu'''||colspan=2|connecting||&nbsp; ||colspan=3|non-connecting
|-
|digraph:|| کھا ||{{IPA|/kʰɑː/}} || ||ڈھا ||{{IPA|/ɖʱɑː/}} ||
|-
|sequence:&nbsp;||کہا ||{{IPA|/kəɦɑː/}}|| ||ڈہا ||{{IPA|/ɖəɦɑː/}}||
|}

===Armenian===
In the [[Armenian language]], the digraph ''[[wikt:ու|ու]]'' {{angle bracket|ou}} transcribes {{IPAslink|u}}, a convention that comes from Greek.

===Georgian===
The [[Georgian alphabet]] uses a few digraphs to write other languages. For example, in [[Svan language|Svan]], {{IPA|/ø/}} is written ჳე {{angle bracket|we}}, and {{IPA|/y/}} as ჳი {{angle bracket|wi}}.

===Greek===
[[Modern Greek]] has the following digraphs:
*''αι'' (''ai'') represents {{IPA|/e̞/}}
*''ει'' (''ei'') represents {{IPA|/i/}}
*''οι'' (''oi'') represents {{IPA|/i/}}
*''ου'' (''oy'') represents {{IPA|/u/}}
*''υι'' (''yi'') represents {{IPA|/i/}}

They are called "diphthongs" in [[Greek language|Greek]]; in classical times, most of them represented [[diphthong]]s, and the name has stuck.

*''γγ'' (''gg'') represents {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}} or {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
*''τσ'' (''ts'') represents the affricate {{IPA|/ts/}}
*''τζ'' (''tz'') represents the affricate {{IPA|/dz/}}
*Initial ''γκ'' (''gk'') represents {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
*Initial ''μπ'' (''mp'') represents {{IPA|/b/}}
*Initial ''ντ'' (''nt'') represents {{IPA|/d/}}

[[Ancient Greek]] also had the "diphthongs" listed above although their pronunciation in ancient times is disputed. In addition, Ancient Greek also used the letter γ combined with a velar stop to produce the following digraphs:

*''γγ'' (''gg'') represents {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}}
*''γκ'' (''gk'') represents {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}}
*''γχ'' (''gkh'') represents {{IPA|/ŋkʰ/}}

[[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]] has a few additional digraphs:
*''ρζ'' (''rz'') {{IPA|/ʒ/}} (historically perhaps a [[fricative trill]])
*''κχ'' (''kkh'') represents {{IPA|/kʰ/}}
*''τθ'' (''tth'') represents {{IPA|/tʰ/}}
*''πφ'' (''pph'') represents {{IPA|/pʰ/}}
*''σχ'' (''skh'') represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
In addition, [[palatal consonant]]s are indicated with the vowel letter ''ι'', which is, however, largely predictable. When {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/l/}} are not palatalized before ''ι'', they are written ''νν'' and ''λλ''.

In [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]], the digraphs ''ββ'', ''δδ'', and ''γγ'' were used for {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, and {{IPA|/ŋg/}} respectively.

===Hebrew===
In the [[Hebrew alphabet]], {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">תס</span>}} and {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">תש</span>}} may sometimes be found for {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">צ</span>}} {{IPAslink|ts}}. Modern Hebrew also uses digraphs made with the {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">׳</span>}} symbol for non-native sounds: {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">ג׳</span>}} {{IPAslink|dʒ}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">ז׳</span>}} {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">צ׳</span>}} {{IPAslink|tʃ}}; and other digraphs of letters when it is written without vowels: {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">וו</span>}} for a consonantal letter {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">ו</span>}} in the middle of a word, and {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">יי</span>}} for {{IPA|/aj/}} or {{IPA|/aji/}}, etc., that is, a consonantal letter {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">י</span>}} in places where it might not have been expected. [[Yiddish]] has its own tradition of transcription and so uses different digraphs for some of the same sounds: {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">דז</span>}} {{IPAslink|dz}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">זש</span>}} {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">טש</span>}} {{IPAslink|tʃ}}, and {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">דזש</span>}} (literally ''{{Transliteration|yi|dzš}})'' for {{IPAslink|dʒ}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">וו</span>}} {{IPAslink|v}}, also available as a single [[Unicode]] character {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">װ</span>}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">וי</span>}} or as a single character in Unicode {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">ױ</span>}} {{IPA|/oj/}}, {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">יי</span>}} or {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">ײ</span>}} {{IPA|/ej/}}, and {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">ײַ</span>}} {{IPA|/aj/}}. The single-character digraphs are called "[[Typographic ligature|ligatures]]" in Unicode. {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-family:'Times New Roman',David,Narkisim,Rod">י</span>}} may also be used following a consonant to indicate palatalization in Slavic loanwords.

===Indic===
Most [[Brahmic scripts|Indic scripts]] have compound vowel [[diacritic]]s that cannot be predicted from their individual elements. That can be illustrated with [[Thai language|Thai]] in which the diacritic เ, pronounced alone {{IPA|/eː/}}, modifies the pronunciation of other vowels:

:{|
|single vowel sign: ||กา ||{{IPA|/kaː/}}, ||เก ||{{IPA|/keː/}}, ||กอ ||{{IPA|/kɔː/}}
|-
|vowel sign plus เ: ||เกา ||{{IPA|/kaw/}}, ||แก ||{{IPA|/kɛː/}}, ||เกอ ||{{IPA|/kɤː/}}
|}

In addition, the combination รร is pronounced {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/an/}}, there are some words in which the combinations ทร and ศร stand for {{IPA|/s/}} and the letter ห, as a prefix to a consonant, changes its tonic class to high, modifying the tone of the syllable.

===Inuit===
[[Inuktitut syllabics]] adds two digraphs to Cree:
;''rk'' for ''q'': ᙯ ''qai'', ᕿ ''qi'', ᖁ ''qu'', ᖃ ''qa'', ᖅ ''q''
and
;''ng'' for ''ŋ'': ᖕ ''ng''
The latter forms trigraphs and tetragraphs.

===CJK Characters===
====Chinese====
Several combinations of [[Chinese characters]] (Hanzi) formed from two or more different characters that are known as digraphs.

====Japanese====
Two [[kana]] may be combined into a ''[[Consonant|C]][[Vowel|V]]'' syllable by subscripting the second; the convention cancels the vowel of the first. That is commonly done for ''CyV'' syllables called ''[[yōon]]'', as in ひょ (ひ<sub>よ</sub>) ''hyo'' {{angbr|hi<sub>yo</sub>}}. They are not digraphs since they retain the normal sequential reading of the two glyphs. However, some obsolete sequences no longer retain that reading, as in くゎ ''kwa,'' ぐゎ ''gwa,'' and むゎ ''mwa,'' now pronounced ''ka, ga, ma''. In addition, non-sequenceable digraphs are used for foreign loans that do not follow normal Japanese [[assibilation]] patterns, such as ティ ''ti'', トゥ ''tu'', チェ ''tye / che'', スェ ''swe'', ウィ ''wi'', ツォ ''tso'', ズィ ''zi''. (See [[katakana]] and [[transcription into Japanese]] for complete tables.)

Long vowels are written by adding the kana for that vowel, in effect doubling it. However, long ''ō'' may be written either ''oo'' or ''ou'', as in とうきょう ''toukyou'' {{IPA|ja|toːkʲoː|}} 'Tōkyō'. For dialects that do not distinguish ''ē'' and ''ei'', the latter spelling is used for a long ''e'', as in へいせい ''heisei'' {{IPA|ja|heːseː|}} '[[Heisei]]'. In loanwords, ''[[chōonpu]]'', a line following the direction of the text, as in ビール ''bīru'' {{IPA|ja|biːru|}} ''bīru'' 'beer'. With the exception of syllables starting with ''n'', doubled consonant sounds are written by prefixing a smaller version of ''tsu'' (written っ and ッ in hiragana and katakana respectively), as in きって ''kitte'' 'stamp'. Consonants beginning with n use the kana ''n'' character (written ん or ン) as a prefix instead.

There are several conventions of [[Okinawan writing system|Okinawan kana]] that involve subscript digraphs or ligatures. For instance, in the University of the Ryukyu's system, ウ is {{IPA|/ʔu/}}, ヲ is {{IPA|/o/}}, but ヲゥ (ヲ<sub>ウ</sub>) is {{IPA|/u/}}.

====Korean====
As was the case in Greek, Korean has vowels descended from diphthongs that are still written with two letters. Those digraphs, ㅐ {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and ㅔ {{IPA|/e/}} (also ㅒ {{IPA|/jɛ/}}, ㅖ {{IPA|/je/}}), and in some dialects ㅚ {{IPA|/ø/}} and ㅟ {{IPA|/y/}}, all end in historical ㅣ {{IPA|/i/}}.

[[Hangul]] was designed with a digraph series to represent the "[[slack voice|muddy]]" consonants: ㅃ {{IPA|*[b]}}, ㄸ {{IPA|*[d]}}, ㅉ {{IPA|*[dz]}}, ㄲ {{IPA|*[ɡ]}}, ㅆ {{IPA|*[z]}}, ㆅ {{IPA|*[ɣ]}}; also ᅇ, with an uncertain value. Those values are now obsolete, but most of the doubled letters were resurrected in the 19th century to write consonants that did not exist when hangul was devised: ㅃ {{IPA|/p͈/}}, ㄸ {{IPA|/t͈/}}, ㅉ {{IPA|/t͈ɕ/}}, ㄲ {{IPA|/k͈/}}, ㅆ {{IPA|/s͈/}}.

==Ligatures and new letters==
{{Main|Typographic ligature}}

Digraphs sometimes come to be written as a ligature. Over time, the ligatures may evolve into new letters or letters with diacritics. For example [[Sz (digraph)|sz]] became [[ß]] in German, and "nn" became [[ñ]] in Spanish.

==In Unicode==
Generally, a digraph is simply represented using two characters in [[Unicode]].<ref>{{cite web | title=FAQ – Ligatures, Digraphs and Presentation Forms | url=http://unicode.org/faq/ligature_digraph.html | work=The Unicode Consortium: Home Page | publisher=[[Unicode Consortium|Unicode Inc]] | date=1991–2009 | access-date=2009-05-11}}</ref> However, for various reasons, Unicode sometimes provides a separate [[code point]] for a digraph, encoded as a single character.

The [[Dz (digraph)|DZ]] and [[IJ (digraph)|IJ]] digraphs and the [[Gaj's Latin Alphabet#Digraphs|Serbian/Croatian digraphs]] DŽ, LJ, and NJ have separate code points in Unicode.

:{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Two Glyphs
! Digraph
! data-sort-type="number" | Unicode Code Point
! class="unsortable" | HTML
|-
| DZ, Dz, dz
| Ǳ, ǲ, ǳ
| data-sort-value="497"|U+01F1 U+01F2 U+01F3
| &amp;#x1F1; &amp;#x1F2; &amp;#x1F3;
|-
| DŽ, Dž, dž
| Ǆ, ǅ, ǆ
| data-sort-value="452"| U+01C4 U+01C5 U+01C6
| &amp;#x1C4; &amp;#x1C5; &amp;#x1C6;
|-
| IJ, ij
| Ĳ, ĳ
| data-sort-value="306"| U+0132 U+0133
| &amp;#x132; &amp;#x133;
|-
| LJ, Lj, lj
| Ǉ, ǈ, ǉ
| data-sort-value="455"| U+01C7 U+01C8 U+01C9
| &amp;#x1C7; &amp;#x1C8; &amp;#x1C9;
|-
| NJ, Nj, nj
| Ǌ, ǋ, ǌ
| data-sort-value="458"| U+01CA U+01CB U+01CC
| &amp;#x1CA; &amp;#x1CB; &amp;#x1CC;
|-
| [[Th (digraph)|th]]
| ᵺ
| U+1D7A<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Unicode Standard, Version 15.1 |url=https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1D00.pdf |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=[[Unicode]]}}</ref>
|
|}
See also [[Typographic ligature#Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)|Ligatures in Unicode]].

==See also==
*[[Multigraph (orthography)]]
*[[Trigraph (orthography)|Trigraph]]
*[[Tetragraph]]
*[[Pentagraph]]
*[[Hexagraph]]
*[[Bigram]]
*[[Diphthong]]
*[[List of Latin letters]]
*[[Digraph (programming)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Digraph (Orthography)}}
[[Category:Multigraphs (orthography)|2]]
[[Category:Digraphs (orthography)| ]]