View source for Douglas fir

{{Short description|Species of tree}}
{{Redirect|Douglas-fir|the genus and the other species with common names containing "Douglas fir" or "Douglas-fir"|Pseudotsuga|the ship|Oregon Pine (schooner)}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Pseudotsuga_menziesii_4584.JPG
| image2 = Pseudotsuga menziesii MHNT.BOT.52.4.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Farjon, A. |date=2013 |title=''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' |volume=2013 |article-number=e.T42429A2979531 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42429A2979531.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|status2 = {{TNCStatus}}
|status2_system = TNC
|status2_ref = <ref name="NatureServe">{{Cite NatureServe |date=6 December 2024 |id=2.136725 |title=''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref>
| genus = Pseudotsuga
| species = menziesii
| authority = ([[Charles-François Brisseau de Mirbel|Mirbel]]) [[João Manuel Antonio do Amaral Franco|Franco]]
| synonyms = {{Species list
|Abies menziesii |Mirb.
|Abies mucronata |Raf.
|Abies taxifolia |Poir.
|Pinus douglasii |Sabine ex D. Don
|Pinus taxifolia |Lamb.
|Pseudotsuga douglasii |(Sabine ex D. Don) Carrière
|Pseudotsuga mucronata |(Raf.) Sudw.
|Pseudotsuga taxifolia |Britton
|Pseudotsuga taxifolia var. viridis |ined.<ref name="Grin">{{cite web |title=Taxonomy - GRIN-Global Web v 1.10.5.0 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=310540 |website=npgsweb.ars-grin.gov |access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref>}}
| range_map = Pseudotsuga menziesii levila.png
| range_map_caption =
{{legend|#75FF00|Green: Coast Douglas-fir ([[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii'']])}}
{{legend|#80FFFF|Blue: Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir ([[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca|''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''glauca'']])}}
}}

The '''Douglas fir''' ('''''Pseudotsuga menziesii''''')<ref name=calflorasp>{{Calflora|''Pseudotsuga menziesii ''}}</ref> is an [[evergreen]] [[conifer]] [[species]] in the pine family, [[Pinaceae]]. It is the tallest tree in the Pinaceae family.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://environmentamerica.org/washington/articles/washington-tree-spotlight-the-douglas-fir/r |title=Ready, Set, Hike! Recapping Environment America's Week of Action for 100% Renewable Energy |date=4 March 2022 }}</ref>  It is [[native plant|native]] to western [[North America]] and is also known as '''Douglas-fir''',<ref name=fna>{{eFloras|1|200005380|volume=2|Pseudotsuga menziesii|last1=Lipscomb|first1=Barney|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref> '''Douglas spruce''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Plants-and-Fungi/Douglas-Fir|title = Douglas Fir}}</ref> '''Oregon pine''',<ref name=calflorassp>{{Calflora|''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii ''}}</ref> and '''Columbian pine'''.<ref name=wilson2008>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Donald A. |title=Forensic procedures for boundary and title investigation |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-11369-1|date=2008-01-28 }}</ref> There are three varieties: [[coast Douglas-fir]] (''P. menziesii'' var. ''menziesii''), [[Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir]] (''P. menziesii'' var. ''glauca'') and [[Mexican Douglas-fir]] (''P. menziesii'' var. ''lindleyana'').<ref name=usdapsme>{{PLANTS|id=PSME|taxon=Pseudotsuga menziesii|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref>

Despite its [[common name]]s, it is not a true [[fir]] ([[genus]] ''Abies''), [[spruce]] (genus ''Picea''), or [[pine]] (genus ''Pinus''). It is also not a [[Tsuga|hemlock]] (genus ''Tsuga''); the genus name ''Pseudotsuga'' means "false hemlock".

==Description==
Douglas-firs are medium-sized to extremely large [[evergreen]] trees, {{convert|20|-|100|m|abbr=off|-1}} tall (although only [[coast Douglas-fir]]s reach heights near 100&nbsp;m)<ref>{{cite book|title=Forest Giants of the World Past and Present|first=Al|last=Carder|year=1995|pages=3–4}}</ref> and commonly reach {{convert|8|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} in diameter,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Brockman|first=C. Frank|year=1968|title=Trees of North America: A Guide to Field Identification|location=New York|publisher=Golden Press|isbn=0-307-13658-2|entry=Pseudotsuga menziesii|pages=44–45}}</ref> although trees with diameters of almost {{convert|5|m|abbr=on}} exist.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ancientforestalliance.org/worlds-largest-douglas-fir-tree-the-red-creek-fir/ | title=World's Largest Douglas-fir Tree - the Red Creek Fir! | date=8 June 2011 }}</ref> The largest coast Douglas-firs regularly live over 500 years, with the oldest specimens living for over 1,300 years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Van Pelt|first=Robert|date=2007|title=Identifying Mature and Old Forests In Western Washington|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/lm_hcp_west_oldgrowth_guide_full_lowres.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111224359/https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/lm_hcp_west_oldgrowth_guide_full_lowres.pdf|archive-date=11 November 2020|access-date=1 September 2021|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources|type=pdf}}</ref> [[Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir]]s, found further to the east,<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Arno |first1=Stephen F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDD4DwAAQBAJ |title=Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees |last2=Hammerly |first2=Ramona P. |publisher=[[Mountaineers Books]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-68051-329-5 |edition=field guide |location=Seattle |pages=101–110 |language=en |oclc=1141235469 |orig-date=1977}}</ref> are less long-lived, usually not exceeding 400 years in age.<ref>{{cite web|title=Douglas Fir: Pseudotsuga menziesii|access-date=1 September 2021|publisher=National Wildlife Federation|url=https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Plants-and-Fungi/Douglas-Fir}}</ref>

There are records of former coast Douglas-firs exceeding {{convert|120|m|abbr=on|-1}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://rephaim23.wordpress.com/2012/11/12/tallest-douglas-fir-and-redwood-in-america/ | title=Tallest Douglas Fir in America | date=12 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.seattletimes.com/life/giant-logged-long-ago-but-not-forgotten/ | title=Giant logged long ago but not forgotten | date=4 September 2011 }}</ref> in height, which if alive today would make it the tallest tree species on Earth. Particular historical specimens with heights exceeding {{convert|400|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} include the [[Lynn Valley Tree]] and the [[Nooksack Giant]].

The [[leaves]] are flat, soft, linear needles {{convert|1.5-4|cm|frac=4|abbr=on}} long,<ref name="tktimb">{{Cite book |last1=Turner |first1=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLbAAwAAQBAJ |title=Trees & Shrubs of the Pacific Northwest |last2=Kuhlmann |first2=Ellen |date=2014 |publisher=[[Timber Press]] |isbn=978-1-60469-263-1 |edition=1st |location=Portland, OR |page=86}}</ref> generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in [[fascicle (botany)|fascicle]]s; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start as high as {{convert|110|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} off the ground.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Russell|first1=Tony|last2=Cutler|first2=Catherine|last3=Walters|first3=Martin|year=2014|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Trees of the World|location=London|publisher=Anness Publishing Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4351-5597-8|entry=Pseudotsuga menziesii|page=120}}</ref> Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.

The [[Bark (botany)|bark]] on young trees is thin, smooth, gray, and contains numerous [[resin]] blisters. On mature trees, usually exceeding 80 years,{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} it is very thick and corky, growing up to {{convert|14|in|cm|order=flip|abbr=on}} thick with distinctive, deep vertical fissures caused by the gradual expansion of the growing tree. Some of the mature bark is brown, while other parts are lighter colored with a cork-like texture; these develop in multiple layers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/psemenm/all.html#BOTANICAL%20AND%20ECOLOGICAL%20CHARACTERISTICS |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512010313/https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/psemenm/all.html#31 |archive-date=May 12, 2021 |access-date=2021-05-11 |website=www.fs.fed.us}}</ref> This thick bark makes the Douglas-fir one of the most fire-resistant tree native to the Pacific Northwest.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Van Pelt|first=Robert|date=2007|title=Identifying Mature and Old Forests In Western Washington|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/lm_hcp_west_oldgrowth_guide_full_lowres.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111224359/https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/lm_hcp_west_oldgrowth_guide_full_lowres.pdf|archive-date=11 November 2020|access-date=11 May 2021|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources|type=pdf}}</ref>

The male [[Conifer cone|cones]] are yellowish red, {{Convert|5-12|mm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long. The female cones are green when young, maturing to reddish-brown or gray, {{Convert|6-10|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long;<ref name="tktimb" /> they are pendulous, with persistent scales, unlike those of true firs. They have distinctive long, [[Glossary of botanical terms|trifid]] (three-pointed) [[bract]]s which protrude prominently above each scale and are said to resemble the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail.<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Open Spaces Blog|url=https://www.fws.gov/news/blog/index.cfm/2015/12/16/Douglas-Fir-A-Wildlife-Hero|access-date=2021-05-12|website=www.fws.gov}}</ref> The seeds are {{Convert|5|mm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long, with a longer wing.<ref name="tktimb" />

The massive [[genome]] of Douglas-fir was sequenced in 2017 by the large PineRefSeq consortium, revealing a specialized photosynthetic apparatus in the light-harvesting complex of genes.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Neale DB|date=2017|title=The Douglas-Fir Genome Sequence Reveals Specialization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus in Pinaceae|journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics|volume=7|issue=9|pages=3157–3167|doi=10.1534/g3.117.300078|pmc=5592940|pmid=28751502}}</ref>

{{gallery| mode=packed
|File:Pseudotsuga menziesii 7971.JPG|Mature individual in the [[Wenatchee Mountains]]
|File:Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca young female cone - Keila.jpg|Young female cone
|File:Douglas fir cone.jpg|Mature female cone
}}

==Taxonomy==
The common name honors [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]], a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus ''[[Abies]]''. For this reason, the name is often written as '''Douglas-fir''' (a name also used for the genus ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'' as a whole). Douglas' connection to the Douglas fir is told in the 1962 ''[[Death Valley Days]]'' episode  'Grass Man'.<ref name=":02" /><ref name="orstate">{{cite web |title=Douglas-fir (''Pseudotsuga'') |url=http://oregonstate.edu/trees/conifer_genera/douglas_fir.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219223614/http://oregonstate.edu/trees/conifer_genera/douglas_fir.html |archive-date=2012-12-19 |access-date=2022-02-13 |work=Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest |publisher=Oregon State University}}</ref>

The specific epithet ''menziesii'' is after [[Archibald Menzies]], a Scottish physician and rival [[Natural history|naturalist]] to David Douglas. Menzies first documented the tree on [[Vancouver Island]] in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as '''Doug fir'''<ref name="wilson2008" /> or '''Douglas pine'''<ref name="wilson2008" /> (although the latter common name may also refer to ''[[Pinus douglasiana]]'').<ref name="iucnpindoug">{{cite iucn|title=''Pinus douglasiana''|article-number=e.T42357A2974933|author=Farjon, A.|date=2013|volume=2013|access-date=19 November 2021|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42357A2974933.en}}</ref> Other names for this tree have included '''Oregon pine''',<ref name="calflorassp" /> '''British Columbian pine''',<ref name="wilson2008" /> '''Puget Sound pine''',<ref name="wilson2008" /> '''Douglas spruce''',<ref name="wilson2008" /> '''false hemlock''',<ref name="calflorassp" /> '''red fir''',<ref name="calflorassp" /> or '''red pine'''<ref name="calflorassp" /> (although again red pine may refer to a different tree species, ''[[Pinus resinosa]]'', and red fir may refer to ''[[Abies magnifica]]'').<ref name="usdapire">{{PLANTS|id=PIRE|taxon=Pinus resinosa|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref>

One [[Coast Salish]] name for the tree, used in the [[Halkomelem]] language, is {{lang|hur|lá:yelhp|italic=yes}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Galloway |first=Brent Douglas |title=Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem |volume=I |page=213}}</ref> In the [[Lushootseed]] language, the tree is called {{lang|hur|čəbidac|italic=yes}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 18, 2017 |title=čəbidac |url=https://tulaliplushootseed.com/encyclopedia/suk%cc%93%ca%b7%c9%99b-2/ |work=Lushootseed: the language of Puget Sound}}</ref>

==Distribution==
''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii'', the coast Douglas-fir, grows in the coastal regions from west-central [[British Columbia]] southward to [[Central California]]. In [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]], its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]] west to the [[Pacific Coast Ranges]] and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the [[Klamath Mountains|Klamath]] and [[California Coast Ranges]] as far south as the [[Santa Lucia Range]], with a small stand as far south as the [[Purisima Hills]] in Santa Barbara County.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A New Douglas-Fir Locality in Southern California|author=Griffin, James R.|journal=Forest Science|date=September 1964|pages=317–319|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/fs/1964/00000010/00000003/art00015|access-date=December 31, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Distribution of Forest Trees in California USDA Forest Service Research Paper PSW – 82/1972|author=Griffin, James R.|author2=Critchfield, William B.|year=1976|publisher=USDA Forest Service|location=Berkeley, California|page=114|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_rp082/psw_rp082.pdf|access-date=2015-05-03}}</ref> One of the last remaining old growth stands of conifers is in the Mattole Watershed, and is under threat of logging.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=20000319&slug=4010893|title=Douglas Fir, Then and Now &#124; The Seattle Times|website=archive.seattletimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://alumni.berkeley.edu/california-magazine/just-in/2018-08-30/battle-save-old-trees-timber-wars-logging|title=Tensions Rise In the Battle To Save Old Trees|date=September 1, 2018|website=Cal Alumni Association}}</ref> In the [[Sierra Nevada]], it ranges as far south as the [[Yosemite Valley|Yosemite]] region. It occurs from sea level along the coast to elevations of {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} or higher, and inland in some cases up to {{convert|2100|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":02" />

Another variety exists further inland, ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''glauca'', the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir or interior Douglas-fir. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. [[Mexican Douglas-fir]] (''P.&nbsp;lindleyana''), which ranges as far south as [[Oaxaca]], is often considered a variety of ''P.&nbsp;menziesii''.

Fossils (wood, pollen) of ''Pseudotsuga'' are recorded from the [[Miocene]] and [[Pliocene]] of Europe ([[Siebengebirge]], [[Gleiwitz]], Austria).<ref>{{cite tech report |url=https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/technical_reports/8s45q9704 |title=The Genus Pseudotsuga : Ancestral History and Past Distribution |pages=23–24 |author=R. K. Hermann |type=Special Publication 2b |publisher=Forest Research Laboratory, College of Forestry, Oregon State University |date=October 1985}}</ref>

It is also [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] throughout Europe,<ref>{{cite web|title=Distribution of Douglas-fir|url=http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Pseudotsuga&SPECIES_XREF=menziesii&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK=|publisher=Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh|access-date=2009-01-31|archive-date=2012-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215203124/http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Pseudotsuga&SPECIES_XREF=menziesii&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK=}}</ref> Argentina and Chile (called ''Pino Oregón''). In New Zealand it is considered to be an invasive species, called a [[wilding conifer]], and is subject to control measures. But is also one of the most common lumber trees used in forestry alongside Radiata pine with large plantations throughout the country. The species was introduced in the 20th century for its wood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Weed Information Sheet|url=https://www.weedbusters.org.nz/what-are-weeds/weed-list/douglas-fir/|access-date=2021-05-12|website=Weedbusters|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzfoa.org.nz/plantation-forestry/Douglas-fir|title=Douglas-fir|website=www.nzfoa.org.nz}}</ref>

==Ecology==

=== Preferred sites ===
Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils, such as [[Olympic (soil)|Olympic soil]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arborday.org/trees/treeguide/treedetail.cfm?itemID=836 |title=Douglas-fir Tree on the Tree Guide|work=arborday.org}}</ref> However, it exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites ''P. menziesii'' var. ''menziesii'' will generate deeper taproots. ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''glauca'' exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots still.

The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the [[Pacific Northwest]]. It occurs in nearly all forest types and competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a more moist, mild climate than the interior subspecies, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include [[western hemlock]], [[Sitka spruce]], [[sugar pine]], [[western white pine]], [[ponderosa pine]], [[grand fir]], [[coast redwood]], [[western redcedar]], [[incense-cedar|California incense-cedar]], [[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana|Lawson's cypress]], [[tanoak]], [[bigleaf maple]] and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the [[Umpqua River]] in Oregon. It is most dominant in areas with a more frequent fire regime that suppresses less fire-resistant conifers.<ref name=":1" />

=== Use by animals ===
[[File:Pseudotsuga menziesii 01221.JPG|thumb|upright=.85|A [[snag (ecology)|snag]] provides nest cavities for birds.]]

Douglas-fir seeds are an extremely important food source for small mammals such as [[Mole (animal)|moles]], [[shrew]]s, and [[chipmunk]]s, which consume an estimated 65% of each annual seed crop. The [[Douglas squirrel]] harvests and hoards great quantities of Douglas-fir cones, and also consumes mature pollen cones, the inner bark, terminal shoots, and developing young needles.<ref name=":0" />

Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the [[red tree vole]] (''Arborimus longicaudus'') and the [[spotted owl]] (''Strix occidentalis''). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least {{convert|400|ha|km2 acre}} of old growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically {{convert|2|-|50|m|ft|round=5}} above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles.<ref name=":0" />

Douglas-fir needles are generally poor [[Browsing (herbivory)|browse]] for [[ungulate]]s, although in the winter when other food sources are lacking it can become important, and [[black-tailed deer]] browse new seedlings and saplings in spring and summer. The spring diet of the [[Dendragapus|blue grouse]] features Douglas-fir needles prominently.<ref name=":0" />

The leaves are also used by the [[Adelgidae|woolly conifer aphid]] ''[[Adelges cooleyi]]''; this 0.5&nbsp;mm-long [[Sap (plant)|sap]]-sucking [[insect]] is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among [[Lepidoptera]], apart from some that feed on ''Pseudotsuga'' in general, the [[gelechiid moth]]s ''Chionodes abella'' and ''C.&nbsp;periculella'' as well as the cone scale-eating [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia illutana]]'' have been recorded specifically on ''P.&nbsp;menziesii''.

The inner bark is the primary winter food for the [[North American porcupine]].<ref name=":0" />

[[Poriol]] is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by ''P. menziesii'' in reaction to infection by ''[[Poria weirii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Barton GM|year=1972|title=New C-methylflavanones from Douglas-fir|journal=Phytochemistry|volume=11|issue=1|pages=426–429|doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90036-0|bibcode=1972PChem..11..426B }}</ref>

=== Value to other plants ===
A [[parasitic plant]] which uses ''P. menziesii'' is the [[Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe]] (''Arceuthobium douglasii''). [[Epiphyte]]s such as [[crustose lichen]]s and mosses are common sights on Douglas-firs.<ref name=":1" /> As it is only moderately [[shade tolerant]],<ref name=":02" /> undisturbed Douglas-fir stands in humid areas will eventually give way to later successional, more shade-tolerant associates such as the western redcedar and western hemlock—though this process may take a thousand years or more.<ref name=":0" /> It is more shade tolerant than some associated fire-dependent species, such as [[western larch]] and ponderosa pine, and often replaces these species further inland.<ref name=":02" />

=== Diseases and insects ===
Fungal diseases such as [[laminated root rot]] and [[Armillaria mellea|shoestring root-rot]] can cause significant damage, and in plantation settings dominated by Douglas-fir monocultures may cause extreme damage to vast swathes of trees.<ref name=":0" /> Interplanting with resistant or nonhost species such as western redcedar and [[Corylus cornuta|beaked hazelnut]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Corylus cornuta|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/corcor/all.html|access-date=2021-05-12|website=www.fs.fed.us}}</ref> can reduce this risk. Other threats to Douglas-fir include [[Phellinus pini|red ring rot]] and the [[Dendroctonus pseudotsugae|Douglas-fir beetle]].<ref name=":0" />

==Uses==
[[File:A large log of Douglas fir going to market. This log is over 9 ft. in diameter and scales 7000 board ft of timber. There is (62325581e6a34599a6accfaf298a2985).jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|A {{convert|9|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} log, scaling over 7,000 [[board feet]] (16,5 [[cubic meters]]) of timber, c.&nbsp;1937]]

Many different [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups used the bark, resin, and needles to make herbal treatments for various diseases.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_psme.pdf |title=Douglas Fir |access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> [[Native Hawaiian]]s built ''waʻa kaulua'' ([[Outrigger canoe|double-hulled canoes]]) from coast Douglas-fir logs that had [[Driftwood|drifted]] ashore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php|title=''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii ''|publisher=The Gymnosperm Database|access-date=March 17, 2013|quote=This was the preferred species for Hawaiian war canoes. The Hawaiians, of course, did not log the trees; they had to rely on driftwood.}}</ref> The wood has historically been favored as [[firewood]], especially from the coastal variety.<ref name=":02" /> In addition early settlers used Douglas-fir for all forms of building construction, including floors, beams, and fine carving.

The species is extensively used in [[forestry]] management as a [[plantation]] tree for softwood [[timber]]. Douglas-fir is one of the world's best timber-producing species and yields more timber than any other species in North America, making the forestlands of western Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia the most productive on the continent. In 2011, Douglas-fir represented 34.2% of US lumber exports, to a total of 1.053 billion [[board feet]] (2,484,803,3 [[cubic meters]]).<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Robert|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/journals/pnw_1996_curtis001.pdf|title=Timber Supply in the Pacific Northwest|last2=Carey|first2=Andrew|publisher=USDA Forest Service|year=1996}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Douglas-fir timber is used for [[timber frame construction]] and [[Timber roof truss|timber trusses]] using traditional joinery, [[Wood veneer|veneer]], and [[Wood flooring|flooring]] due to its strength, hardness and durability.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wood-database.com/douglas-fir/|title=Douglas-Fir |work=Wood Database|access-date=August 15, 2018}}</ref> As of 2024, the only wooden ships still currently in use by the [[U.S. Navy]] in conventional naval operations are [[Avenger-class minesweeper|''Avenger''-class minesweepers]], made of Douglas-fir.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/the-navys-wooden-avengers-are-real-life-mine-sweepers-5912499|title=The Navy's Wooden Avengers Are Real-Life Mine Sweepers|last=Tarantola|first=Andrew|date=23 May 2012|website=[[Gizmodo]]|quote="wooden hulls—typically oak, Douglas-fir, or Nootka Cypress—coated in glass-reinforced plastic"}}</ref>

Douglas-fir sees wide use in heavy timber structures, as its wood is strong, available in a number of specifications including kiln dried and grade stamped, and can be supplied in very long lengths to {{convert|60|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}}. West coast mills are sophisticated in their processing of timbers, making lead times predictable and availability reliable. [[Paint]]s adhere well to Douglas-fir. [[Wood stain|Stains]] perform well on Douglas-fir timbers with the mild caution that the natural color of this species varies and care must be taken to ensure uniformity of color. Pitch pockets that may ooze resin can be present in timbers that have not been kiln dried. Because of the timber sizes available, stamped timber grading, and relatively short lead times, Douglas-fir sees wide use in both public and residential projects.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=6316|title=''Pseudotsuga menziesii ''|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=2012-07-14|archive-date=2013-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109213719/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=6316}}</ref> It has been commonly used as a [[Christmas tree]] since the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.<ref name="christmas">{{cite web|title=Douglas-Fir|url=http://www.realchristmastrees.org/dnn/Education/Tree-Varieties/DouglasFir|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803003955/https://www.realchristmastrees.org/dnn/Education/Tree-Varieties/DouglasFir|archive-date=2020-08-03|access-date=2022-02-10|website=National Christmas Tree Association}}</ref>

The buds have been used to flavor [[eau de vie]], a clear, colorless fruit brandy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/15/dining/15pour.html|title=An Orchard in a Bottle, at 80 Proof|first=Eric|last=Asimov|author-link=Eric Asimov|date=August 15, 2007|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 1, 2009}}</ref> Douglas-fir pine leaves can be used to make [[pine needle tea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.growforagecookferment.com/foraging-for-pine-needles/|title=Foraging for Pine Needles (and other conifer needles)|date=December 23, 2015|website=Grow Forage Cook Ferment}}</ref> They possess a tangy citrus flavor and may serve in some recipes as a wild substitute for [[rosemary]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Boyd |first=Sabra |date=November 27, 2020 |title=As a homeless teen, I foraged for wild food to survive. The lessons still shape my cooking. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2020/11/27/fettuccine-alfredo-douglas-fir-recipe/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=December 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127151759if_/https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2020/11/27/fettuccine-alfredo-douglas-fir-recipe/ |archive-date=November 27, 2020}}</ref>

== Notable examples ==
[[File:Big Lonely Doug 2 (cropped 3).jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Big Lonely Doug]], 2018, with person at base for scale]]
The immense size and long lifespan of the Douglas fir has produced some acclaimed individual trees. Historical examples include the [[Lynn Valley Tree]] near [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] and the [[Nooksack Giant]]  in [[Maple Falls]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] State.

Living examples in Canada include the [[Red Creek Fir]] in the [[San Juan Valley (Vancouver Island)|San Juan Valley]] of [[Vancouver Island]], the largest known Douglas-fir in Canada and one of the largest in the world;<ref>{{Citation |last=Clarke |first=Brennan |title=Logging threatens largest Douglas fir on earth |newspaper=Globe and Mail |date=August 31, 2010 |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/logging-threatens-largest-douglas-fir-on-earth-activists-say/article1213311/ |access-date=July 23, 2016 |archive-date=June 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621081624/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/logging-threatens-largest-douglas-fir-on-earth-activists-say/article1213311/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the Bonin Giant in the [[Coquitlam River]] watershed in British Columbia's [[Lower Mainland]] and [[Big Lonely Doug]] north of [[Port Renfrew]] on [[Vancouver Island]].<ref>.{{Cite web |title = British Columbia Big Tree Registry Tree Importance Score |url=https://bigtrees.forestry.ubc.ca/measuring-trees/tree-importance-score/ }}</ref>

American examples include the [[Lake Quinault Douglas fir]] in the [[Olympic National Forest]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]] State, the largest known Douglas fir in the United States;<ref>[https://www.americanforests.org/big-trees/coast-douglasfir-pseudotsuga-menziesii/ Coast Douglasfir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) champion], American Forests, listed 2018-09-05; accessed 2019-01-05</ref> the [[Grandma Tree]] in [[North Fork Coquille River]] in [[Oregon]], the second greatest of a living Douglas fir in the United States.;<ref name=MT>{{cite web|url=https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/usa/oregon/cooscounty/18183_headwaters/|title=Coast Douglas-fir 'Grandma Tree' near the headwaters in North Fork Coquille River, Oregon, United States|author=|date=|website=www.monumentaltrees.com|access-date=6 January 2019}}</ref> the [[Queets Fir]], in the [[Olympic National Park]]  in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] State with the largest known in diameter;<ref>[https://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php The Gymnosperm Database: Pseudotsuga menziesii subsp. menziesii], last modified 2018-12-23; accessed 2019-01-05</ref> and the [[Doerner Fir]] fir in [[Coos County, Oregon|Coos County]], Oregon.

Outside of North America, the [[Hermitage Douglas-fir]] in [[Dunkeld]], Scotland was one of the tallest trees in the [[United Kingdom]] until it fell in 2017 and the Waldtraut of the mill forest, in [[Freiburg im Breisgau]] is the tallest tree in Germany.<ref name="Germany">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/news/wissen/wissenschaft-waldtraut-ist-deutschlands-hoechster-baum-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-170424-99-179709|title="Waldtraut" ist Deutschlands höchster Baum – Wissen-News|last=Germany|first=Süddeutsche de GmbH, Munich|website=Süddeutsche.de|language=de|access-date=2 January 2019|archive-date=3 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103055831/https://www.sueddeutsche.de/news/wissen/wissenschaft-waldtraut-ist-deutschlands-hoechster-baum-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-170424-99-179709|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Pseudotsuga#Species and varieties|List of Douglas-fir species]]
* [[List of Douglas-fir diseases]]
* [[List of superlative trees]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Brock, Emily K. (2015). ''Money Trees: The Douglas-Fi.r and American Forestry, 1900–1944'' Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press.
* {{cite book | last1 = Chase| first1 = J. Smeaton| author-link1 = J. Smeaton Chase|others=[[Carl Eytel|Eytel, Carl]] (illustrations)|title = Cone-bearing Trees of the California Mountains |chapter=''Pseudotsuga taxifolia'', Also called ''P. douglasii'' or ''P. mucronata'', (Douglas-spruce, Douglas-pine, Hemlock, Red-fir)|chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/conebearingtrees00chas/page/36/mode/2up| location = Chicago | publisher = [[A.C. McClurg & Co.]] | page = 36 |year=1911 | oclc = 3477527|lccn=11004975}}
* {{FEIS |last=Uchytil|first=Ronald J.|date=1991|type=tree|genus=Pseudotsuga|species=menziesii|variety=menziesii}}

==External links==
{{commons and category|Pseudotsuga menziesii}}
* [http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_menziesii.php Conifers.org: ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'']
* [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PScones.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle&nbsp;– cone photos]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091125231145/http://www.humboldt.edu/redwoods/photos/dougfir.php Humboldt State University — Photo Tour: Douglas-fir, ''Pseudotsuga menziesii''] — Institute for Redwood Ecology.
* [http://www.euforgen.org/species/pseudotsuga-menziesii/ ''Pseudotsuga menziesii''] - information, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN).

{{Woodworking|state=collapsed}}
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[[Category:Douglas fir| ]]
[[Category:Pseudotsuga]]
[[Category:Pacific temperate rainforests]]
[[Category:Flora of Central Mexico]]
[[Category:Flora of Northeastern Mexico]]
[[Category:Flora of Northwestern Mexico]]
[[Category:Flora of Southwestern Mexico]]
[[Category:Flora of the Northwestern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Southwestern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the South-Central United States]]
[[Category:Flora of Alaska]]
[[Category:Flora of Alberta]]
[[Category:Flora of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Trees of Northern America]]