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{{Distinguish|Smartwatch|Fitness tracker}}
{{Short description|Instrument to calculate decompression status in real time}}
{{Infobox diving equipment
|name         = Dive computer
|image        = 3 dive computers P3160383.JPG|
|alt          = Three representative wrist-mount dive computers
|caption      = Hydrospace Explorer Trimix and rebreather dive computer. Suunto Mosquito with aftermarket strap and iDive DAN recreational dive computers
|acronym      = 
|other_names  = Personal dive computer
|uses         = Dive profile recording and real-time decompression information
|inventor     = 
|manufacturer = 
|model        = 
|related      = 
}}

A '''dive computer''', '''personal decompression computer''' or '''decompression meter''' is a device used by an [[Underwater diving|underwater diver]] to measure the elapsed time and depth during a dive and use this data to calculate and display an ascent profile which, according to the programmed [[decompression algorithm]], will give a low risk of [[decompression sickness]].<ref name=aaus /><ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" /> A secondary function is to record the [[dive profile]], warn the diver when certain events occur, and provide useful information about the environment. Dive computers are a development from [[decompression table]]s, the [[diver's watch]] and [[depth gauge]], with greater accuracy and the ability to monitor dive profile data in real time.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

Most dive computers use real-time [[ambient pressure]] input to a decompression algorithm to indicate the remaining time to the [[no-stop limit]], and after that has passed, the minimum decompression required to surface with an acceptable risk of decompression sickness. Several algorithms have been used, and various personal [[Conservatism (diving)|conservatism]] factors may be available.<ref name="Validation workshop" /> Some dive computers allow for [[gas switching]] during the dive, and some monitor the pressure remaining in the [[scuba cylinder]]s.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" /> Audible alarms may be available to warn the diver when exceeding the no-stop limit, the [[maximum operating depth]] for the [[breathing gas mixture]], the recommended [[Ascent rate (diving)|ascent rate]], [[decompression ceiling]], or other limit beyond which risk increases significantly.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

The [[Electronic visual display|display]] provides data to allow the diver to avoid [[obligatory decompression stop]]s, or to decompress relatively safely, and includes depth and duration of the dive. This must be displayed clearly, legibly, and unambiguously at all light levels.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="AandA" /> Several additional functions and displays may be available for interest and convenience, such as water temperature and compass direction, and it may be possible to download the data from the dives to a personal computer via cable or wireless connection.<ref name="Perdix manual" /> Data recorded by a dive computer may be of great value to the [[Investigation of diving accidents|investigators in a diving accident]], and may allow the cause of an accident to be discovered.<ref name="Concannon2007" /><ref name="Caruso2006" /> Profile information may also be useful to help decide a suitable treatment for an injured diver, so the computer should accompany the injured diver to the treatment facility.<ref name="Effective use" />

Dive computers may be wrist-mounted or fitted to a console with the [[submersible pressure gauge]]. A dive computer is perceived by [[Recreational diving|recreational scuba divers]] and service providers to be one of the most important items of safety equipment.<ref name="Lucrezi et al 2018" />  It is one of the most expensive pieces of diving equipment owned by most divers. Use by professional scuba divers is also common, but use by [[surface-supplied diver]]s is less widespread, as the diver's depth is monitored at the surface by [[pneumofathometer]] and decompression is controlled by the [[diving supervisor]].<ref name="USNDM R7" /> Some [[Freediving|freedivers]] use another type of dive computer to record their dive profiles and give them useful information which can make their dives safer and more efficient, and some computers can provide both functions, but require the user to select which function is required.<ref name="Zvaritch 2020" /><ref name="Zvaritch 2019" /><ref name="Essex" />

== Purpose ==
[[File:IDive DAN decompression requirement P3050604.JPG|thumb|iDive DAN personal dive computer display showing decompression requirement and other data during a dive The central band shows time to surface from current depth, stop depth and stop time.]]
[[File:Dive decompression tables plus a diving watch plus a diving depth gauge.jpg|thumb|The dive computer eliminated the previously mandatory interconnected use of three pieces of equipment: diving watch (top right), depth gauge (bottom right) and waterproof decompression table (left).]]
The primary purpose of a decompression computer is to facilitate safe [[Decompression (diving)|decompression]] by an underwater diver breathing a suitable gas at ambient pressure, by providing information based on the recent pressure exposure history of the diver that allows an ascent with acceptably low risk of developing [[decompression sickness]]. Dive computers address the same problem as [[decompression tables]], but are able to perform a continuous calculation of the theoretical [[partial pressure]] of inert gases in the body based on the actual [[dive profile|depth and time profile]] of the diver and the decompression model used by the computer.<ref name=aaus/> As the dive computer automatically measures depth and time, it is able to warn of excessive ascent rates and missed [[decompression stop]]s and the diver has less reason to carry a separate [[dive watch]] and [[depth gauge]]. Many dive computers also provide additional information to the diver including ambient temperature, partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas at ambient pressure, accumulated [[oxygen toxicity]] exposure data, a computer-readable dive log, and the [[pressure]] of the remaining [[breathing gas]] in the [[diving cylinder]]. This recorded information can be used for the diver's personal [[Dive log|log]] of their activities or as important information in [[Forensic pathology|medical review]] or [[legal case]]s following  [[Investigation of diving accidents|diving accidents]].<ref name=Caruso2006 /><ref name=Concannon2007 /><ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" /> The exposure record may also help guide decisions on appropriate treatment for an injured diver, if it is made available to the relevant medical personnel.<ref name="Effective use" />

Because of the computer's ability to continually re-calculate based on changing data, the diver benefits by being able to remain underwater for longer periods at acceptable risk. For example, a recreational diver who plans to stay within "no-decompression stop" limits can in many cases simply ascend a few feet each minute, while continuing the dive, and still remain within reasonably safe limits, rather than adhering to a pre-planned bottom time and then ascending directly. [[Multi-level dive]]s can be pre-planned with traditional dive tables or personal computer and smartphone apps, or on the fly using waterproof dive tables, but the additional calculations become complex, and the plan may be cumbersome to follow, and the risk of errors rises with profile complexity. Computers allow for a certain amount of spontaneity during the dive, and automatically take into account deviations from the dive plan.<ref name="Adventures in Diving" />

<blockquote>Dive computers are used to safely calculate decompression schedules in recreational, scientific, and military diving operations. There is no reason to assume that they cannot be valuable tools for commercial diving operations, especially on multi-level dives.<ref name="Validation workshop" /></blockquote>

== Components ==
{{see also|Glossary of underwater diving terminology}} 
[[File:Tauchcomputer_Suunto_Vyper_Air.JPG|thumb|A dive computer incorporating Nitrox functions (Suunto Vyper Air)]]
Some components are common to all models of dive computer as they are essential to the basic function. Some have more than one commonly accepted name:
{{glossary}}
{{term|1=ambient pressure transducer}}
{{term|1=pressure sensor|multi=yes}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Pressure transducer]] }}
Component that converts ambient pressure to an electrical signal<ref name="Tek lite 1" /> [[Piezoresistive pressure sensor]]s are frequently used for this purpose.<ref name="amsys" /><ref name="TE specs" />}}

{{term|1=analog-to-digital converter}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Analog-to-digital converter]] }}
Component that converts the voltage output from the pressure transducer to a binary signal that can be processed by the computer.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=buttons}}
{{defn|1=User input interface in the form of push-buttons or external contacts which accept manual input from the user to set the user preferences and select display options.<ref name="Perdix AI" /><ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />}}

{{term|1=clock}}
{{defn|1=Circuitry that synchronises the steps of the processor and keeps track of elapsed time. It may also keep track of time of day.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=display}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Electronic visual display]] }}
Screen to present the results of computation to the diver in real time.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=faceplate}}
{{defn|1=The transparent glass or plastic window covering the display screen. [[Tempered glass]] and [[synthetic sapphire]] are most scratch resistant, but brittle, and can fracture on impact, causing the housing to leak, which can destroy the electronics. These materials are popular on wristwatch style units, which are expected to be worn out of the water. The larger units are more likely to be worn only while diving, and the more impact resistant [[polycarbonate]] faceplates used for these computers are more sensitive to scratching, but are less likely to flood. Disposable transparent self-adhesive faceplate protectors are available for some models.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />}}

{{term|1=housing}}
{{term|1=case|multi=y}}
{{defn|1=The waterproof container in which the other components are installed to protect them from the environment.<ref name="Tek lite 1" /> Four basic form factors are used: Wristwtch, wrist or console mount circular cylinder (puck), Rectangular or contoured wrist mount, and housed smartphone.<ref name="wristwatch" /><ref name="DivePhone" />}}

{{term|1=microprocessor}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Microprocessor]] }}
The logic-processing microcircuitry that converts the input signals into real time output data modelling the diver's decompression status using the chosen algorithm and other input data.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=power supply}}
{{defn|1=The battery that provides electrical power to run the device. It may be rechargeable, or user replaceable, or may require replacement by an authorised agent or the manufacturer.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=random-access memory (RAM)}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Random-access memory]] }}
Temporary storage for the variable data and results of computation.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=read-only memory (ROM)}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Read-only memory]] }}
Non-volatile memory containing the program and constants used in the algorithm.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />}}

{{term|1=data storage memory}}
{{defn|1=Non-volatile data storage for updateable firmware and computed results. (dive log data). The amount of processed data that can be stored varies considerably, following the general trend for more memory in more recent models and for more processing capacity producing larger dive log file sizes.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" /> }}

{{term|1=strap}}
{{defn|1=Band used to secure the housing to the user's wrist. Several types may be used. Double straps may be used for greater security. An alternative to straps is console mounting, usually limited to puck form factor recreational dive computers.<ref name="scubaonline" /><ref name="Mares SE" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />}}

{{term|1=temperature sensor}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Temperature sensor]] }}
Component that measures the temperature of the pressure transducer to compensate for temperature variations. The output may be recorded and displayed, but the primary function is to allow accurate pressure measurement.<ref name="Wright et al 2016" />}}

{{glossary end}}

Additional components may be necessary for additional or extended features and functionality.

{{glossary}}

{{term|1=accelerometer}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Accelerometer]] }} 
Used to detect directional tapping input and pitch and tilt angles.<ref name="tdc-3" />}}

{{term|1=Bluetooth hardware}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Bluetooth]] }}
Used for communication with smartphones or personal computers to upload data and download firmware updates.<ref name="Perdix AI" /> }}

{{term|1=buzzer}}
{{defn|1=Used to provide audible and vibratory alarms.<ref name="Perdix AI" /> }}

{{term|1=external electrical contacts}}
{{defn|1=May be used for several purposes at the surface, including battery charging and communication with a personal computer.<ref name="iX3M" /> }}

{{term|1=GPS receiver}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[GPS receiver]] }} 
Used for position identification at the surface.<ref name="iX3M" /> }}

{{term|1=fluxgate compass}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Fluxgate compass]] }}
Used to provide compass functionality for navigation.<ref name="iX3M" /> }}

{{term|1=infrared data transfer hardware}}
{{defn|1=Used for data transfer to and from personal computer.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />}}

{{term|1=light sensor}}
{{defn|1=Used to provide automatic display intensity (screen brightness) to suit ambient light levels. In some models a display of measured light level may be available.<ref name="iX3M" />}}

{{term|1=screen protector}}
{{defn|1=Transparent sacrificial film or lens covering the screen to protect the screen against scratches.<ref name="Perdix AI" /> }}

{{term|1=ultrasonic communications hardware}}
{{defn|1=Used for wireless communications with pressure sensors on gas cylinders for gas-integrated systems, and in some cases, other peripherals.<ref name="Perdix AI" /> }}

{{term|1=watertight electrical connections}}
{{defn|1=To receive input from oxygen cells, and to communicate with electronically controlled rebreathers.<ref name="HSE Manual" /> }}

{{term|1=wireless charging coil}}
{{defn|1={{ghat|See: [[Inductive charging]] }}
Used to recharge the battery without risk of compromising watertight seals.<ref name="Peregrine" />}}

{{glossary end}}
{{expand section|more optional components|date=April 2024}}

== Function ==
[[File:TC-en.svg|upright=1.8|thumbnail|Schematic structure of a dive computer]]
Dive computers are [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]-powered computers within a watertight and pressure resistant case. These computers track the dive profile by measuring time and [[pressure]]. All dive computers measure the ambient pressure to model the concentration of gases in the tissues of the diver. More advanced dive computers provide additional measured data and user input into the calculations, for example, the water temperature, gas composition, altitude of the water surface,<ref name="Validation workshop" /> or the remaining pressure in the scuba cylinder. Dive computers suitable for calculating decompression for rebreather diving need to measure the [[oxygen partial pressure]] in the [[breathing loop]]. A dive computer may be used as the control unit for an [[electronically controlled closed circuit rebreather]], in which case it will calculate [[oxygen partial pressure]] in the loop using the output from more than one [[oxygen sensor]].<ref name="Predator manual" />

The computer uses the pressure and time input in a decompression [[algorithm]] to estimate the partial pressure of inert gases that have been dissolved in the diver's tissues.<ref name=UHMS44 /> Based on these calculations, the computer estimates when an acceptably low risk direct ascent to the surface is no longer possible, and what decompression stops would be needed based on the profile of the dive up to that time and recent hyperbaric exposures which may have left residual dissolved gases in the diver.<ref name=UHMS44/>

Many dive computers are able to produce a low risk decompression schedule for [[Altitude diving|dives that take place at altitude]], which requires longer decompression than for the same profile at sea level, because the computers measure the [[atmospheric pressure]] before the dive and take this into account in the algorithm.<ref name="Validation workshop" /> 

Many computers have some way for the user to adjust [[Conservatism (diving)|decompression conservatism]]. This may be by way of a ''personal factor'', which makes an undisclosed change to the algorithm decided by the manufacturer, or the setting of [[gradient factor]]s, a way of reducing the permitted supersaturation of tissue compartments by specific ratios, which is well defined in the literature, leaving the responsibility for making informed decisions on personal safety to the diver.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="iX3M" />

=== Algorithms ===
{{see also|Decompression theory}} 
The decompression algorithms used in dive computers vary between manufacturers and computer models. Examples of [[decompression algorithms]] are the [[Bühlmann algorithm]]s and their variants, the [[Thalmann algorithm|Thalmann VVAL18 Exponential/Linear model]], the [[Varying Permeability Model]], and the [[Reduced Gradient Bubble Model]].<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" /> The proprietary names for the algorithms do not always clearly describe the actual decompression model. The algorithm may be a variation of one of the standard algorithms, for example, several versions of the  [[Bühlmann decompression algorithm]] are in use. The algorithm used may be an important consideration in the choice of a dive computer. Dive computers using the same internal electronics and algorithms may be marketed under a variety of brand names.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />

The algorithm used is intended to inform the diver of a decompression profile that will keep the risk of [[decompression sickness]] (DCS) to an acceptable level. Researchers use experimental diving programmes or data that has been recorded from previous dives to validate an algorithm. The dive computer measures depth and time, then uses the algorithm to determine decompression requirements or estimate remaining no-stop times at the current depth. An algorithm takes into account the magnitude of pressure reduction, breathing gas changes, repetitive exposures, rate of ascent, and time at altitude. Algorithms are not able to reliably account for age, previous injury, ambient temperature, body type, alcohol consumption, dehydration, and other factors such as [[patent foramen ovale]], because the effects of these factors have not been experimentally quantified, though some may attempt to compensate for these by factoring in user input, and for diver peripheral temperature and workload by having sensors that monitor ambient temperature and cylinder pressure changes as a proxy.<ref name="DipnDive 2021" /> Water temperature is known to be a poor proxy for body temperature, as it does not account for the effectiveness of the diving suit or heat generated by work or active heating systems.<ref name="Pollock 2015a" />

====Choice of algorithm====
The algorithms available are of two basic types: Dissolved gas models and bubble models. Neither type is able to provide a reliably safe profile in their basic form, and must be adjusted empirically to fit the data. The bubble models are likely to be closer to physiological reality, and may be more accurate outside of the range of reliably known empirical data, but are computationally complex. The dissolved gas models are computationally much simpler, and may require more data fitting processing, but even then remain significantly faster to run. A relatively simple method of controlling data fitting is by systematic adjustment of M-values, which can be done by varying gradient factors, both by preprogrammed (firmware) and user input options.<ref name="Angelini 2018" />

There is no conclusive evidence that any currently used algorithm  is significantly better than all of the others, and by selective setting of the constants, most of them can be made to produce very similar ascent and decompression profiles for a given ingassing profile. When used in the recreational diving range of no-stop exposures on factory settings, it is likely that they are all acceptably safe, though some will clearly be more conservative than others. The question of whether the diver gains anything of value from the higher conservatism is an open question, when the rate of symptomatic decompression sicknesss is very low and the external risk factors are not yet amenable to computational analysis.<ref name="Fogarty 2025" /> Some manufacturers use their unverified and  undisclosed modified algorithms as selling points, usually without making any specific claims about their effectiveness, and the user is in no position to make an educated choice due to the vagueness of the claims.<ref name="DiveGearExpress 2021" /> Some others use algorithms well-defined in the literature, allowing the user who has sufficient understanding of the specific decompression model to make a relatively informed decision. Some of these also allow user modification of settings which modify algorithm conservatism following well defined methods such as gradient factors, further facilitating educated choice.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />

=== Display information ===
[[File:TechDiving NOAA.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Technical diving|Technical diver]] wearing a dive computer on his left wrist during a decompression stop.]]<!-- Not a very useful image, replace if something better becomes available -->
[[Image:Suunto D9 Dive Computer.jpg|thumb|A [[watch]] sized dive computer incorporating an electronic compass and the ability to display cylinder pressure when used with an optional transmitter ([[Suunto]] D9)]]
[[File:IDive DAN dive computer dive log P3050610.JPG|thumb|Dive computer dive profile display]]
[[File:High PO2 warning on Shearwater Perdix PA190199.jpg|thumb|High oxygen partial pressure warning on Shearwater Perdix dive computer]]
[[File:Shearwater Perdix low battery warning P1080460.jpg|thumb|Shearwater Perdix dive computer low battery warning display]]

Dive computers provide a variety of visual dive information to the diver, usually on a [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] or [[OLED]] display. More than one screen arrangement may be selectable during a dive, and the primary screen will display by default and contain the safety critical data. Secondary screens are usually selected by pressing one or two buttons one or more times, and may be transient or remain visible until another screen is selected. All safety critical information should be visible on any screen that will not automatically revert within a short period, as the diver may forget how to get back to it and this may put them as significant risk. Some computers use a scroll through system which tends to require more button pushes, but is easier to remember, as eventually the right screen will turn up, others may use a wider selection of buttons, which is quicker when the sequence is known, but easier to forget or become confused, and may demand more of the diver's attention.<ref name="Perdix AI" /><ref name="iX3M" />

Most dive computers display the following basic dive profile and no-stop status information during the dive. This information includes safety critical information, and is usually displayed on the default underwater display, and some may be shown on all underwater displays:<ref name="AandA" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Current depth (derived from ambient pressure).<ref name="AandA" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Maximum depth reached on the current dive.<ref name="AandA" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*No-stop time, the time remaining at the current depth without the need for [[decompression stop]]s on ascent.<ref name="AandA" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Elapsed dive time of the current dive.<ref name="AandA" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />

Many dive computers also display additional information. Some of this is safety-critical for decompression, and would usually be displayed on all screens available underwater, or have a timed default return to the primary screen: Most of the non-critical information is likely to be useful on at least some dives, and may be displayed on a secondary screen layout which can be selected during the dive.<ref name="Predator manual" />
*Total ascent time, or time to surface (TTS) assuming immediate ascent at recommended rate, and decompression stops as indicated. When multiple gases are enabled in the computer, the time to surface may be predicted based on the optimum gas being selected, during ascent, but the actual time to surface will depend on the actual gas selected, and may be longer than the displayed value. This does not invalidate the decompression calculation, which accounts for the actual exposure and gas selected.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />
*Required decompression stop depth and time, also assuming immediate ascent at recommended rate. The depth and duration of the first stop are usually displayed prominently.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Ambient temperature, (actually temperature of the pressure transducer). This may be a default display or a user selected setting, and may not be on the primary display, as it is not safety-critical information.<ref name="Wright et al 2016" />
*Current ascent rate. This may be displayed as an actual speed of ascent, or a relative rate compared to the recommended rate.<ref name="Perdix AI" />
*Dive profile (often not displayed during the dive, but transmitted to a personal computer). Not a safety-critical information, so usually on a temporary secondary display if available<ref name="iX3M" />
*Gas mixture in use, as selected by the user.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix AI" /> 
*Oxygen partial pressure at current depth, based on selected gas mixture.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />
*Cumulative oxygen toxicity exposure (CNS), computed from measured pressure and time and selected gas mixture.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />
*Battery charge status or low battery warning.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />
*Time of day, often with a 12hour or 24 hour format option.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Compass heading, using a flux gate sensor, with tilt corrections. When available this is usually combined with displays of all safety critical data, so that it does not have to automatically revert to the primary display layout.<ref name="Perdix AI" />

A few computers will display additional information on decompression status after the no-stop limit has been exceeded. These data may be selected as optional display settings by the diver, and may require a more comprehensive understanding of decompression theory and modelling than provided by recreational diver training. They are intended as information that may help a technical diver make a more informed decision while dealing with a contingency that affects decompression risk.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />
*At depth + 5 minutes, (@+5), shows the effect on time to surface of remaining at the current depth on the current breathing gas for five more minutes. The display will show the amended TTS.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />
*Delta + 5 (Δ+5) is the change in time to surface if remaining at the same depth on the same gas for 5 minutes longer. This value will be positive if ingassing, negative if outgassing, and 0 if the extra exposure has no net effect on computed decompression obligation. This is useful for multi-level dives, where it helps estimate whether there will still be enough breathing gas for the ascent.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />
*Decompression ceiling, the depth at which calculated supersaturation of the controlling tissue is at the maximum permissible level according to the algorithm. This is the shallowest depth to which the diver can ascend with acceptable decompression risk according to the chosen constraints. This depth will be equal to or shallower than the current obligatory stop depth and deeper than the next obligatory stop. When decompression is completed, the ceiling will be zero.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />
*Current gradient factor (GF99), an indication of the diver's current proximity to the baseline M-value of the algorithm in the limiting tissue. If it exceeds 100% then the diver is oversaturated according to the algorithm's least conservative setting. This value will slowly decrease at each decompression stop, and increase during the ascent to the next stop. This functionality may be useful in a contingency when the diver needs to exit the water as soon as possible but at a reasonable decompression risk. Responsible use of this feature requires a good understanding of the theory of decompression and how it is modeled by the computer.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />
*Surfacing gradient factor, The calculated gradient factor for the controlling tissue if the diver were to surface directly from the current depth, without any stops. The figure shown is a percentage of the calculated M-value at that stage of the dive. If it exceeds 99%, the risk of DCS is higher than for the baseline M-value, and if lower, then the risk is lower than for the baseline M-value, When indicated decompression clears, it will be at the GF-Hi value the diver selected, This is an optional way of monitoring decompression status which could be useful in an emergency.<ref name="Shearwater 2020" />

Some computers, known as air-integrated, or gas-integrated, are designed to display information from a [[diving cylinder]] pressure sensor, such as:
*Gas pressure.<ref name="iX3M AI" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />
*Estimated remaining air time (RAT) based on available gas, rate of gas consumption and ascent time.<ref name="iX3M AI" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />

Some computers can provide a real time display of the oxygen partial pressure in the rebreather. This requires an input from an oxygen cell. These computers will also calculate cumulative oxygen toxicity exposure based on measured partial pressure.<ref name="Predator manual" />

Some computers can display a graph of the current tissue saturation for several tissue compartments, according to the algorithm in use.<ref name="iX3M AI" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />

Some information, which has no practical use during a dive, is only shown at the surface to avoid an information overload of the diver during the dive:<ref name="Predator manual" />
*"Time to Fly" display showing when the diver can safely board an airplane.<ref name="Predator manual" />
*Desaturation time, the estimated time required to return all tissues to surface pressure dissolved gas equilibrium.<ref name="Predator manual" />
*A log of key information about previous dives – date, start time, maximum depth, duration, and possibly others.<ref name="Predator manual" />
*Maximum non-decompression bottom times for subsequent dives based on the estimated residual concentration of the inert gases in the tissues.<ref name="Predator manual" />
*Dive planning functions (no decompression time based on current tissue loads and user-selected depth and breathing gas).<ref name="HSE Manual" />

Warnings and alarms may include:<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Maximum operating depth exceeded<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*No decompression limit approaching<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*No decompression limit exceeded<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Excessive ascent rate<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Decompression ceiling violation<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Omitted decompression<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Low cylinder pressure (where applicable)<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Oxygen partial pressure high or low<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
*Maximum depth violation<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />

=== Audible information ===
Many dive computers have warning buzzers that warn the diver of events such as:<ref name="Mike's dive store" />
* Excessive ascent rates.
* Missed decompression stops.
* Maximum operation depth exceeded.
* [[Oxygen toxicity]] limits exceeded.
* Decompression ceiling violation, or stop depth violation
Some buzzers can be turned off to avoid the noise.

=== Data sampling, storage and upload ===
Data sampling rates generally range from once per second to once per 30 seconds, though there have been cases where a sampling rate as low as once in 180 seconds has been used. This rate may be user selectable. Depth resolution of the display generally ranges between 1m and 0.1m. The recording format for depth over the sampling interval could be maximum depth, depth at the sampling time, or the average depth over the interval. For a small interval these will not make a significant difference to the calculated decompression status of the diver, and are the values at the point where the computer is carried by the diver, which is usually a wrist or suspended on a console, and may vary in depth differently to the depth of the demand valve, which determines breathing gas pressure, which is the relevant pressure for decompression computation.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />

Temperature resolution for data records varies between 0.1&nbsp;°C to 1&nbsp;°C. Accuracy is generally not specified, and there is often a lag of minutes as the sensor temperature changes to follow the water temperature. Temperature is measured at the pressure sensor, and is needed primarily to provide correct pressure data, so it is not a high priority for decompression monitoring to give the precise ambient temperature in real time.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />

Data storage is limited by internal memory, and the amount of data generated depends on the sampling rate. Capacity may be specified in hours of run time, number of dives recorded, or both. Values of up to 100 hours were available by 2010.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" /> This may be influenced by sampling rate selected by the diver.

By 2010, most dive computers had the ability to upload the data to a PC or smartphone, by cable, infrared or [[Bluetooth]] wireless connection.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />

== Special purpose dive computers ==
[[File:JJ Rebreather at Blue Rock Quarry PC290151.jpg|thumb|Dive computer showing three oxygen cell readings from a CCR in the middle row]]
Some dive computers are able to calculate decompression schedules for [[breathing gas]]es other than air, such as [[nitrox]], pure [[oxygen]], [[Trimix (breathing gas)|trimix]] or [[heliox]]. The more basic nitrox dive computers only support one or two gas mixes for each dive. Others support many different mixes.<ref name="Huggins 2006" /> When multiple gases are supported, there may be an option to set those which will be carried on the dive as active, which sets the computer to calculate the decompression schedule and time to surface based on the assumption that the active gases will be used when they are optimal for decompression. Calculation of tissue gas loads will generally follow the gas actually selected by the diver,<ref name="Perdix manual" /> unless there is multiple cylinder pressure monitoring to enable automatic gas selection by the computer.<ref name="iX3M AI" />

===Closed circuit rebreather monitoring and control===
Most dive computers calculate decompression for open circuit [[Scuba set|scuba]] where the proportions of the breathing gases are constant for each mix: these are "constant fraction" dive computers. Other dive computers are designed to model the gases in closed circuit scuba ([[diving rebreather]]s), which maintain constant [[partial pressure]]s of gases by varying the proportions of gases in the mixture: these are "{{visible anchor|constant partial pressure}}" dive computers. They may be switched over to [[Constant gas fraction mode|constant fraction mode]] if the diver bails out to open circuit.<ref name="Perdix manual" /> There are also dive computers which monitor oxygen partial pressure in real time in combination with a user nominated diluent mixture to provide a real-time updated mix analysis which is then used in the decompression algorithm to provide decompression information, and optionally, control of the CCR gas mixture.<ref name="HSE Manual" /><ref name="Predator manual" />

===Freediving computers===
<!--target for redirect [[Freediving computer]] -->
A freediving computer, or general purpose dive computer in freediving mode, will record breath hold dive details automatically while the diver is underwater, and the length of the surface interval between dives. It records each dive, so there is a record of the number of dives. This is useful to ensure adequate surface interval to clear carbon dioxide buildup.<ref name="Essex" />

Surface interval times are also useful to monitor to avoid [[taravana]], the freediving decompression sickness. A dive computer is also the most effective way to notify the diver of the depth at which free-fall should start by a free-fall alarm. monitoring descent and ascent speed, and verifying maximum depth are also useful when training for efficiency.<ref name="Zvaritch 2019" /> 

Two types of freediving computer are available, the ones that are dedicated to freediving, and those that are also scuba decompression computers, with a freediving mode. A stopwatch is useful for timing static apnea, rechargeable batteries are an option in some models, and GPS can be useful for spearfishers who wish to mark a place and return to it later. A few models offer a heart rate monitor.<ref name="Zvaritch 2020" />

== Additional functionality and features ==
[[File:Shearwater Perdix and Ratio iX3M GPS in compass mode P9070460.jpg|thumb|Shearwater Perdix and Ratio iX3M GPS dive computers in compass mode]]
[[File:Submersible pressure transducer for remote display P8160016.jpg|thumb|Submersible wireless pressure transmitter for remote dive computer display]]
[[File:MaskeC.jpg|thumb|Mask with head-up display at focal distance of about 2&nbsp;m]]
[[File:JJ Rebreather at Blue Rock Quarry PC290152.jpg|thumb|Head-up display mounted on rebreather moutpiece]]
Some dive computers provide additional functionality, generally a subset of those listed below:
* Breathing gas oxygen analyser<ref name="iX3M" />
* Electronic compass<ref name="iX3M" />
* Gas blending calculator<ref name="iX3M" />
* Global navigation satellite receiver (only works at the surface)<ref name="iX3M" />
* Light-meter<ref name="iX3M" />
* Lunar phase indicator (useful for estimating tidal conditions)<ref name="iX3M" />
* Magnetometer (for detecting ferrous metal)<ref name="iX3M" />
* Pitch and roll angle<ref name="iX3M" />
* Stopwatch<ref name="iX3M" />
* Time of day in a second time zone<ref name="iX3M" />
* Time to surface after another 5 minutes at current depth on current gas.<ref name="Knudsen" />
* Gauge mode (overrides decompression monitoring, and just records and displays depth and time and leaves the diver to control decompression by following tables).<ref name="iX3M" /> Selecting gauge mode may reset the tissue saturation records to default, which invalidates any further decompression calculations until the diver has fully desaturated.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* <!--target for redirect [[Gas integrated dive computer]], [[Pressure transmitter]] -->{{visible anchor|Air integration}} (AI), also known as {{visible anchor|gas integration}}: – Some dive computers are designed to measure, display, and monitor pressure in one or more [[diving cylinder]]s. The computer is either connected to the first stage by a high pressure hose, or uses a wireless {{visible anchor|pressure transmitter}} on the regulator first stage to provide a wireless data signal indicating remaining cylinder pressure, The signals are encoded to eliminate the risk of one diver's computer picking up a signal from another diver's transducer, or interference from other sources.<ref name="Suunto transmitter" /> Some dive computers can receive a signal from more than one remote pressure transducer.<ref name="Perdix AI" /> The Ratio iX3M Tech and others can process and display pressures from up to 10 transmitters.<ref name="iX3M AI" />
* Workload modification of decompression algorithm based on gas consumption rate from integrated gas pressure monitor.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />
* Heart rate monitor from remote transducer. This can also be used to modify the decompression algorithm to allow for an assumed workload.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />
* Graphic display of calculated tissue compartment inert gas tensions during and after the dive.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Indication of computed decompression ceiling in addition to the more usual next stop depth. The effects on decompression risk of following the ceiling rather than remaining below the stop depth is not known, but stop depths are arbitrarily chosen for the calculation of decompression tables, and time spent at any depth below the indicated ceiling depth is processed by the same algorithm.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Display of supersaturation of limiting tissue as a percentage of M-value in the event of an immediate ascent. This is an indicator of decompression risk in the event of an emergency ascent.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Display of current supersaturation of limiting tissue as a percentage of M-value during ascent. This is an indication of decompression stress and risk in real time.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Multiple active gases for open circuit and closed circuit diluent.<ref name="Perdix manual" /> 
* Deactivation of gas options during dive in case of lost gas. This will trigger the computer to recalculate the estimated time to surface without the deactivated gases.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Definition of a new gas during the dive to allow calculations for decompression on gas supplied by another diver.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Battery charge status.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Alternative decompression algorithms.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="HSE Manual" /><ref name="SUUNTO GF" />
Features and accessories of some models:
* Piezo-electric buttons (no moving parts)<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="tdc-3" />
* User input by directional tapping <ref name="tdc-3" />
* Rechargeable batteries.<ref name="iX3M" />
* Wireless charging.<ref name="Peregrine" />
* Optional battery types. For example the Shearwater Perdix and Petrel 2 can use 1.5V alkaline cells or 3.6V lithium cells provided they have the same physical format (AA).<ref name="Shearwater comparison" />
* User changeable batteries.<ref name="Shearwater comparison" />
* Battery redundancy.<ref name="tdc-3" />
* User selected display colours (useful for the colour-blind), and variable brightness.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="iX3M" />
* Screen inversion for ambidextrous use of units with plug-in cable connections for oxygen monitors.<ref name="Predator manual" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Mask or mouthpiece mounted head-up display. (NERD)<ref name="NERD2 Manual" />
* Wireless downloading of dive log data.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Firmware upgrades over the Internet via Bluetooth or USB cable from smart phone or personal computer.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="iX3M" />
* Display prompts for changing settings.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Twin straps or bungee straps for improved security.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Strap extensions for wristwatch format computers to allow for fitting over the forearm on bulky diving suits.<ref name="Mares SE" />
* Aftermarket straps, for improved security, colour options or convenience.<ref name="scubaonline" />
* Screen protectors, in the form of a self-adhesive transparent plastic film or a rigid transparent plastic cover.<ref name="Perdix manual" />
* Software for downloading, display and analysis of logged data. Most downloadable dive computers have a proprietary application, and many can also interface with open source software such as [[Subsurface (software)|Subsurface]]. Some can down and upload via a smartphone to the cloud.<ref name="Peregrine" />
* Final stop depth option of 3&nbsp;msw or 6&nbsp;msw.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" />
* Continuous decompression following a ceiling or staged decompression options.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" />

===User settings===
<!--target for redirect from [[Dive mode (dive computer)]]-->
User settings are options that can be manually selected by the diver to provide information that the computer cannot select automatically. Not all computers have them and not all settings are available on those computers which have user options.<ref name="Heinerth 2020" /><ref name="divein"/>

Dive mode options may be available which can be selected depending on whether the dive is to be a freedive, open circuit scuba on single or multiple gases, closed circuit scuba, open circuit bailout, gauge mode, [[Dive computer#Avelo mode|Avelo mode]].<ref name="Scubapro Avelo mode" /><ref name="divein" /> If air integration and real-time oxygen partial pressure monitoring are provided, some of these setting may be automated.<ref name="D6i" /><ref name="Perdix AI" />

Conservatism options are a common user setting option. They may be input in various ways, some requiring understanding of the algorithm functionality, and others relatively arbitrary, and with details of the function often not disclosed to the user. The value of the more arbitrary settings in not clear and it is not practicable to make a realistic estimate of their value to the user.<ref name="Sayer et al 2016" /> A more accessible user option is to provide [[gradient factor]] setting as user input. These adjust the basic M-values set for the tissue compartments in the firmware by a linear factor depending on the depth. GF<sub>low</sub> is the adjustment that affects the depth where the ascent slows down and the first stop is made. A small value for GF<sub>low</sub> induces deeper stops, which can occur when some tissues are still ingassing. A large value for GF<sub>low</sub> induces a shallower first stop, at the cost of higher decompression stress in the first part of the ascent.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" /><ref name="Heinerth 2020" />

GF<sub>high</sub> setting affects the time spent decompressing at the shallow stop and the surfacing supersaturation allowed as a percentage fraction of the M-value set for surfacing in the basic algorithm.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" />

In some cases the manufacturer may state that their conservatism factor is equivalent to a specific gradient factor, which tells the diver what its effect will be to the same extent as letting them input the same gradient factors. but other conservatism settings are entirely obscure.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" /><ref name="Sayer et al 2016" />

Some computers allow the user to choose between 6 and 3m for the depth of the last obligatory decompression stop. This can make it easier to maintain a consistent depth in large swells, but with most gas mixtures, decompression will be slower. The default depth is commonly 3m. With computers that indicate current ceiling, the ceiling will not be affected by the setting, and will rise above the actual depth in the usual way. Some Suunto computers indicate a maximum ceiling of 3m, but some Shearwaters will raise the ceiling in steps of 1m until decompression is clear.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" /><ref name="Perdix manual" />

There may be a user option to select whether to add a safety stop, and if so, how long it should be and at what depth range. A safety stop is by definition not an obligatory stop, so there should be no penalty for  disregarding it, though doing it may give an outgassing credit for the time and depth spent, particularly if the gas has a high partial pressure of oxygen. There is nothing stopping the diver from just doing additional shallow stop time and allowing the algorithm to compute the effects for any computer, though there is no guarantee that all computers will give credit for the extra time.<ref name="divein" />

===Display options===
Some computers require the user to switch between screens to view additional information, others provide default critical dive information on several screen views which van be selected during a dive, and allow user options of useful but non-essential information  to be displayed on the main screen image, while still making the other screen views accessible during  dives if they are likely to be useful.<ref name="Perdix AI" />

===Housed smartphones===
Smartphones in underwater housings running a decompression monitoring app may be able to take photos or video as well, provided the housing is suitable.<ref name="DivePhone" />

===Avelo mode===
An optional mode for assessing real time buoyancy status for a diver using the [[Avelo diving system]] buoyancy compensation is available on a small number of Shearwater  (Tern TX, Teric, Peregrine TX, or Perdix 2) and Scubapro (G2C) dive computers via firmware downloads.<ref name="Shearwater Avelo mode" /><ref name="Scubapro Avelo mode" /><ref name="Avelo mode" /> As of April 2025 this feature was available on Shearwater Teric wrist computers and Scubapro console computers. Real time cylinder pressure input is required, but may be via a high pressure hose (G2C) or a wireless pressure sensor (Teric). The software estimates the magnitude of positive or negative buoyancy based on the volume of ballast water added to the [[hydrocyinder]] during the dive after a neutral buoyancy state has been achieved and confirmed by the diver. Displayed information is intended to advise the diver on when to adjust the ballast so that lung volume will be sufficient for fine buoyancy control. Other user input allows wetsuit compression to be factored in.<ref name="Scubapro Avelo mode" />

== Safety and reliability ==
The ease of use of dive computers can allow divers to perform complex dives with little planning. Divers may rely on the computer instead of dive planning and monitoring. Dive computers are intended to reduce risk of decompression sickness, and allow easier monitoring of the dive profile. Where present, breathing gas integration allows easier monitoring of remaining gas supply, and warnings can alert the diver to some high risk situations, but the diver remains responsible for planning and safe execution of the dive plan. The computer cannot guarantee safety, and only monitors a fraction of the situation. The diver must remain aware of the rest by personal observation and attention to the ongoing situation. A dive computer can also fail during a dive, due to malfunction or misuse.<ref name="DANSA" />

=== Failure modes and probability of failure ===
It is possible for a dive computer to malfunction during a dive. Manufacturers are not obliged to publish reliability statistics, and generally only include a warning in the user manual that they are used at the diver's own risk. Reliability has markedly improved over time, particularly for the hardware.<ref name="Seveke" /><ref name="Petrel3" />

==== Hardware failures ====
Mechanical and electrical failures: 
* Leaks allowing ingress of water to the electronic components, may be caused by:
** Cracked faceplate, which is more likely with hard, scratch-resistant glass and sapphire used on watch format units. They are strong, but brittle, and can shatter under impact with a sufficiently hard point contact.<ref name="shwr" />
** Seal failures can occur at joints, probably most often at the battery closure, as it is usually the most often disturbed. Computers with user serviceable batteries often use a double O-ring barrel seal to provide a more reliable seal.<ref name="Rossier 2010" />
* Button failures are one of the more frequent problems, some models are particularly susceptible. Occasionally the failure is in the form of leaks, but more often the switch fails open, which is sometimes a fatigue problem. Pressure sensitive switches with no moving parts are sometimes used to avoid this problem.<ref name="Divesoft" />  Magnetic switches can fail due to magnet corrosion.<ref name="aic magnetics" /> Buttons which work by external electrical contact can malfunction due to salt deposits. This is most likely to occur out of the water.<ref name="Shearwater#2" />
* Depth sensor malfunctions can occur due to salt buildup on the sensor external surface.<ref name="Shearwater#2" />
* Circuitry failures, other than switch failures, often due to water or battery leaks causing internal corrosion.<ref name="Shearwater#2" />
* Battery failure, such as running down unexpectedly, leaking, or failing to charge properly. Internal rechargeable batteries exchange a lower risk of water leaks for a higher risk of battery degradation over time.<ref name="Rossier 2010" />
* Non-rechargeable lithium batteries can explode if incorrectly used in a dive computer with charging facilities.<ref name="Deeperblue HW" />
* Rubber wrist straps can deteriorate and weaken over time and  can tear in use. If there is only one strap the computer may be lost if it breaks.<ref name="10 tips" /><ref name="mikesdivestore" />

==== Software failures and reliability issues====
There have been several instances where dive computers have been recalled due to significant safety issues in the software or factory calibration.<ref name="recall notices" /> Earlier dive computers had to have software upgrades at the factory or an approved agent. This has changed and as of 2024, it is common to be able to update firmware over the internet, via [[bluetooth]] or a cable connection.<ref name="Perdix manual" />

A series of Uwatec Aladin Air X NitrOx dive computers made in 1995 was recalled in 2003 due to faulty software which miscalculated desaturation time, leading to at least seven cases of DCS attributed to their use.<ref name="Air X Recall" /> This is not the only recall for faulty software or calibration, Suunto D6 and D9s were recalled in 2006, Oceanic Versa Pro 2A in 2006, and  Dacor Darwin computers in 2005, but no injuries were reported, and the units were recalled relatively soon after the problems were reported.<ref name="Dacor recall" /><ref name="Oceanic recall" /><ref name="Suunto recall" /> The Uwatec Aladin Air X Nitrox recall occurred during a class action suit and after several related lawsuits against the company and several alleged cover-ups, starting as early as 1996.<ref name="Etzel 2003" /><ref name="Undercurrent" /><ref name="recall" /><ref name="class action" /> The case was settled on the eve of trial.<ref name="Concannon and Charles" />

=== Inherent risk ===
The main problem in establishing decompression algorithms for both dive computers and production of decompression tables, is that the gas absorption and release under pressure in the human body is still not completely understood.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" /> Furthermore, the risk of decompression sickness also depends on the [[physiology]], fitness, condition and health of the individual diver. The safety record of most dive computers indicates that when used according to the manufacturer's instructions, and within the recommended depth range, the risk of decompression sickness is low.<ref name="Validation workshop" />

Personal settings to adjust conservatism of the algorithm are available for most dive computers. They may be input as undisclosed personal factors, as reductions to M-values by a fixed ratio, by [[gradient factor]], or by selecting a bubble size limit in VPM and RGBM models. The personal settings for recreational computers tend to be additional to the conservatism factors programmed into the algorithm by the manufacturer. Technical diving computers tend to allow a wider range of choice at the user's discretion, and provide warnings that the diver should ensure that they understand what they are doing and the associated risk before adjusting from the moderately conservative factory settings.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="HSE Manual" />

=== Human error ===
[[File:Confirmation message on Ratio iX3M dive computer P8220433.jpg|thumb|Confirmation message for gas change on Ratio iX3M dive computer]]
Many dive computers have menus, various selectable options and various display modes, which are controlled by a small number of buttons. Control of the computer display differs between manufacturers and in some cases between models by the same manufacturer.<ref name="aaus" /><ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" /> The diver may need information not displayed on the default screen during a dive, and the button sequence to access the information may not be immediately obvious. If the diver becomes familiar with the control of the computer on dives where the information is not critical before relying on it for more challenging dives there is less risk of confusion which may lead to an accident.<ref name="Haith and Krakauer 2018" />
Most dive computers are supplied with default factory settings for algorithm conservatism, and maximum oxygen partial pressure, which are acceptably safe in the opinion of the manufacturer's legal advisors. Some of these may be changed to user preferences, which will affect risk. The user manual will generally provide instructions for adjusting and resetting to factory default, with some information on how to choose appropriate user settings. Responsibility for appropriate use of user settings lies with the user who makes or authorises the settings. There is a risk of the user making inappropriate choices due to lack of understanding or input error.<ref name="iX3M" /><ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="aaus" /><ref name="Heinerth 2020" />

In some cases it can be easy to select the wrong setting by accidentally double pressing the same button with cold fingers encased in thick gloves. The process of correcting the setting can be unfamiliar and take a considerably greater number of buttons pressed at a time when there are other important matters to attend to. An example of this type of error would be accidentally selecting oxygen as the breathing gas instead of a travel gas because oxygen is at the top of the gas options list. This is an error that must be corrected as soon as possible as it will set off alarms and cause unsafe decompression calculation errors.<!--This specific error is easily possible on at least one model of tech dive computer. It is a good example of what should not be possible with good interface design-->{{cn|date=August 2025}} Confirmation messages during gas switches can reduce the risk of user error at the cost of an extra button press.<ref name="iX3M" />

=== Management and mitigation strategies ===
If the diver has been monitoring decompression status and is within the no-decompression limits, a computer failure can be acceptably managed by simply surfacing at the recommended ascent rate, and if possible, doing a short safety stop near the surface. If, however the computer could fail while the diver has a decompression obligation, or cannot make a direct ascent, some form of backup is prudent. The dive computer can be considered [[safety-critical]] equipment when there is a significant decompression obligation, as failure without some form of backup system can expose the diver to a risk of severe injury or death.<ref name="Sieber et al 2011" />{{rp|32}}<ref name="Rossier 2010" />

The diver may carry a backup dive computer. The probability of both failing at the same time is orders of magnitude lower. Use of a backup which is the same model as the primary simplifies use and reduces the probability of user error, particularly under stress, but makes the equipment [[Redundancy (engineering)|redundancy]] less [[statistically independent]]. Statistics for failure rates of dive computers do not appear to be publicly available.<ref name="Sieber et al 2011" />{{rp|32}}<ref name="Rossier 2010" />

If diving to a well regulated [[Buddy diving|buddy system]] where both divers follow closely matched dive profiles, using the same gases, the buddy's dive computer may be sufficient backup.<ref name="aaus" />

If a backup computer uses a different conservatism, the backup should be the less conservative otherwise or it may go into a violation mode during a dive and become useless.<ref name="Undercurrent 2022" />

A dive profile can be planned before the dive, and followed closely to allow reversion to the planned schedule if the computer fails. This implies the availability of a backup timer and depth gauge, or the schedule will be useless. It also requires the diver to follow the planned profile conservatively.<ref name="CMASISA TxManual 2006" /><ref name="aaus" /> 

Some organisations such as the [[American Academy of Underwater Sciences]] have recommended that a dive plan should be established before the dive and then followed throughout the dive unless the dive is aborted. This dive plan should be within the limits of the [[decompression tables]] to increase the margin of safety, and to provide a backup decompression schedule based on the dive tables in case the computer fails underwater.<ref name=aaus/><ref name="McGough et at 1990" /><ref name="McGough et al 1990b" /> The disadvantage of this extremely conservative use of dive computers is that when used this way, the dive computer is merely used as a [[#Bottom timer|bottom timer]], and the advantages of real time computation of decompression status – the original purpose of dive computers – are sacrificed.<ref name="Validation workshop" /> This recommendation is not in the 2018 version of the ''AAUS Standards for Scientific diving: Manual''.<ref name="AAUS Standards" />

A diver wishing to further reduce the risk of decompression sickness can take additional precautionary measures, such as one or more of: 
* Use a dive computer with a relatively conservative decompression model. This may be difficult to estimate accurately as some manufacturers do not provide the user with much useful information on the inherent level of conservatism of their algorithms or the actual effect of the available user input modifications.<ref name="Sayer et al 2016" />
* Induce additional conservatism in the algorithm by selecting a more conservative personal setting or using a higher altitude setting than the actual dive altitude indicates.<ref name="CMASISA TxManual 2006"/><ref name="Sayer et al 2016" />
* Add additional deep safety stops during a deep dive (the efficacy of this approach has not been supported by experiment)<ref name="CMASISA TxManual 2006" />
* Make a slower ascent. This will reduce decompression stress in the earlier parts of the ascent, but will make the total time to surface longer if the decompression stress later in the ascent is not to be increased.<ref name="Devanney" />
* Add additional shallow safety stops, or stay longer at the stops than required by the computer{{cn|date=August 2025}}
* Have a long surface interval between dives. This will decrease risk provided the outgassing calculations of the algorithm are accurate or conservative.{{cn|date=August 2025}}
* If using a backup computer, run one on a low conservatism setting as an indication of fastest acceptable risk ascent for an emergency, and the other at the diver's preferred conservatism for personally acceptable risk when there is no contingency and no rush to surface. The diver can always elect to do more decompression than indicated as necessary by the computer for a lower risk of decompression sickness without incurring a penalty for later dives. Some dive computers can be set to a different gradient factor during a dive, which has the same effect if the diver can remember under stress how to make the adjustment, and some computers can be set to display the maximum tissue supersaturation value for an immediate ascent.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="Pollock 2015" />
* Continue to breathe oxygen enriched gas after surfacing, either in the water while waiting for the boat, after exiting the water, or both. The dive computer will not give credit for this, but it will provide a larger oxygen window which will flush more inert gas from the tissues. The risk of developing oxygen toxicity from this practice is negligible.<ref name="NDTT 2016" /><ref name="DANSA emergency oxygen" />

=== Management of violations ===
<!-- target for redirect [[Dive computer lockout]] -->
Violations of the safety limits as indicated by the computer display may occur during a dive for various reasons, including user error and circumstances beyond the diver's control. How this is handled depends on the decompression model, how the algorithm implements the model, and how the manufacturer chooses to interpret and apply the violation criteria.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="HSE Manual" /><ref name="Apeks" />

Many computers go into a "lockout mode" for 24 to 48 hours if the diver violates the safety limits set by the manufacturer, to discourage continued diving after what the manufacturer deems an unsafe dive. Once in lockout mode, these computers will not function until the lockout period has ended.<ref name="Apeks" /> This is usually a reasonable response if lockout is initiated after the dive, as the algorithm will have been used out of scope and the manufacturer will reasonably prefer to avoid further responsibility for its use until tissues can be considered desaturated. When lockout happens underwater it will leave the diver without any decompression information at the time when it is most needed. For example, the Apeks Quantum will stop displaying the depth if the 100&nbsp;m depth limit is exceeded, but will lock out 5 minutes after surfacing for a missed decompression stop. The Scubapro/Uwatec Galileo technical trimix computer will switch to gauge mode at 155&nbsp;m after a warning, after which the diver will get no decompression information.<ref name="Galileo" /> Other computers, for example Delta P's VR3, Cochran NAVY, and the [[Shearwater Research|Shearwater]] range will continue to function, providing 'best guess' functionality while warning the diver that a stop has been missed, or a ceiling violated.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="InDepth" />

Some dive computers are extremely sensitive to violations of indicated decompression stop depth. The HS Explorer is programmed to credit time spent even slightly (0.1 metre) above the indicated stop depth at only 1/60 of the nominal rate. There is no theoretical or experimental basis claimed as justification for this hard limit. Others, such as the Shearwater Perdix, will fully credit any decompression done below the calculated decompression ceiling, which may be displayed as a user selectable option, and is always equal to or shallower than the indicated stop depth. This strategy is supported by the mathematics of the model, but little experimental evidence is available on the practical consequences, so a warning is provided. A violation of the computed decompression ceiling triggers an alarm, which self cancels if the diver immediately descends below the ceiling. The Ratio iX3M will provide a warning if the indicated stop depth is violated by 0.1&nbsp;m or more, but it is not clear how the algorithm is affected. In many cases the user manual does not provide information on how sensitive the algorithm is to precise depth, what penalties may be incurred by minor discrepancies, or what theoretical basis justifies the penalty.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="HSE Manual" /><ref name="Apeks" /> Over-reaction to stop depth violation puts the diver at an unnecessary disadvantage if there is an urgent need to surface, and no computer can guarantee freedom from decompression sickness even if the displayed surfacing profile is followed exactly.<ref name="Effective use" /><ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

More complex functionality is accompanied by more complex code, which is more likely to include undiscovered errors, particularly in non-critical functions, where testing may not be so rigorous. The trend is to be able to download [[firmware]] updates online to eliminate bugs as they are found and corrected.<ref name="Perdix manual" /> In earlier computers, some errors required factory recall.<ref name="recall" />

There are circumstances in which a lockout on surfacing is not an appropriate, helpful, safe or reasonable response. If a cave diver surfaces inside a cave, and the computer locks out following a violation, the diver may be in a position where they have no option but to make the return dive without the information the computer could reasonably be expected to provide, putting the diver at considerably more severe risk than strictly necessary. This is a very rare occurrence, but it is a failure that a backup computer with similar functionality cannot mitigate. Depending on circumstances and the specific computer, it may be possible to set it to gauge mode, which would at least provide depth and time data.<ref name="Liberty" />

=== Redundancy ===
A single computer shared between divers cannot accurately record the dive profile of the second diver, and therefore their decompression status will be unreliable and probably inaccurate. In the event of computer malfunction during a dive, the buddy's computer record may be the best available estimate of decompression status, and has been used as a guide for decompression in emergencies. Further diving after an ascent in these conditions exposes the diver to an unknown additional risk. Some divers carry a backup computer to allow for this possibility. The backup computer will carry the full recent pressure exposure history, and continued diving after a malfunction of one computer will not affect risk provided that the second computer continues to function correctly. It is also possible to set the conservatism on the backup computer to allow for the fastest acceptable ascent in case of an emergency, with the primary computer set for the diver's preferred risk level if this feature is not available on the computer. Under normal circumstances the primary computer will be used to control the ascent.<ref name="Tek lite 1" />
<ref name="Davis redundant computers" />

==Management of difficult conditions==
In water conditions when it is difficult to maintain a consistently accurate depth, such as for shallow stops in large swells, some computers will allow the diver to decompress at a deeper than optimum depth where the risk of violating the decompression ceiling is reduced, but this will require linger decompression and more breathing gas. If the computer can indicate a decompression ceiling and floor, the diver can remain between them and know that effective and reasonably safe decompression is happening, though it may be inefficient. By decompressing at a depth where it is practicable to remain below the ceiling in the largest waves, safety is enhanced, and by keeping as far above the floor as allows by this strategy, efficiency is enhanced.<ref name="SUUNTO GF" />

==Ethical questions==
Some questions have been raised in the diving community regarding the ethics of certain practices by dive computer manufacturers. In the continued absence of normative standards for the design and testing of dive computers, these have remained open, and the choice must be made by the user based on the information made available by the manufacturer, which may not be much.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

*Is it ethical for the computer manufacturer to not divulge the details of the decompression model used in a dive computer? How does this affect the ability of the diver to make an informed acceptance of risk? What are the criteria for effectiveness and risk acceptability?<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
*What is an acceptable level of risk? It is generally recognised that with the current technology and understanding of decompression physiology, a zero risk algorithm is not reasonably practicable. Different sectors of the diving community accept different levels of decompression risk, and within the recreational sector, different divers accept different levels of risk.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
*What would be an acceptable validation protocol? Should dive computers be validated on human subjects using Doppler monitoring? If so, what types of profile should be used, and how would meaningful rejection criteria be chosen? <ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
*Should validation be done by an independent agency?<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
*Should the manufacturer be obliged to publish reliability data?<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
*Is it acceptable to lock out decompression monitoring functionality during a dive in the event of a profile violation, leaving the diver without any indication of a reasonable safe ascent profile at a time when it is most needed?{{cn|date=August 2025}}

== History ==
{{see also|Timeline of diving technology}} 
[[Image:Dive computer logbook.jpg|right|thumb|[[Uwatec]] Aladin Pro dive computer showing the log of a previous dive]]
In 1951 the [[Office of Naval Research]] funded a project with the [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] for the theoretical design of a prototype decompression computer. Two years later, two Scripps researchers, Groves and Monk, published a paper specifying the required functionalities for a decompression device to be carried by the diver: It must calculate decompression during a multilevel dive; it must take into account residual nitrogen loading from previous dives; and, based on this information, specify a safe ascent profile with better resolution than decompression tables. They suggested using an electrical [[analog computer]] to measure decompression and air consumption.<ref name="Kutter" />

=== Pneumatic analogues ===
The prototype mechanical analogue Foxboro Decomputer Mark I, was produced by the Foxboro Company in 1955, and evaluated by the [[United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit|US Navy Experimental Diving Unit]] in 1957.<ref name="Searle 1957" /> The Mark 1 simulated two tissues using five calibrated porous ceramic flow resistors and five bellows actuators to drive a needle which indicated decompression risk during an ascent by moving towards a red zone on the display dial. The US Navy found the device to be too inconsistent.<ref name="Kutter" />

The first [[recreational diving|recreational]] mechanical [[analog computer|analogue dive computer]], the "decompression meter" was designed by the Italians De Sanctis and Alinari in 1959 and built by their company named SOS, which also made depth gauges. The decompression meter was distributed directly by SOS and also by scuba diving equipment firms such as Scubapro and Cressi. It was very simple in principle: a waterproof bladder filled with gas inside the casing bled into a smaller chamber through a semi-porous ceramic flow resistor to simulate a single tissue in- and out-gassing. The chamber pressure was measured by a [[Pressure measurement#Bourdon gauge|bourdon tube]] gauge, calibrated to indicate decompression status. The device functioned so poorly that it was eventually nicknamed "bendomatic".<ref name=RRR10177 /> though large numbers of divers reportedly found it satisfactory.<ref name="Kas 2022" />

In 1965, [[R. A. Stubbs]] and [[D. J. Kidd]] applied their decompression model to a pneumatic analogue decompression computer,<ref name="Stubbs and Kidd 1965" /><ref name="Stubbs and Kidd 1965b" /> and in 1967 [[Brian Andrew Hills|Brian Hills]] reported development of a pneumatic analogue decompression computer modelling the [[thermodynamic decompression model]]. It modelled phase equilibration instead of the more commonly used limited supersaturation criteria and was intended as an instrument for on-site control of decompression of a diver based on real-time output from the device. Hills considered the model to be conservative.<ref name="Hills 1967" />

Several mechanical analogue decompression meters were subsequently made, some with several bladders for simulating the effect on various body tissues, but they were sidelined with the arrival of electronic computers.<ref name="Seveke" /> The Canadian [[DCIEM]] pneumatic analogue computer of 1962 simulated four tissues, approximating the DCIEM tables of the time.<ref name="Seveke" /> The 1973 GE Decometer by General Electric used semi-permeable silicone membranes instead of ceramic flow resistors, which allowed deeper dives.<ref name="Seveke" /> The Farallon Decomputer of 1975 by Farallon Industries, California simulated two tissues, but produced results very different from the US Navy tables of the time, and was withdrawn a year later.<ref name="Seveke" />

=== Electrical analogues ===
At the same time as the mechanical simulators, electrical analog simulators were being developed, in which tissues were simulated by a network of resistors and capacitors, but these were found to be unstable with temperature fluctuations, and required calibration before use. They were also bulky and heavy because of the size of the batteries needed. The first analogue electronic decompression meter was the Tracor, completed in 1963 by Texas Research Associates.<ref name="Kutter" /><ref name="Seveke" />

=== Digital ===
The first digital dive computer was a laboratory model, the XDC-1, based on a desktop electronic calculator, converted to run a DCIEM four-tissue algorithm by Kidd and Stubbs in 1975. It used [[pneumofathometer]] depth input from [[surface-supplied diver]]s.<ref name="Seveke" />

From 1976 the diving equipment company Dacor developed and marketed a digital dive computer which used a table lookup based on stored US Navy tables rather than a real-time tissue gas saturation model. The Dacor Dive Computer (DDC), displayed output on light-emitting diodes for: current depth; elapsed dive time; surface interval; maximum depth of the dive; repetitive dive data; ascent rate, with a warning for exceeding 20 metres per minute; warning when no-decompression limit is reached; battery low warning light; and required decompression.<ref name="Seveke" />

The Canadian company CTF Systems Inc. then developed the XDC-2 or CyberDiver II (1980), which also used table lookup, and the XDC-3, also known as CyberDiverIII, which used microprocessors, measured cylinder pressure using a high-pressure hose, calculated tissue loadings using the Kidd-Stubbs model, and remaining no-stop time. It had an LED matrix display, but was limited by the power supply, as the four 9&nbsp;V batteries only lasted for four hours and it weighed 1.2&nbsp;kg. About 700 of the XDC models were sold from 1979 to 1982.<ref name="Seveke" />

In 1979 the XDC-4 could already be used with mixed gases and different decompression models using a multiprocessor system, but was too expensive to make an impact on the market.<ref name="Seveke" />

In 1982/1983,<ref name="Seveke" /> the [[Hans Hass]]-''DecoBrain I'', designed by ''Divetronic AG'', a Swiss start-up, became the first decompression diving computer, capable of displaying the information that today's diving computers do. It worked with a stored decompression table. The DecoBrain II was based on [[Albert A. Bühlmann]]'s 16 compartment (ZH-L12) tissue model,<ref name=RRR9434 /> which Jürg Hermann, an electronic engineer, implemented in 1981 on one of Intel's first single-chip microcontrollers as part of his thesis at the [[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

The 1983<ref name="Kutter" /><ref name="Deep Blue" /> [[Orca Edge]] was an early example of a dive computer.<ref name=RRR9434/> Designed by [[List of United States Virgin Islands Senators|Craig Barshinger]], [[Karl Huggins]] and Paul Heinmiller, the EDGE did not display a decompression plan, but instead showed the ceiling or the so-called "safe-ascent-depth". A drawback was that if the diver was faced by a ceiling, he did not know how long he would have to decompress. The Edge's large, unique display, however, featuring 12 tissue bars permitted an experienced user to make a reasonable estimate of their decompression obligation.<ref name="Huggins 1988" />

In the 1980s the technology quickly improved. In 1983 the Orca Edge became available as the first commercially viable dive computer. The model was based on the US Navy dive tables but did not calculate a decompression plan. However, production capacity was only one unit a day.<ref name="Deep Blue" />

In 1984 the US Navy diving computer (UDC) which was based on a 9 tissue model of [[Edward D. Thalmann]] of the Naval Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU), Panama City, who developed the US Navy tables. ''Divetronic AG'' completed the UDC development – as it had been started by the chief engineer Kirk Jennings of the Naval Ocean System Center, Hawaii, and Thalmann of the NEDU – by adapting the Deco Brain for US Navy warfare use and for their 9-tissue MK-15 mixed gas model under an R&D contract of the US Navy.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Orca Industries continued to refine their technology with the release of the Skinny-dipper in 1987 to do calculations for repetitive diving.<ref name=RRR10185 /> They later released the Delphi computer in 1989 that included calculations for diving at altitude as well as profile recording.<ref name=RRR10185/>

In 1986 the Finnish company, Suunto, released the SME-ML.<ref name="Deep Blue" /> This computer had a simple design, with all the information on display. It was easy to use and was able to store 10 hours of dives, which could be accessed any time.<ref name="Kutter" /> The SME-ML used a 9 compartment algorithm used for the US Navy tables, with tissues half times from 2.5 to 480 minutes. Battery life was up to 1500 hours, maximum depth 60&nbsp;m.<ref name="Deep Blue" />

In 1987 Swiss company UWATEC entered the market with the Aladin, which was a bulky and fairly rugged grey device with quite a small screen, a maximum depth of 100 metres, and an ascent rate of 10 metres per minute. It stored data for 5 dives and had a user replaceable 3.6 V battery, which lasted for around 800 dives. For some time it was the most commonly seen dive computer, particularly in Europe. Later versions had a battery which had to be changed by the manufacturer and an inaccurate battery charge indicator, but the brand remained popular.<ref name="Seveke" /><ref name="Deep Blue" />

The c1989 Dacor Microbrain Pro Plus claimed to have the first integrated dive planning function, the first [[EEPROM]] storing full dive data  for the last three dives, basic data for 9999 dives, and recorded maximum depth achieved, cumulative total dive time, and total number of dives. The LCD provides a graphic indication of remaining no-decompression time.<ref name="Microbrain manual" />

=== General acceptance ===
Even by 1989, the advent of dive computers had not met with what might be considered widespread acceptance.<ref name="aaus" /> Combined with the general mistrust, at the time, of taking a piece of electronics that your life might depend upon underwater, there were also objections expressed ranging from dive resorts felt that the increased bottom time would upset their boat and meal schedules, to that experienced divers felt that the increased bottom time would, regardless of the claims, result in many more cases of [[decompression sickness]].<ref name="Menduno" /> Understanding the need for clear communication and debate, [[Michael Lang (diving scientist)|Michael Lang]] of the California State University at San Diego and [[Robert William Hamilton, Jr.|Bill Hamilton]] of Hamilton Research Ltd. brought together, under the auspices of the [[American Academy of Underwater Sciences]] a diverse group that included most of the dive computer designers and manufacturers, some of the best known hyperbaric medicine theorists and practitioners, representatives from the recreational diving agencies, the cave diving community and the scientific diving community.<ref name="aaus" />

The basic issue was made clear by [[Andrew A. Pilmanis]] in his introductory remarks: "It is apparent that dive computers are here to stay, but are still in the early stages of development. From this perspective, this workshop can begin the process of establishing standard evaluation procedures for assuring safe and effective utilization of dive computers in scientific diving."<ref name=aaus/>

After meeting for two days the conferees were still in, "the early stages of development," and the "process of establishing standard evaluation procedures for assuring safe and effective utilization of dive computers in scientific diving," had not really begun. [[University of Rhode Island]] [[diving safety officer]] [[Aquanaut|Phillip Sharkey]] and Orca Edge's Director of Research and Development, Paul Heinmiller, prepared a 12-point proposal that they invited the diving safety officers in attendance to discuss at an evening closed meeting. Those attending included Jim Stewart ([[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]]), Lee Somers ([[University of Michigan]]), Mark Flahan ([[San Diego State University]]), Woody Southerland ([[Duke University]]), John Heine ([[Moss Landing Marine Laboratories]]), Glen Egstrom ([[University of California, Los Angeles]]), John Duffy ([[California Department of Fish and Game]]), and James Corry ([[United States Secret Service]]). Over the course of several hours the suggestion prepared by Sharkey and Heinmiller was edited and turned into the following 13 recommendations:<ref name="aaus" />

# Only those makes and models of dive computers specifically approved by the Diving Control Board may be used.<ref name="aaus" />
# Any diver desiring the approval to use a dive computer as a means of determining decompression status must apply to the Diving Control Board, complete an appropriate practical training session and pass a written examination.<ref name="aaus" />
# Each diver relying on a dive computer to plan dives and indicate or determine decompression status must have his own unit.<ref name="aaus" />
# On any given dive, both divers in the buddy pair must follow the most conservative dive computer.<ref name="aaus" />
# If the dive computer fails at any time during the dive, the dive must be terminated and appropriate surfacing procedures should be initiated immediately.<ref name="aaus" />
# A diver should not dive for 18 hours before activating a dive computer to use it to control his diving. 
# Once the dive computer is in use, it must not be switched off until it indicates complete outgassing has occurred or 18 hours have elapsed, whichever comes first.<ref name="aaus" />
# When using a dive computer, non-emergency ascents are to be at the rate specified for the make and model of dive computer being used.<ref name="aaus" />
# Ascent rates shall not exceed 40 fsw/min in the last 60 fsw. 
# Whenever practical, divers using a dive computer should make a stop between 10 and 30 feet for 5 minutes, especially for dives below 60 fsw.<ref name="aaus" />
# Only 1 dive on the dive computer in which the NDL of the tables or dive computer has been exceeded may be made in any 18-hour period.<ref name="aaus" />
# Repetitive and multi-level diving procedures should start the dive, or series of dives, at the maximum planned depth, followed by subsequent dives of shallower exposures.<ref name="aaus" />
# Multiple deep dives require special consideration.<ref name="aaus" />
 
As recorded in "Session 9: General discussion and concluding remarks:" 
<blockquote>Mike Lang next lead the group discussion to reach consensus on the guidelines for use of dive computers. These 13 points had been thoroughly discussed and compiled the night before, so that most of the additional comments were for clarification and precision. The following items are the guidelines for use of dive computers for the scientific diving community. It was again reinforced that almost all of these guidelines were also applicable to the diving community at large.<ref name=aaus/></blockquote>

After the AAUS workshop most opposition to dive computers dissipated, numerous new models were introduced, the technology dramatically improved and dive computers soon became standard scuba diving equipment. Over time, some of the 13 recommendations became irrelevant, as more recent dive computers continue running while they have battery power, and switching them off mainly turns off the display.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

=== Further development ===
In c. 1996, Mares marketed a dive computer with spoken audio output, produced by Benemec Oy of Finland,<ref name="Raivio 1996" /> and the Thamann VVAL 18 decompression model was tested in the Cochran dive computer.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

In c. 2000, HydroSpace Engineering developed the HS Explorer, a Trimix computer with optional P<sub>O<sub>2</sub></sub> monitoring and twin decompression algorithms, Bühlmann, and the first full RGBM implementation.<ref name="HSE Manual" />

In 2001, the US Navy approved the use of Cochran NAVY decompression computer with the VVAL 18 [[Thalmann algorithm]] for Special Warfare operations.<ref name="Butler and Southerland 2001" /><ref name="Butler" />

In 2008, the [[Underwater Digital Interface]] (UDI) was released to the market. This dive computer, based on the RGBM model, includes a digital compass, an underwater communication system that enables divers to transmit preset text messages, and a distress signal with homing capabilities.<ref name="utc" />

By 2010 the use of dive computers for decompression status tracking was virtually ubiquitous among recreational divers and widespread in scientific diving. 50 models by 14 manufacturers were available in the UK.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2010" />

The variety and number of additional functions available has increased over the years.<ref name="Perdix manual" /><ref name="iX3M AI" />

[[Thalmann algorithm]] (VVAL-18) is available to the US Navy in computers from Shearwater Research, since the closure of Cochran Undersea Technology after the death of its founder.<ref name="Blömeke 2024" >{{cite magazine |url=https://indepthmag.com/thalmann-algorithm/ |title=Dial In Your DCS Risk with the Thalmann Algorithm |first=Tim |last=Blömeke |date=3 April 2024 |access-date=16 April 2024 |magazine=InDepth |archive-date=16 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416190438/https://indepthmag.com/thalmann-algorithm/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Wristwatch format housings have become common. They are compact and can also serve as daily wear wristwatches, but the display area is limited by the size of the unit and may be difficult to read for divers with poorer vision, and control buttons are necessarily small and may be awkward to use with thick gloves. Battery life may also be limited by the available volume.<ref name="wristwatch" />

====Smartphone housings====
Waterproof housings are marketed which use a smartphone, depth and temperature sensors and a decompression app to provide dive computer capabilities. Depth ratings vary, but 80msw is claimed for some. Bluetooth wireless communications have been used for communication between the smartphone and external sensors. Specifications may not mention any validation tests or compliance with standards relevant to diving equipment. A variety of features are offered based on the smartphone platform. Android and iOS operating systems are supported.<ref name="DivePhone" /><ref name="substack" /><ref name="dpreview" /><ref name="Ozygit et al 2019" />

====Future development====
Lang and Angelini (2009) call for development of decompression models which more closely emulate the personal physiology of the individual diver, to provide a closer match between the predicted decompression obligation and the real decompression obligation.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

Hardware developments are expected in three categories. Improvements associated with developments in consumer electronics, additional monitoring built into the algorithm, and developments from decompression physiology research.
The market for dive computers is very small in comparison with mobile phones, so it is expected that developments will trickle down. High resolution color displays are already becoming common in high end dive computers, and can provide a wider range of more user-friendly interface options, including labels and massages in a language of choice, colour coding choices appropriate for colour blindness, Optional font size and positioning of data on the screen, graphic display of data where appropriate, such as dive profile, and uploadable site maps.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

GPS is already available, but only works at the surface. EPIRB technology may be useful to some divers, but is currently expensive, and requires a lot of power for transmission. Heart rate monitoring is technically available, but of questionable practical value with current decompression models. Oxygen saturation and skin temperature are feasible but also not currently useful. Doppler bubble detection is not yet practical for diver wear, and of debatable value for decompression stress prediction and analysis underwater, as most bubbles develop at the surface after the dive.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />

== Validation ==
''Verification'' is the determination that a dive computer functions correctly, in that it correctly executes its programmed algorithm, and this would be a standard quality assurance procedure by the manufacturer, while ''validation'' confirms that the algorithm provides the accepted level of risk.<ref name="Validation" /> The risk of the decompression algorithms programmed into dive computers may be assessed in several ways, including tests on human subjects, monitored pilot programs, comparison to dive profiles with known decompression sickness risk, and comparison to risk models.<ref name="Validation workshop" />

===Performance of dive computers exposed to profiles with known human subject results.===
Studies (2004) at the [[University of Southern California]]'s Catalina hyperbaric chamber ran dive computers against a group of dive profiles that have been tested with human subjects, or have a large number of operational dives on record.<ref name="Huggins, 2004" />

The dive computers were immersed in water inside the chamber and the profiles were run. Remaining no-decompression times, or required total decompression times, were recorded from each computer 1 min prior to departure from each depth in the profile. The results for a 40 msw "low risk" multi-level no-decompression dive from the PADI/DSAT RDP test series<ref name="Hamilton et al., 1994" /> provided a range of 26 min of no-decompression time remaining to 15 min of required decompression time for the computers tested. The computers which indicated required decompression may be regarded as conservative: following the decompression profile of a conservative algorithm or setting will expose the diver to a reduced risk of decompression, but the magnitude of the reduction is unknown. Conversely the more aggressive indications of the computers showing a considerable amount of remaining no-decompression time will expose the diver to a greater risk than the fairly conservative PADI/DSAT schedule, of unknown magnitude.<ref name="Huggins, 2004" />

=== Comparative assessment and validation ===
Evaluation of decompression algorithms could be done without the need for tests on human subjects by establishing a set of previously tested dive profiles with a known risk of decompression sickness. This could provide a rudimentary baseline for dive computer comparisons.<ref name="Validation workshop" /> As of 2012, the accuracy of temperature and depth measurements from computers may lack consistency between models making this type of research difficult.<ref name=Azzopardi2012 />

==== Accuracy of displayed data ====
European standard "EN13319:2000 Diving accessories - Depth gauges and combined depth and time measuring devices - Functional and safety requirements, test methods", specifies functional and safety requirements and accuracy standards for depth and time measurement in dive computers and other instruments measuring water depth by ambient pressure. It does not apply to any other data which may be displayed or used by the instrument.<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2012" /><ref name="EN13319" />

Temperature data are used to correct pressure sensor output, which is non-linear with temperature, and are not as important as pressure for the decompression algorithm, so a lesser level of accuracy is required. A study published in 2021 examined the response time, accuracy and precision of water temperature measurement computers and found that 9 of 12 models were accurate within 0.5&nbsp;°C given sufficient time for the temperature to stabilise, using downloaded data from open water and wet chamber dives in fresh- and seawater. High ambient air temperature is known to affect temperature profiles for several minutes into a dive, depending on the location of the pressure sensor, as the heat transfer from computer body to the water is slowed by factors such as poor thermal conductivity of a plastic housing, internal heat generation, and mounting the sensor orifice in contact with the insulation of the diving suit. An edge-mounted sensor in a small metal housing will follow ambient temperature changes much faster than a base mounted sensor in a large, thick-walled plastic housing, while both provide accurate pressure signals.<ref name="Marlowe et al 2021" />

An earlier survey of 49 models of decompression computer published in 2012 showed a wide range of error in displayed depth and temperature. Temperature measurement is primarily used to ensure correct processing of the depth transducer signal, so measuring the temperature of the pressure transducer is appropriate, and the slow response to external ambient temperature is not relevant to this function, provided that the pressure signal is correctly processed.<ref name=Azzopardi2012 />

Nearly all of the tested computers recorded depths greater than the actual pressure would indicate, and were markedly inaccurate (up to 5%) for some of the computers. There was considerable variability in permitted no-stop bottom times, but for square profile exposures, the computer-generated values tended to be more conservative than tables at depths shallower than 30&nbsp;m, but less conservative at 30–50&nbsp;m. The no-stop limits generated by the computers were compared to the no-stop limits of the DCIEM and RNPL tables.<ref name=Azzopardi2012 /> Variation from applied depth pressure measured in a decompression chamber, where accuracy of pressure measurement instrumentation is periodically calibrated to fairly high precision (±0.25%), showed errors from -0.5 to +2m, with a tendency to increase with depth.<ref name=Azzopardi2012 />

There appeared to be a tendency for models of computer by the same manufacturer to display a similar variance in displayed pressure, which the researchers interpreted as suggesting that the offset could be a deliberate design criterion, but could also be an artifact of using similar components and software by the manufacturer. The importance of these errors for decompression purposes is unknown, as ambient pressure, which is measured directly, but not displayed, is used for decompression calculations. Depth is calculated as a function of pressure, and does not take into account density variations in the water column. Actual linear distance below the surface is more relevant for scientific measurement, while displayed depth is more relevant to forensic examinations of dive computers, and for divers using the computer in gauge mode with standard decompression tables, which are usually set up for pressure in [[Metre sea water|feet or metres of water column]] .<ref name=Azzopardi2012 />

== Ergonomic considerations ==
{{see also|Human factors in diving equipment design#Instrumentation and displays}} 
[[File:Ratio iX3M gps dive computer normal display P9090559.jpg|thumb|Ratio iX3M gps dive computer normal display during dive]]
[[File:Shearwater Perdix showing decompression obligations just before ascent P5230276.jpg|thumb|Shearwater Perdix showing decompression obligations just before ascent on main screen layout]]
If the diver cannot effectively use the dive computer during a dive it is of no value except as a [[dive profile]] recorder. To effectively use the device the ergonomic aspects of the display and control input system ([[User interface]]) are important. Misunderstanding of the displayed data and inability to make necessary inputs can lead to life-threatening problems underwater. The operating manual is not available for reference during the dive, so either the diver must learn and practice the use of the specific unit before using it in complex situations, or the operation must be sufficiently intuitive that it can be worked out on the spot, by a diver who may be under stress at the time. Although several manufacturers claim that their units are simple and intuitive to operate, the number of functions, layout of the display, and sequence of button pressing is markedly different between different manufacturers, and even between different models by the same manufacturer. Number of buttons that may need to be pressed during a dive generally varies between two and four, and the layout and sequence of pressing buttons can become complicated. Experience using one model may be of little use preparing the diver to use a different model, and a significant relearning stage may be necessary. Previous experience may even be a disadvantage when the knowledge of one system may confuse the diver who needs to use a different system under stress. Both technical and ergonomic aspects of the dive computer are important for diver safety. Underwater [[legibility]] of the display may vary significantly with underwater conditions and the [[visual acuity]] of the individual diver. If labels identifying output data and menu choices are not legible at the time they are needed, they do not help.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" /> Legibility is strongly influenced by text size, [[Computer font|font]], brightness, and contrast. Colour can help in recognition of meaning, such as distinguishing between normal and abnormal conditions, but may detract from legibility, particularly for the [[colour-blind]], and a blinking display demands attention to a warning or alarm, but is distracting from other information.<ref name="Ergonomics" />

Several criteria have been identified as important ergonomic considerations:<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
*Ease of reading critical data, including:
**No decompression time remaining<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
**Current depth<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
**Elapsed time since the beginning of the dive (run time)<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
**If decompression is required, total time to surface, and depth of the next required decompression stop<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
**If gas integration is the only way to monitor the remaining gas supply, the remaining gas pressure.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
*Ease of reading and [[accessibility]] of the primary screen display. Misinterpretation of the display data can be very dangerous. This can occur for various reasons, including lack of identifying information and poor legibility. Ease of returning to the primary screen from alternative display options is also important. If the diver cannot remember how to get back to the screen which displays safety-critical information, their safety may be severely compromised. Divers may not fully understand and remember the operating instructions, as they tend to be complicated. Under stress complicated procedures are more likely to be forgotten or misapplied. Alternative screens may revert to the primary screen automatically after a time sufficient to read the auxiliary information. Critical information may be displayed on all stable screen options during a dive as a compromise. It is preferable for the data to be visible by default, and not require illumination by a dive light or internal lighting that needs a button pressed to light up. Some manufacturers offer similar functionality in optional compact and larger screen formats.<ref name="Teric review" /><ref name="Perdix manual" /> 
*Ease of use and understanding of the user manual.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
*Ease of reading and clarity of meaning of warnings. These may be provided by simple symbol displays, by audible alarms, flashing displays, text messages, colour coding or combinations of these. Alarms should clearly indicate the problem, so the diver need not waste time trying to work out what is at fault, and can take immediate action to correct the problem. To this end, descriptive text indicating the problem and the recommended action to be taken is more useful and less confusing than a flashing symbol, though a flashing symbol can be good for drawing attention to the problem.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
*[[Head-up display]]s can be used to provide the diver with a view of critical information which is always visible. These can be mounted on the mask, or on the mouthpiece assembly. Head-up displays require special near-eye 0ptics to allow correct focus on the display.<ref name="NERD2 Manual" /><ref name="Galileo hud" /><ref name="Evans 2020" /> In conditions of very low visibility, a head-up display has the advantage that the diver's ability to see the display is not affected by turbidity. It also lets the diver monitor all displayed dive data without interrupting their work.<ref name="Sieber et al 2012" />
*For more technical applications, ease of making gas switches to both preset gas mixes carried by the diver, and non-preset mixes, which might be supplied by another diver.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
*Ease of accessing alternative screen data, much of which is not directly important for safety, but may affect the success of the dive in other ways, like use of compass features.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />
*Legibility of the display under various ambient conditions of visibility and lighting, and for varying visual acuity of the diver, which may include fogging of the mask or even loss of the mask.<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" />

===Form factor===
There are four commonly used [[Form factor (design)|form factor]]s:
*Wristwach housings are compact, light, and may be used as daily use [[wristwatch]]es. [[Freediving computer]]s are usually in this format, but it is also popular for scuba.<ref name="wristwatch" />
*Cylindrical housings (puck) fit into [[diving instrument console]]s and have optional wrist mounts except where they are air-integrated with a high pressure hose. The shape and size were determined by the common sizes of analog mechanical diving instruments (depth gauges and pressure gauges) which commonly used console mounts. Most are slightly larger than the nominal {{convert|2|in|mm}} face diameter.<ref name="Mike's dive store" />
*Rectangular housings (brick) are intended for wrist mounting, using a larger screen size for easier-to-read displays or more information on the screen. They often have a curved back surface to conform more closely with the surface of the forearm for stability, and two straps for security. There are also asymmetrically styled housings with similar characteristics and features. This may be the most popular format for technical diving. There is no standard size or shape.<ref name="Mike's dive store" />
*[[Smartphone]] housings are sized to accept a reasonable range of phone models and are therefore necessarily larger. The display area is inherently large, and display quality depends on the smartphone used. They may be wrist mounted or carried in the hand with a safety lanyard, particularly if they are also used as cameras.<ref name="DivePhone" />

== Manufacturing and performance standards ==
Standards relevant in the European Union:<ref name="Validation" />
*When a dive computer is integrated with a cylinder pressure gauge it has to be certified according to EN250 (respiratory equipment) and the PPE Directive becomes mandatory.<ref name="Validation" />
*The EMC directive (89/336/EEC) for electrical appliances, requires that they do not cause electrical interference, and are not susceptible to it.<ref name="Validation" />
*EN13319:2000: covers equipment for measuring depth and time, but explicitly excludes monitoring of decompression obligation.<ref name="Validation" />
*PPE Directive 89/686/EEC is intended to harmonize products to provide a high level of protection and safety, but dive computers are not listed in the directive under section 3.11 - additional requirements specific to particular risks –  safety devices for diving equipment. Several other classes of diving equipment such as respiratory equipment (EN250:2002), buoyancy compensators (EN1809:1999), combined buoyancy and rescue devices (EN12628:2001), respiratory equipment for compressed nitrox and oxygen (EN13949:2004), rebreathers (EN14143:2004), and dry suits (EN14225-2:2005) fall under the PPE directive.)<ref name="Validation" />
*The general quality assurance standard [[ISO9001]].<ref name="Validation" />

== Operational considerations for use in commercial diving operations ==
Their acceptance of dive computers for use in [[commercial diving]] varies between countries and industrial sectors. Validation criteria have been a major obstacle to acceptance of diving computers for commercial diving. Millions of recreational and scientific dives each year are successful and without incident, but the use of dive computers remains prohibited for commercial diving operations in several jurisdictions because the algorithms used cannot be guaranteed safe to use, in many cases are not disclosed in verifiable detail, and the legislative bodies who can authorise their use have a duty of care to workers. Manufacturers do not want to invest in the expensive and tedious process of official validation, while regulatory bodies will not accept dive computers until a validation process has been documented.<ref name="Validation" />

''Verification'' is the determination that a dive computer functions correctly, in that it correctly executes its programmed algorithm, while ''validation'' confirms that the algorithm provides the accepted level of risk.<ref name="Validation" />

If the decompression algorithm used in a series of dive computers is considered to be acceptable
for commercial diving operations, with or without additional usage guidelines, then there are
operational issues that need to be considered:<ref name="Validation workshop" />
# The computer must be simple to operate or it will probably not be accepted.<ref name="Validation workshop" />
# The display must be easily read in low visibility conditions to be effectively used.<ref name="Validation workshop" />
# The display must be clear and easily understood, even if the diver is influenced by nitrogen narcosis, to reduce the risk of confusion and poor decisions.<ref name="Validation workshop" />
# The decompression algorithm should be adjustable to more conservative settings, as some divers may want a more conservative profile.<ref name="Validation workshop" />
# The dive computer must be easy to download to collect profile data so that analysis of dives can be done.<ref name="Validation workshop" />

==Rebreather control and monitor hardware==
{{see also|Rebreather diving#Electronically controlled CCR|Diving rebreather#Control of the breathing gas mix|Diving rebreather#Instrumentation and displays}}
The functional requirements of an electronically controlled closed circuit rebreather are very similar to the functions and capacity of technical diving decompression computers for rebreather diving, and some rebreather manufacturers use dive computer hardware repackaged by dive computer manufacturers as rebreather control and monitoring units. The software may be modified to provide the display of multiple oxygen cell readings, warnings, alarms and voting logic, and the dive computer hardware may be hard-wired to the rebreather control hardware.<ref name="Shearwater controllers" />

===Communications protocols===
The communications system used by Shearwater Research for connectivity between dive computers and rebreathers is DiveCAN, which has a physical connectivity standard and a communication protocol based on a recognised, versatile, robust, and widely used industry standard [[CAN bus]].<ref name="DiveCAN" />

== Bottom timer ==
[[File:Depth gauge.jpg|thumb|Bottom timer]]<!-- Crappy photo, but best I could find on Commons. Please replace with better if available. --><!--target for redirect from [[Bottom timer]] -->
A bottom timer, or dive timer, is an electronic device that records the depth at specific time intervals during a dive, and displays current depth, maximum depth, elapsed time and may also display water temperature and average depth. It does not calculate decompression data at all, and is equivalent to gauge mode on many dive computers.<ref name="Scubapro 330" />

==Storage, transport and maintenance==
Most dive computers mainly require adequate washing in fresh water and storage in a cool place out of direct sunlight. Longer soaking in fresh water will usually remove salt deposits that may have crystallised in crevices and in the weave of woven fabric straps, but may use more battery power if shallow immersion activates the computer. Activation depth may vary. They should be protected from impact and contact with chemicals which may damage the casing or seals, and from impact and abrasion to the faceplate. If contaminated with oils or grease, this should be removed by scrubbing with a soft brush using a mild detergent. When transported by air, some computers may be switched to airplane mode. Most dive computers are not user serviceable beyond washing, and in some cases, battery replacement.<ref name="mikesdivestore" />

==Training and certification==
The approach to training in the use of a dive computer has changed over time. Originally a dive computer was considered special equipment, and the user was responsible for ensuring that they knew how to use it correctly. The AAUS recommendations from the Dive Computer Workshop of 1989 stipulated passing a written exam before scientific divers should be allowed to use personal dive computers in the field.<ref name="aaus" /> As they became more common, and the usual way of monitoring the dive, minimal instruction on the use of the computer became integrated into dive training as part of the training for a given certification. This is complicated by the probability of more than one model being used by the learners on a given course, except where the school supplied the computers.  Since late 2009, it has been an option for [[PADI Open Water Diver]] courses, to do a dive computer section in place of learning to use the dive tables. A booklet is supplied on how to use and select a dive computer.<ref name="DC Option" /> SDI was an early adopter of use of dive computers in training from entry level, and offers the course named [[SDI Computer Diver]] intended for divers certified through agencies which used traditional dive tables for planning during their training, and have not been formally trained in the use of dive computers.<ref name="SDI" />

In 2024 [[Scuba Schools International]] (SSI) announced a training program called "Computer Diver" which covers the basic functionality, setup and operation of dive computers.<ref name="Helmy 2024" /> The training is considered appropriate for ages 10 and up, to a maximum depth of 30 m, and is expected to take 3 to 6 hours.<ref name="SSI computer diving" />

Similarly, PADI schools offer a course called "Computer Diving Specialist",<ref>In the PADI system the certification term "specialist" is a relative term that indicates that the course is provided as a "specialization", additional to basic diving skills and essential knowledge</ref> which has a prerequisite certification of [[PADI Open Water Diver]], the minimum level certification for [[Autonomous diver|autonomous]] recreational diving. The course comprises up to three classroom sessions and an optional open water dive for a beginner with a minimum experience of four open water dives limited to 18 metres to become a specialist by PADI standards.<ref name="specialist" />

There is a wide variation in detail of operation for each manufacturer, and in many cases between the models available from each manufacturer, so only the basic information and principles are portable between models, and significant relearning is required to be able to use a new computer safely. This situation could be improved by an internationally accepted standard for user interfaces for critical functions. The information required to safely operate most dive computers is normally extracted from the owner's manual by the user, and in many cases from videos freely available on the internet. In most such situations there is no competence assessment, and the user finds out by trial and error, while diving, what they have failed to understand or remember.<ref name="Roy 2016" />

== Value ==
Along with [[delayed surface marker buoy]]s, dive computers stood out in a 2018 survey of European recreational divers and diving service providers as being perceived as highly important safety equipment.<ref name="Lucrezi et al 2018" /><ref name="Egner 2018" />

==See also==
{{div col}} 
*{{annotated link|Bühlmann decompression algorithm}}
*{{annotated link|Decompression (diving)}} 
*{{annotated link|Decompression equipment}}
*{{annotated link|Decompression practice}}
*{{annotated link|Decompression theory}}
*{{annotated link|Depth gauge}}
*{{annotated link|Diving safety}}
*{{annotated link|Human factors in diving equipment design}}
*{{annotated link|Metre sea water}}
*{{annotated link|Reduced gradient bubble model}}
*{{annotated link|Thalmann algorithm}}
*{{annotated link|Varying Permeability Model}}
*{{annotated link|US Navy decompression models and tables}}
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="10 tips" >{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RoO9woeltZs |title= Top 10 Dive Computer Buying Tips |publisher=Scuba Diver Magazine |date=4 May 2023 |access-date=10 November 2025 |via=YouTube }}</ref>

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<ref name="AandA">{{cite web |website=Accidents and Adventures |title=Suunto Zoop In Depth Review |year=2016 |url=https://accidentsandadventures.wordpress.com/2016/08/07/suunto-zoop-in-depth-review/ |access-date=7 August 2016 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

<ref name=aaus>{{cite book |title=Proceedings of the AAUS Dive Computer Workshop |last1=Lang |first1=M.A. |last2=Hamilton |first2=R.W. Jr |year=1989 |publisher=USC Catalina Marine Science Center |location=United States |pages=231 }}</ref>

<ref name="AAUS Standards" >{{cite book |title=Standards for Scientific diving: Manual |publisher=[[American Academy of Underwater Sciences]] |location= Mobile, AL |date=2019 }}</ref>

<ref name="Adventures in Diving" >{{cite book |url=https://umaine.edu/scientificdiving/wp-content/uploads/sites/335/2019/06/Multilevel-Computer-Diving-PADI-AoW.pdf |title=Adventures in diving |isbn=9781878663092 |chapter=Multilevel and computer diving |publisher=PADI |author=<!--nor specified--> |date=1991 |pages=165–184 |access-date=2024-04-22 |archive-date=2024-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422060839/https://umaine.edu/scientificdiving/wp-content/uploads/sites/335/2019/06/Multilevel-Computer-Diving-PADI-AoW.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="Angelini 2018" >{{cite journal |title=Dive computer decompression models and algorithms: philosophical and practical views |first=S. |last=Angelini |doi=10.3723/ut.35.051 |journal=Underwater Technology |volume=35 |issue= 2 |pages=51–61 |date= 2018 }}</ref>

<ref name="Apeks" >{{cite book |url= |title=Apeks Quantum Nitrox Dive Computer User's Guide |date=2003 |publisher=Apeks Marine Equipment |location=Blackburn, Lancashire, England |chapter=Summary of Warnings and Alarms |pages=40–42 }}</ref>

<ref name="Avelo mode" >{{cite web |url=https://diveavelo.com/aveloMode.html |title=Avelo Mode |website=diveavelo.com |access-date=7 April 2025 }}</ref>

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<ref name=Azzopardi2012>{{cite conference |last1=Azzopardi |first1=E. |last2=Sayer |first2=M.D.J. |title=Not All are Created Equal: Operational Variability in 49 Models of Diving Computer |editor1-last=Steller |editor1-first=D |editor2-last=Lobel |editor2-first=L. |conference=Diving for Science 2012. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences 31st Symposium. |location=Dauphin Island, AL |publisher=AAUS |year=2012 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/10270 |access-date=17 September 2013 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306221143/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/xmlui/handle/123456789/10270 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Azzopardi and Sayer 2012" >{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/36863905 |title=Estimation of depth and temperature in 47 models of diving decompression computer |first1=Elaine |last1=Azzopardi |first2=Martin |last2=Sayer |journal=International Journal of the Society for Underwater Technology |date=2012 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.3723/ut.31.003 |access-date=2021-05-22 |archive-date=2022-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929135622/https://www.academia.edu/36863905 |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="Butler">{{cite journal |url=http://www.divecochran.com/press_clippings/Skin_Diver/0701.html |title=The U.S. Navy Decompression Computer |first=Frank K. |last=Butler |journal=Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine |year=2001 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=213–228 |pmid=12153150 |access-date=2011-02-08 |archive-date=2006-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060707194120/http://www.divecochran.com/press_clippings/Skin_Diver/0701.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Butler and Southerland 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=Frank K. |last2=Southerland |first2=David |title=The U.S. Navy decompression computer |journal=Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=213–28 |year=2001 |pmid=12153150 }}</ref>

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<ref name=Caruso2006>{{cite journal |last=Caruso |first=James L. |title=The Pathologist's Approach to SCUBA Diving Deaths |journal=American Society for Clinical Pathology Teleconference |year=2006 }}</ref>

<ref name="class action" >{{cite case |title=Robert Raimo, Plaintiff, v Uwatec, Inc., Undersea Industries, Inc. and Johnson Outdoors, Inc, Defendants, United States District Court, Northern District of California. Case 4:03-cv-00513-WDB Document 1 |date=5 February 2003 |last=Hillsman |first=John R. }}</ref>

<ref name="CMASISA TxManual 2006">{{cite book|last1=Beresford|first1=M.|last2=Southwood|first2=P.|title=CMAS-ISA Normoxic Trimix Manual|edition=4th|year=2006|publisher=CMAS Instructors South Africa|location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> 

<ref name="Concannon2007" >{{cite journal |last1=Concannon |first1=David |title=Dive Litigation in the Electronic Age: The Importance of Preserving Dive Computer Data in the Event of an Accident |journal=Dive Center Business |volume=10 |year=2007 |url=https://www.davidconcannon.com/preserving-digital-evidence |access-date=14 January 2011 |issue=6 |archive-date=23 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323031203/https://www.davidconcannon.com/preserving-digital-evidence |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Concannon and Charles" >{{cite web |url=https://www.davidconcannon.com/personal-injury |title=Personal Injury |website=Concannon & Charles, P.C. |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002183112/https://www.davidconcannon.com/personal-injury |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="D6i" >{{cite web |url=https://www.suunto.com/Support/Product-support/suunto_d6i/suunto_d6i/features/dive-modes/ |title=Suunto D6i User Guide |website=www.suunto.com |access-date=9 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Dacor recall" >{{cite web |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/Recalls/2005/cpsc-head-usa-inc-announce-recall-of-scuba-diving-computers |title=CPSC, Head USA Inc. Announce Recall of SCUBA Diving Computers |date=22 February 2005 |website=www.cpsc.gov |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202130531/https://www.cpsc.gov/Recalls/2005/cpsc-head-usa-inc-announce-recall-of-scuba-diving-computers |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="DANSA" >{{Cite web |url=https://www.dansa.org/blog/2019/05/25/your-dive-computer-tips-and-tricks-part-1 |title=Your Dive Computer: Tips and tricks - PART 1 |date=25 May 2019 |website=www.dansa.org |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812091541/https://www.dansa.org/blog/2019/05/25/your-dive-computer-tips-and-tricks-part-1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="DANSA emergency oxygen" >{{cite web|url=https://www.dansa.org/blog/2022/08/10/emergency-oxygen-and-oxygen-toxicity |title=Emergency Oxygen and Oxygen Toxicity |date=10 August 2022 |website=www.dansa.org |access-date=26 September 2025 |first1=Nicholas |last1=Bird |first2=Eric |last2=Douglas }}</ref>

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<ref name="DC Option" >{{cite web |url=https://pros-blog.padi.com/new-product-for-teaching-the-dive-computer-option-in-open-water/ |title=How to Use and Choose Dive Computers |website=pros-blog.padi.com |date=28 July 2009 |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314174311/https://pros-blog.padi.com/new-product-for-teaching-the-dive-computer-option-in-open-water/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Deep Blue" >{{cite web |url=https://www.deepbluediving.org/dive-computer-history/ |title=Dive Computer History – From Analog to Digital |website=www.deepbluediving.org |date=November 2016 |accessdate=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213611/https://www.deepbluediving.org/dive-computer-history/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Deeperblue HW" >{{cite web |url=https://www.deeperblue.com/manufacturer-issues-statement-after-incident-at-boot-dusseldorf/ |title=Manufacturer Issues Statement After Incident At Boot Dusseldorf |first=Stephan |last=Whelan |date=29 January 2019 |website=www.deeperblue.com |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214509/https://www.deeperblue.com/manufacturer-issues-statement-after-incident-at-boot-dusseldorf/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Devanney" >{{cite web |url=https://www.tdisdi.com/tdi-diver-news/decompression-theory-part-3-bubble-counters/ |title=Decompression theory part 3- bubble counters |first1=Richard |last1=Devanney |website=www.tdisdi.com |access-date=11 September 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="DipnDive 2021">{{Cite web |url=https://dipndive.com/blogs/dive-gear/dive-computer-algorithms-for-dummies |title=Dive Computer Algorithms For Dummies |website=dipndive.com |date=June 2021 |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214340/https://dipndive.com/blogs/dive-gear/dive-computer-algorithms-for-dummies |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="DiveCAN" >{{cite web |url=https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/what-is-divecan-and-why-should-i-care? |title=What is DiveCAN® and why should I care? |date=22 March 2016 |version=Reviewed in 2025 |access-date=6 September 2025 |website=shearwater.com |first=Bruce |last=Partridge }}</ref>

<ref name="DiveGearExpress 2021">{{Cite web |url=https://www.divegearexpress.com/library/tek-tips/zhl-16c-vpm-b-rgbm-dsat-vval-18m-does-it-really-matter |title=ZH-L16C, VPM-B, DCAP, DCIEM, VVAL-18M ... Does It Really Matter? |website=divegearexpress.com |date=August 2021 |access-date=1 August 2021 |archive-date=1 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801114325/https://www.divegearexpress.com/library/tek-tips/zhl-16c-vpm-b-rgbm-dsat-vval-18m-does-it-really-matter |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="divein">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TuHdlSf_AcM |title= How To Set Up Your Dive Computer - the updated 2025 guide |publisher=DIVEIN |date=7 March 2025 |via=TouTube |access-date=9 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="DivePhone">{{cite web |url=https://www.innovasub.com/products/divephone/ |title=DivePhone |website=www.innovasub.com |date=16 October 2021 |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923170505/https://www.innovasub.com/products/divephone/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Divesoft" >{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wAfs8Tdxk10 |via=YouTube |title= How to Replace Buttons on Your Freedom Computer or CCR Liberty Handset |date=24 May 2023 |publisher=Divesoft }}</ref>

<ref name="dpreview" >{{cite web |url=https://www.dpreview.com/news/1738024994/diveroid-housing-turns-your-smartphone-into-a-dive-computer-and-underwater-camera |title=Diveroid housing turns your smartphone into a dive computer and underwater camera |first=Damien |last=Demolder |date=22 November 2019 |website=www.dpreview.com |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323151539/https://www.dpreview.com/news/1738024994/diveroid-housing-turns-your-smartphone-into-a-dive-computer-and-underwater-camera |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--E-->

<ref name="Effective use" >{{cite web |url=https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resource/dive-medical-reference-books/decompression-sickness/use-of-dive-computers/ |title=Chapter 2: Effective Use of Your Dive Computer |website=dan.org |access-date=11 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Egner 2018" >{{cite web |title=Risks and Hazards n SCUBA Diving: Perception Versus Reality |date=1 November 2018 |first=Sarah |last=Egner |url=https://alertdiver.eu/en_US/articles/risks-and-hazards-in-scuba-diving-perception-versus-reality |website=Alert Diver |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-date=3 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903110549/https://alertdiver.eu/en_US/articles/risks-and-hazards-in-scuba-diving-perception-versus-reality |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="EN13319" >{{cite tech report |title=BS EN 13319:2000 Diving accessories. Depth gauges and combined depth and time measuring devices. Functional and safety requirements, test methods |date=15 July 2000 |author=((Committee PH/4/7)) |publisher=British Standards Institute |isbn=0 580 34324 3 }}</ref>

<ref name="Ergonomics" >{{cite book |title=Ergonomics |chapter=Unit 2: Displays |author=Psychology staff |publisher=University of Leicester |version=1.0 |date=18 March 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="Essex" >{{cite web |url=https://alchemy.gr/post/685/choosing-the-right-freediving-computer-for-spearfishing |title=How Can A Freediving Computer Enhance Your Safety And Performance While Spearfishing? |date=27 March 2023 |website=alchemy.gr/ |access-date=17 April 2024 |first=Roni |last=Essex |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417221511/https://alchemy.gr/post/685/choosing-the-right-freediving-computer-for-spearfishing |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Etzel 2003" >{{cite web |url=https://www.deeperblue.com/corporate-coverup-exposed-divers-to-grave-risk-according-to-lawsuit/ |title=Corporate Coverup Exposed Divers To Grave Risk According To Lawsuit |first=Cliff |last=Etzel |date=26 May 2003 |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=8 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208203820/https://www.deeperblue.com/corporate-coverup-exposed-divers-to-grave-risk-according-to-lawsuit/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Evans 2020" >{{cite web |url=https://www.scubadivermag.com/text-extra-mark-evans-reviews-the-scubapro-galileo-hud-dive-computer/ |title=Text extra: Mark Evans reviews the Scubapro Galileo HUD dive computer |website=www.scubadivermag.com |date=12 May 2020 |access-date=19 April 2024 |first=Mark |last=Evans |archive-date=19 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419113536/https://www.scubadivermag.com/text-extra-mark-evans-reviews-the-scubapro-galileo-hud-dive-computer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="Fogarty 2025" >{{cite web |url=https://indepthmag.com/d-word-dilemmas-the-push-for-personalized-decompression-modeling/ |title=Deco Dilemmas: The Push for Personalized Decompression Modeling |date=30 April 2025 |work=InDEPTH |first=Reilly |last=Fogarty |access-date=20 May 2025 }}</ref>

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<ref name="Galileo" >{{cite book |title=Technical diving software for Galilio: User manual |url=https://www.scubapro.com/sites/scubapro_site/files/trimix_user_manual-eng.pdf |author=<!--not specified--> |publisher=Scubapro |access-date=18 September 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413220658/https://www.scubapro.com/sites/scubapro_site/files/trimix_user_manual-eng.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Galileo hud" >{{cite web |url=https://thescubaprostore.co.za/scubapro-galileo-hud-2 |website=thescubaprostore.co.za |title=Scubapro Galileo HUD |access-date=19 April 2024 |archive-date=19 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419112805/https://thescubaprostore.co.za/scubapro-galileo-hud-2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="Haith and Krakauer 2018" >{{cite journal |last1=Haith |first1=AM |last2=Krakauer |first2=JW |title=The multiple effects of practice: skill, habit and reduced cognitive load |journal=Curr Opin Behav Sci. |date=April 2018 |volume=20 |pages=196-201 |doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.01.015 |pmid=30944847 |pmc=6443249 }}</ref>

<ref name="Hamilton et al., 1994" >{{cite report |author1-link=Robert William Hamilton, Jr. |last1=Hamilton |first1=Robert W. |last2=Rogers |first2=R.E. |last3=Powell |first3=Michael R. |last4=Vann |first4=Richard D. |year=1994 |title=Development and validation of no-stop decompression procedures for recreational diving: The DSAT Recreational Dive Planner |publisher=Diving Science and Technology Corp |location=Rancho Santa Margarita, California. }}</ref>

<ref name="Heinerth 2020" >{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aBsQ4AQPWbA&t=84s |title=Personalized Dive Computer Settings to Get the Best Results |first=Jill |last=Heinerth |date=17 February 2020 |access-date=9 November 2025 |via=YouTube }}</ref>

<ref name="Helmy 2024" >{{cite web |url=https://www.deeperblue.com/ssi-launches-new-computer-diving-specialty/ |title=SSI Launches New Computer Diving Specialty |website=www.deeperblue.com |access-date=13 March 2024 |first=Sam |last=Helmy |date=11 March 2024 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312125653/https://www.deeperblue.com/ssi-launches-new-computer-diving-specialty/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Hills 1967" >{{cite journal |title=A pneumatic analogue for predicting the occurrence of decompression sickness |last=Hills |first=B.A. |journal=Medical and Biological Engineering |date=September 1967 |volume= 5 |issue=5 |pages=421–432 |doi=10.1007/BF02479136 |pmid=6056356 |s2cid=2479104 }}</ref>

<ref name="HSE Manual">{{cite web |title=HS Explorer Dive Computer Owner's Manual |date=2003 |publisher=HydroSpace Engineering, Inc. |location=St. Augustine, Florida |url=http://hs-eng.com/ |website=hs-eng.com |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050651/http://hs-eng.com/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Huggins 1988" >{{cite report |last=Huggins |first=Karl E. |date=26–28 September 1988 |title=The history ofunderwater decompression devices and computers |editor1-last=Lang |editor1-first=M.A.|editor2-last=Hamilton |editor2-first=R.W.|work=Advances in Underwater Science...88. Proceedings of the 8th Annual Scientific Diving Symposium |publisher=American Academy of Underwater Sciences|location= California |url=https://diving-rov-specialists.com/index_htm_files/history-39-dive-computer-workshop.pdf |via=diving-rov-specialists.com }}</ref>

<ref name="Huggins, 2004" >{{cite journal |last=Huggins |first=Karl E. |year=2004 |title=Performance of dive computers exposed to profiles with known human subject results. (abstract) |journal=[[Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine]] |volume=31 }}</ref>

<ref name="Huggins 2006">{{cite conference |last=Huggins |first=K.E. |title=Evaluation of Dive Computer Options for Potential Use in 300 FSW Heliox/ Trimix Surface Supplied Scientific Diving |editor-last=Lang |editor-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=N.E. |book-title=Proceedings of Advanced Scientific Diving Workshop |location=Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC |year=2006 }}</ref>

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<ref name="InDepth" >{{cite web |url=https://gue.com/blog/they-fomented-a-dive-computing-revolution-rip-cochran-undersea-technology-1986-2020/ |title=They Helped Foment a Dive Computing Revolution: RIP Cochran Undersea Technology (1986-2020) |website=gue.com |date=2 May 2021 |last=Lander |first=Carlos E. |accessdate=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212743/https://gue.com/blog/they-fomented-a-dive-computing-revolution-rip-cochran-undersea-technology-1986-2020/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="iX3M">{{cite book |url=http://www.ratio-computers.com/support/support4/manual/EN_iX3M_User_Manual_4.02.pdf |title=Ratio computers iX3M User Manual Version 4.02 |last=<!--not specified--> |publisher=Ratio Computers |location=Livorno, Italy |access-date=2018-09-07 |archive-date=2018-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907183148/http://www.ratio-computers.com/support/support4/manual/EN_iX3M_User_Manual_4.02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="iX3M AI" >{{cite web |url=http://www.ratio-computers.com/support/support4/manual/EN_iX3M_User_Manual_4.04.pdf |title=iX3M User Manual: iX3M Easy, iX3M Deep, iX3M Tech+, iX3M Reb |publisher=Ratio Computers |location=Livorno, Italy |access-date=10 October 2019 |archive-date=10 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010140020/http://www.ratio-computers.com/support/support4/manual/EN_iX3M_User_Manual_4.04.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--K-->

<ref name="Kas 2022" >{{cite magazine |url=https://indepthmag.com/a-practical-discussion-of-the-sos-decompression-meter/#:~:text=What%20Works%20Works.%20The%20device%20was%20incredibly,no%2Ddecompression%20time%20(or%20required%20deco%2C%20if%20applicable). |title=Diving the SOS: A Practical Discussion |first=Stratis |last=Kas |date=6 April 2022 |magazine=InDEPTH }}</ref>

<ref name="Knudsen" >{{cite web |url=https://www.divein.com/dive-computer/shearwater-perdix/ |last=Knudsen |first=Soren |title=Shearwater Perdix Dive Computer |website=www.divein.com |accessdate=21 May 2021 |archive-date=21 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521161636/https://www.divein.com/dive-computer/shearwater-perdix/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Kutter" >{{cite web |url=http://www.divemagazine.co.uk/kit/kit-guides/5982-history-of-the-dive-computer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102091100/http://www.divemagazine.co.uk/kit/kit-guides/5982-history-of-the-dive-computer |title=History of the dive computer |first=Marion |last=Kutter |website=www.divemagazine.co.uk |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref>

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<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" >{{cite book |editor1-last=Lang |editor1-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Brubakk |editor2-first=A.O. |date=2009 |url=http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/proceedings/SC_RecordSingle.cfm?title=33 |title=The Future of Diving: 100 Years of Haldane and Beyond |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press |location=Washington DC |chapter=The Future of Dive Computers |pages=91–100|first1=Michael D. |last1=Lang |first2=Sergio |last2=Angelini |isbn=978-0-9788460-5-3 }}</ref>
 
<ref name="Liberty" >{{cite report |url=https://www.divesoft.com/en/manuals/ccr-liberty-manual |title=User manualCCR Liberty, version: 2.17.2/40 |chapter=Introduction |date=22 April 2024 |publisher=Divesoft LLC |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129191057/https://www.divesoft.com/en/manuals/ccr-liberty-manual |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Lucrezi et al 2018" >{{cite journal |title=Safety Priorities and Underestimations in Recreational Scuba Diving Operations: A European Study Supporting the Implementation of New Risk Management Programmes |date=23 March 2018 |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=9 |issue=383 |doi= 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00383 |first1=Serena |last1=Lucrezi |first2=Salih Murat |last2=Egi |first3=Massimo |last3=Pieri |first4=Francois |last4=Burman |first5=Tamer |last5=Ozyigit |first6=Danilo |last6=Cialoni |first7=Guy |last7=Thomas |first8=Alessandro |last8=Marroni |first9=Melville |last9=Saayman |page=383 |pmid=29628904 |pmc=5876297 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<!--M-->

<ref name="Mares SE" >{{cite web |url=https://scubadiving.co.za/products/mares-smart-strap-extension |title=Mares Smart Dive Computer Strap Extension |website=scubadiving.co.za |access-date=9 November 2025}}</ref>

<ref name="Marlowe et al 2021" >{{cite journal |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=9 March 2021 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.617691 |title=Divers as Citizen Scientists: Response Time, Accuracy and Precision of Water Temperature Measurement Using Dive Computers  |first1=Celia |last1=Marlowe |first2=Kieran |last2=Hyder |first3=Martin D.J. |last3=Sayer |first4=Jan |last4=Kaiser |volume=8 |article-number=617691 |bibcode=2021FrMaS...817691M |s2cid=232144841 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="McGough et at 1990">{{cite journal |last1=McGough |first1=E.K. |last2=Desautels |first2=D.A. |last3=Gallagher |first3=T.J. |title=Dive Computers and Decompression Sickness: A Review of 83 Cases |journal=Journal of Hyperbaric Medicine |volume=5 |pages=159–162 |year=1990 |issue=3 }}</ref>

<ref name="McGough et al 1990b">{{cite journal |last1=McGough |first1=E.K. |last2=Desautels |first2=D.A. |last3=Gallagher |first3=T.J |title=Performance of Dive Computers During Single and Repetitive Dives: A Comparison to the US Navy Diving Tables |journal=Journal of Hyperbaric Medicine |volume=5 |pages=163–170 |year=1990|issue=3 }}</ref>

<ref name=Menduno >{{cite web|url=https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/on-the-edge |title=On the Edge |first=Michael |last=Menduno |website=shearwater.com/ |date=13 January 2017 |access-date=12 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Microbrain manual" >{{cite book |url=http://plongeesanssel.com/files/Dacor-MicroBrain-Pro-Plus.pdf |title=Dacor Micro-brain Pro Plus Dive Computer Manual |date=May 1989 |publisher=Dacor Corporation |accessdate=1 June 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214119/http://plongeesanssel.com/files/Dacor-MicroBrain-Pro-Plus.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Mike's dive store" >{{cite web|url=https://www.mikesdivestore.com/pages/beginners-guide-to-dive-computers |title=Guide to Dive Computers |website=www.mikesdivestore.com |access-date=11 September 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="mikesdivestore" >{{cite web |url=https://www.mikesdivestore.com/blogs/mikes-london-dive-store-blog/dive-computer-care-and-maintenance |title=Dive Computer Care and Maintenance |first=Cath |last=Bates |date=27 August 2024 |website=www.mikesdivestore.com |access-date=10 November 2025 }}</ref>

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<ref name="NDTT 2016" >{{cite book |url=https://dykketabeller.no/onewebmedia/NDTT%20Ed%204%20Rev%20C.pdf |title=Norwegian Diving- and Treatment Tables |edition=4 Rev C4 |editor1-first=Jan |editor1-last=Risberg |editor2-first=Andreas |editor2-last=Møllerløkken |editor3-first=Olav |editor3-last=Eftedal |date=2016 }}</ref>

<ref name="NERD2 Manual" >{{cite book |url=https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/NERD2Manual-RevG.pdf |title=Shearwater NERD2 — User Manual |version=DOC 12501 MAN-REV-G |date=2 April 2020 |author=Shearwater Research |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=24 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824132303/https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/NERD2Manual-RevG.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="Oceanic recall" >{{cite web |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/Recalls/2006/oceanic-recalls-digital-dive-computer-due-to-decompression-hazard |title=Oceanic Recalls Digital Dive Computer Due to Decompression Hazard |date=22 June 2006 |website=www.cpsc.gov |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930160245/https://www.cpsc.gov/Recalls/2006/oceanic-recalls-digital-dive-computer-due-to-decompression-hazard |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Ozygit and Egi 2012" >{{cite conference |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261165028 |chapter=Evaluating the Ergonomic Performance of Dive Computers |first1=Tamer |last1=Ozyigit |first2=Salih |last2=Egi |title=2012 Second International Conference on Digital Information and Communication Technology and {{as written|i|t's [sic]}} Applications (DICTAP) |date=2012 |conference=2nd International Conference on Digital Information and Communication Technology and its Applications, DICTAP 2012. |pages=314–318 |doi=10.1109/DICTAP.2012.6215418 |isbn=978-1-4673-0734-5 |access-date=2019-12-01 |archive-date=2024-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314174432/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261165028_Evaluating_the_ergonomic_performance_of_Dive_computers |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Ozygit et al 2019" >{{cite journal |last1=Ozyigit |first1=Tamer |last2=Satir |first2=Secil |last3=Egi |first3=Salih |last4=Memişoğlu |first4=Miraç |date=2019 |title=Development of a wireless pressure sensor module to convert the mobile phones into dive computers |journal=Selcuk University Journal of Engineering ,Science and Technology |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=494–508 |doi=10.15317/Scitech.2019.214 |url=http://sujest.selcuk.edu.tr/sumbtd/article/view/663 |access-date=2024-05-08 |archive-date=2024-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515101024/http://sujest.selcuk.edu.tr/sumbtd/article/view/663 |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="Perdix AI" >{{cite web |url=https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PerdixAI_Operating_Instructions_RevA.pdf |title=Perdix AI operating instructions |publisher=Shearwater |access-date=10 October 2019 |archive-date=10 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010140022/https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PerdixAI_Operating_Instructions_RevA.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Perdix manual" >{{cite book |url=https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Perdix-UserManual-SI-DocRevD.pdf |title=Perdix Operating Manual |version=DOC. 13007-SI-RevD (2020-01-15) |author=Shearwater Research |date=15 January 2020 |access-date=16 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716133245/https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Perdix-UserManual-SI-DocRevD.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Peregrine" >{{cite web |url=https://www.shearwater.com/products/peregrine/ |title=Products: Peregrine |website=www.shearwater.com |accessdate=21 May 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514102132/https://www.shearwater.com/products/peregrine/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Petrel3" >{{cite web |url=https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/petrel-3-product-service-update?fbclid=IwY2xjawMvOL1leHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETBrdWg5SzJKNFpaSDNoa1BEAR7CiRxByC4qdDOIaURNVoE1_QXF424tui2QchmOwzlsDY7_Temx89cEGy6cdg_aem_MDDNGxJ1Nv5E-lLH895F3w |title=Petrel 3 Product Service Update |date=12 September 2024 |website=shearwater.com |access-date=11 September 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Pollock 2015" >{{cite web |url=https://www.shearwater.com/monthly-blog-posts/flexible-control-of-decompression-stress/ |title=Flexible Control of Decompression Stress |first=Neal |last=Pollock |website=www.shearwater.com |date=30 November 2015 |access-date=11 June 2021 |archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611184354/https://www.shearwater.com/monthly-blog-posts/flexible-control-of-decompression-stress/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Pollock 2015a" >{{cite journal |title=Re: Don't dive cold when you don't have to |journal=Diving Hyperb Med |date=September 2015 |first=Neal W. |last=Pollock |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=209 |pmid=26415074 }}</ref>

<ref name="Predator manual">{{cite web |title=Shearwater Predator User Manual V2.3.3 |url=https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Predator_Manual_2_3_3.pdf |website=www.shearwaterresearch.com |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=14 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914164456/https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Predator_Manual_2_3_3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Raivio 1996" >{{cite magazine |url=https://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/issues/y1996/ID0396/TalkingComputer0396i.pdf |title=The Talking Computer Talks Back |first=Esa |last=Raivio |publisher=Elephant Socks Publishing, Inc. |magazine=Undercurrent |pages=9, 10 |date=1996 |access-date=1 June 2021 |archive-date=14 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914025025/https://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/issues/y1996/ID0396/TalkingComputer0396i.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--R-->

<ref name="recall" >{{cite journal |title=Scuba diving computer recall |url=http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/22.57#subj2 |journal=Forum on Risks to the Public in Computers and Related Systems 22.57 |date=19 February 2003 |volume=22 |issue=57 |publisher=The Association for Computing Machinery |access-date=1 September 2011 |last1=Neumann |first1=Peter G. |archive-date=19 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319003645/http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/22.57#subj2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="recall notices" >{{cite web |url=http://iscubacenter.com/recall-notices/ |title=Recall notices: Dive computers |website=iscubacenter.com |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=14 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230914204824/http://iscubacenter.com/recall-notices/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Rossier 2010" >{{cite web |url=https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/your-computer-fails-now-what/ |title=Your Computer Fails: Now What? |first=Robert N. |last=Rossier |date=1 May 2010 |website=dan.org |access-date=11 September 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Roy 2016" >{{cite web |url=https://www.scubadiving.com/why-read-your-dive-computer-manual |title=Why You Need To Read the Manual For Your Dive Computer |first=Roger |last=Roy |date=23 September 2016 |access-date=10 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name=RRR10177>{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=M. |title=Editor comment following article on "Automatic decompression meters": The SOS decompression meter |journal=Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 }}</ref>

<ref name=RRR10185>{{cite journal |last=Heinmiller |first=P.A. |title=ORCA's new Delphi computers: Impact on the diving community |editor1-last=Lang |editor1-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Jaap |editor2-first=W.C. |journal=Diving for Science…1989. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences Annual Scientific Diving Symposium 28 September – 1 October 1989 Wood Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA |publisher=[[American Academy of Underwater Sciences]] |year=1989 }}</ref>

<ref name=RRR9434>{{cite journal |last=Huggins |first=Karl E. |title=Underwater decompression computers: Actual vs. Ideal. |editor1-last=Lang |editor1-first=M.A. |journal=Advances in Underwater Science...88. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences Eighth Annual Scientific Diving Symposium. |publisher=American Academy of Underwater Sciences |year=1988 }}</ref>

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<ref name="Sayer et al 2016" >{{cite journal |last1=Sayer |first1=M. D. J. |last2=Azzopardi |first2=E. |last3=Sieber |first3=A. |date=2016 |title=User settings on dive computers: reliability in aiding conservative diving.|journal=Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=98-110 |url=http://www.sams.ac.uk/martin-sayer/pdfs/Sayer_UserSettingsDiveComputers_personal_use_only.pdf }}</ref>

<ref name="scubaonline" >{{cite web |url=https://scubaonline.de/dive-computer-accessories-in-our-dive-shop |title=Dive Computer Accessories |website=scubaonline.de |access-date=9 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Scubapro 330" >{{cite web |url=https://www.lucasdivestore.com/en/scubapro-digital-330-bottom-timer.html |title=Scubapro Digital 330 Bottom Timer |website=www.lucasdivestore.com |access-date=5 July 2025 |archive-date=11 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911163004/https://www.lucasdivestore.com/en/scubapro-digital-330-bottom-timer.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Scubapro Avelo mode" >{{cite web |url=https://johnsonoutdoors.widen.net/s/dzj2qcpblg/sp_20941-j-o_g2c_avelo_manual_en |title=G2C Avelo Mode User Manual |website=johnsonoutdoors.widen.net |access-date=7 April 2025 |publisher=Scubapro }}</ref>

<ref name="SDI" >{{cite web |url=https://www.tdisdi.com/sdi/get-certified/computer-diver/ |title=SDI Computer Diver |website=www.tdisdi.com/ |date=3 February 2016 |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923185420/https://www.tdisdi.com/sdi/get-certified/Computer-Diver/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Searle 1957">{{cite journal |last=Searle |first=W.F. Jr |title=Foxboro Decomputer Mark I |journal=United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit Technical Report |volume=NEDU-7-57 |year=1957 |author-link=Willard Franklyn Searle }}</ref>

<ref name="Seveke">{{cite web |first=Lothar |last=Seveke |title=Entwicklung des Tauchcomputers (nur der Technik, nicht der Algorithmen) |website=tauchen.seveke.de |language=de |year=1988 |url=http://tauchen.seveke.de/altes/1dekometer.htm |access-date=16 September 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144525/http://tauchen.seveke.de/altes/1dekometer.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Shearwater#2" >{{cite web |url=https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/rebreather-troubleshooting-tip-unit-keeps-turning-on |title=Rebreather Troubleshooting Tip #2: Unit Keeps Turning ON |date=24 July 2025 |publisher=Shearwater Research |access-date=10 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Shearwater 2020" >{{cite web |url=https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/evolution-of-dive-planning |title=Evolution of Dive Planning |first=Mark |last=Powell |website=shearwater.com |access-date=9 May 2024 |date=11 August 2020 |archive-date=24 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424173256/https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/evolution-of-dive-planning |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Shearwater Avelo mode" >{{cite web|url=https://shearwater.com/pages/avelo-mode |title=Avelo Mode for Shearwater Air Integrated Dive Computers |website=shearwater.com |access-date=7 April 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Shearwater comparison" >{{cite web |url=https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Perdix-vs-Petrel-2-comparison.pdf |title=Perdix vs. Petrel 2 Comparison |publisher=Shearwater Research |website=www.shearwater.com |date=24 December 2015 |accessdate=21 May 2021 |archive-date=21 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521160108/https://www.shearwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Perdix-vs-Petrel-2-comparison.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Shearwater controllers" >{{cite web |url=https://shearwater.com/blogs/community/fundamental-shearwater-rebreather-electronics |title=Fundamentals of Shearwater Rebreather Electronics |date=17 July 2025 |website=shearwater.com |access-date=6 September 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="shwr" >{{cite web |url=https://www.shwr.co.uk/news/a-guide-to-different-types-of-watch-glass-sapphire-mineral-acrylic |title=A Guide to Different Types of Watch Glass (Sapphire, Mineral, Acrylic) |website=www.shwr.co.uk |access-date=9 November 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Sieber et al 2011" >{{cite report|url= |title=Dive Computers: The Need for Validation and Standards |first1=Arne |last1=Sieber |first2=Milena |last2=Stoianova |first3=Ewald |last3=Jöbstl |first4=Elaine |last4=Azzopardi |first5=Martin D.J. |last5=Sayer |first6=Matthias F. |last6=Wagner |pages=29–43 |date=24 August 2011 |location=Gdansk, Poland |work=Proceedings of Validation of Dive Computers Workshop |editor1-first=S. Lesley |editor1-last=Blogg |editor2-first=Michael A. |editor2-last=Lang |editor3-first=Andreas |editor3-last=Møllerløkken |publisher =European Underwater and Baromedical Society |isbn=978-82-321-0147-4 }}</ref>

<ref name="Sieber et al 2012" >{{cite journal |title=Development of a head-up displayed diving computer capability for full face masks |date=July 2012 |journal=Underwater Technology |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=195–199 |doi=10.3723/ut.30.195 |first1=Arne |last1=Sieber |first2=Benjamin |last2=Kuch |first3=Peter |last3=Enoksson |first4=Milena |last4=Stoyanova-Siebe |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272552902 |access-date=2024-04-19 |archive-date=2024-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513040823/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272552902_Development_of_a_head-up_displayed_diving_computer_capability_for_full_face_masks |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="specialist" >{{cite web |url=https://diveaai.com/courses/computer-diver |title=Computer Diving Specialist |website=diveaai.com |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930201215/https://diveaai.com/courses/computer-diver |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="SSI computer diving" >{{cite web |url=https://www.divessi.com/en/advanced-training/scuba-diving/computer-diving |title=Computer Diving |website=www.divessi.com |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=18 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418173307/https://www.divessi.com/en/advanced-training/scuba-diving/computer-diving |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Stubbs and Kidd 1965">{{cite report |last1=Stubbs |first1=R.A. |last2=Kidd |first2=D.J. |title=A pneumatic analogue decompression computer |work=Canadian Institute of Aviation Medicine Report |volume=65-RD-1 |year=1965 }}</ref>

<ref name="Stubbs and Kidd 1965b">{{cite report|last1=Stubbs |first1=R.A. |last2=Kidd |first2=D.J. |title=Control of decompression by analogue computer |work=Canadian Institute of Aviation Medicine Report |volume=65-RD-8 |year=1965 }}</ref>

<ref name="substack" >{{cite web |url=https://swimpruf.substack.com/p/review-oceanic-dive-housing-for-iphone |title=Review: Oceanic+ Dive Housing for iPhone |date=30 August 2023 |website=swimpruf.substack.com |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-date=18 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418173257/https://swimpruf.substack.com/p/review-oceanic-dive-housing-for-iphone |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="SUUNTO GF" >{{cite web |url=https://www.suunto.com/Support/Product-support/suunto_ocean/suunto_ocean/scuba-diving/algorithm-settings/ |title=Suunto Ocean User Guide: Algorithm settings |website=www.suunto.com |access-date=11 September 2025 }}</ref>

<ref name="Suunto recall" >{{cite web |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/Recalls/2006/suunto-dive-computers-recalled-due-to-decompression-hazard |title=Suunto Dive Computers Recalled Due to Decompression Hazard |date=19 July 2006 |website=www.cpsc.gov |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202124653/https://www.cpsc.gov/Recalls/2006/suunto-dive-computers-recalled-due-to-decompression-hazard |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Suunto transmitter">{{cite web |url=http://www.suunto.com/Products/Dive-Accessories/Suunto-wireless-tank-pressure-transmitter-led/ |title=Suunto Wireless Tank Pressure Transmitter |last=<!-- not specified --> |work=Accessories and spare parts |publisher=Suunto |access-date=27 November 2016 |archive-date=28 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128134009/http://www.suunto.com/Products/Dive-Accessories/Suunto-wireless-tank-pressure-transmitter-led/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--T-->

<ref name="tdc-3">{{cite web |url=http://www.tdc-3.com/ |title=Technical Dive Computers TDC-3 |access-date=25 January 2019 |website=www.tdc-3.com |archive-date=26 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126220709/http://www.tdc-3.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Teric review" >{{cite web |url=https://scubaotter.com/shearwater-teric/ |title=Shearwater Teric Review (Updated 2021) |last=Thannhauser |first=Rachel |date=25 May 2021 |website=scubaotter.com |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526075234/https://scubaotter.com/shearwater-teric/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="TE specs" >{{cite web|url=https://www.te.com/commerce/DocumentDelivery/DDEController?Action=showdoc&DocId=Data+Sheet%7FMS5803-07BA%7FB2%7Fpdf%7FEnglish%7FENG_DS_MS5803-07BA_B2.pdf%7FCAT-BLPS0012 |title=MS5803-07BA Altimeter and diving pressure sensor  |website=www.te.com |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="Tek lite 1" >{{cite book |title=Tek Lite: The Complete Guide to Advanced Enriched Air Nitrox and Recreational Trimix |last1=Mount |first1=Tom |last2=Sawatsky |first2=David |last3=Doolette |first3=David J. |last4=Somers |first4=Lee |chapter=1: Dive planning |pages=10 |publisher=IANTD |location=Miami, Florida |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-915539-07-9}}</ref>

<!--U-->

<ref name=UHMS44>{{cite report |editor-last=Hamilton |editor-first=R.W Jr |title=Effectiveness of Dive Computers in Repetitive Diving. 44th Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Workshop |work=UHMS Publication Number 81(DC)6-1-94. |publisher=[[Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society]] |year=1995 |page=71 }}</ref>

<ref name="Undercurrent" >{{cite web |url=https://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/dive_magazine/2003/AladinAir200304.html |title=Aladin Air X Nitrox Computers Recalled |magazine=Undercurrent |volume=29 |issue=4 |date=April 2003 |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=1 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201005014/https://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/dive_magazine/2003/AladinAir200304.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Undercurrent 2022" >{{cite web |url=https://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/dive_magazine/2022/BackupComputer202202.html |title=Do You Use a Backup Computer, Part II |website=www.undercurrent.org |date=February 2022 |access-date=11 September 2025 |first= Ben |last=Davison }}</ref>

<ref name="USNDM R7">{{cite book |last=US Navy|title=U.S. Navy Diving Manual Revision 7 SS521-AG-PRO-010 0910-LP-115-1921|url=https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Portals/103/Documents/SUPSALV/Diving/US%20DIVING%20MANUAL_REV7.pdf?ver=2016-12-14-135043-757 |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=US Naval Sea Systems Command|location=Washington, DC. |ref={{harvid|US Navy Diving Manual|2016}}|access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228033101/http://www.navsea.navy.mil/Portals/103/Documents/SUPSALV/Diving/US%20DIVING%20MANUAL_REV7.pdf?ver=2016-12-14-135043-757 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="utc">{{cite web |url=http://www.utc-digital.com/ |website=www.utc-digital.com |title=UDI – Underwater Digital Interface |year=2008 |publisher=UTC Corporation |access-date=14 September 2009 |archive-date=22 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022031555/http://www.utc-digital.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--V-->

<ref name="Validation" >{{cite conference |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/28049112 |title=Diving For Science 2012, Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Scientists 31st Scientific Sympoium |chapter=Validation of Dive Computers |pages=62–81 |editor1-first=Lisa Kerr |editor1-last=Lobel |editor2-first=Diana L. |editor2-last=Seller |last1=Blogg |first1=S.L. |last2=Lang |first2=M.A. |last3=Møllerløkken |first3=A. |date=24–29 September 2012 |publisher=American Academy of Underwater Sciences |location=Monterey, CA |isbn=978-0-9800423-6-8 |access-date=22 May 2021 |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314174437/https://www.academia.edu/28049112/Proceedings_of_the_American_Academy_of_Underwater_Scientists_31st_Scientific_Sympoium |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Validation workshop">{{cite report |editor1-last=Blogg |editor1-first=S.L. |editor2-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Lang |editor3-first=A. |editor3-last=Møllerløkken |year=2012 |title=Proceedings of the Validation of Dive Computers Workshop. |work=European Underwater and Baromedical Society Symposium, August 24, 2011. Gdansk. Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Technology }}</ref>

<!--W-->

<ref name="Wright et al 2016" >{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Serena |last2=Hull |first2=Tom |last3=Sivyer |first3=David B. |first4=David |last4=Pearce |first5=John K. |last5=Pinnegar |first6=Martin D. J. |last6=Sayer |first7=Andrew O. M. |last7=Mogg |first8=Elaine |last8=Azzopardi |first9=Steve |last9=Gontarek |first10=Kieran |last10=Hyder |title=SCUBA divers as oceanographic samplers: The potential of dive computers to augment aquatic temperature monitoring. |journal=Sci Rep |volume=6 |article-number=30164 |date=2016 |doi=10.1038/srep30164 |pmid=27445104 |bibcode=2016NatSR...630164W |pmc=4957074 }}</ref>

<ref name="wristwatch" >{{cite web |url=https://www.scubadivermag.com/choosing-a-dive-computer-wristwatch-wrist-mount/ |title=Choosing a Dive Computer: Wristwatch vs Wrist-Mount what is the difference? |website=www.scubadivermag.com |date=6 November 2019 |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128164842/https://www.scubadivermag.com/choosing-a-dive-computer-wristwatch-wrist-mount/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--Y-->

<ref name="Zvaritch 2019" >{{cite web |url=https://www.deeperblue.com/why-dive-computers-are-essential-for-freedivers/ |title=Why Dive Computers Are Essential For Freedivers |first=Kristina |last=Zvaritch |date=14 August 2019 |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417192205/https://www.deeperblue.com/why-dive-computers-are-essential-for-freedivers/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Zvaritch 2020" >{{cite web |url=https://www.deeperblue.com/10-features-to-look-for-in-a-freediving-computer/ |title=10 Features To Look For In A Freediving Computer |first1=Kristina |last1=Zvaritch |date=1 July 2020 |website= |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417192205/https://www.deeperblue.com/10-features-to-look-for-in-a-freediving-computer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |editor1-last=Blogg |editor1-first=S.L. |editor2-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Lang |editor3-first=A. |editor3-last=Møllerløkken
 |year=2012
 |title=Proceedings of the Validation of Dive Computers Workshop
 |journal=European Underwater and Baromedical Society Symposium, August 24, 2011. Gdansk. Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Technology }}
*{{cite conference |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/28049112
 |title=Diving For Science 2012, Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Scientists 31st Scientific Sympoium
 |chapter=Not all are created equal: operational variability in 49 models of diving computer |pages=36–40
 |editor1-first=Lisa Kerr |editor1-last=Lobel |editor2-first=Diana L. |editor2-last=Seller
 |last1=Azzopardi |first1=Elaine |last2=Sayer |first2=Martin D.J. |date=24–29 September 2012
 |publisher=American Academy of Underwater Sciences |location=Monterey, CA
 |isbn= 978-0-9800423-6-8 |access-date=22 May 2021 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Validation of algorithms used in commercial off-the-shelf dive computer
 |first=Doug |last=Fraedrich
 |journal=Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=252–258 |date=December 2018
 |doi=10.28920/dhm48.4.252-258 |pmc=6355308 |pmid=30517958 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Dive computers}}

{{Underwater diving|divequ}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dive Computer}}
[[Category:Underwater diving safety equipment]]
[[Category:Decompression equipment]]