View source for Dugout canoe

{{Short description|Boat made from a hollowed tree}}
[[File:Boats at the shore of the malawi lake.jpg|thumb|300px|Dugouts on the shore of [[Lake Malawi]]]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
A '''dugout canoe''' or simply '''dugout''' is a [[boat]] made from a hollowed-out tree. Other names for this type of boat are '''logboat''' and '''monoxylon'''. ''Monoxylon'' (''μονόξυλον'') (pl: ''monoxyla'') is Greek{{snd}}''mono-'' (single) + ''[[wikt:ξύλον|ξύλον]] xylon'' (tree){{snd}}and is mostly used in classic Greek texts. In [[German language|German]], they are called '''Einbaum''' ("one tree" in English). Some, but not all, [[pirogue]]s are also constructed in this manner.

Dugouts are the oldest [[boat]] type archaeologists have found, dating back about 8,000 years to the Neolithic [[Stone Age]].<ref>1000 Inventions and Discoveries, by Roger Bridgman</ref> This is probably because they are made of massive pieces of wood, which tend to preserve better than others, such as bark [[canoe]]s.

==Construction==
[[File:Dugout canoe on land.jpg|thumb|Building a seagoing dugout. The sides have likely been heated and bent outward.]]

Construction of a dugout begins with the selection of a log of suitable dimensions. Sufficient wood must be removed to make the vessel relatively light in weight and buoyant, yet still strong enough to support the crew and cargo. Specific types of wood were often preferred based on their strength, durability, and density. The shape of the boat is then fashioned to minimize drag, with sharp ends at the bow and stern.

First, the bark is removed from the exterior. Before the appearance of metal tools, dugouts were hollowed out using controlled fires. The burnt wood was then removed using an [[adze]]. Another method using tools is to chop out parallel notches across the interior span of the wood, then split out and remove the wood from between the notches. Once hollowed out, the interior was dressed and smoothed out with a knife or adze.

More primitive designs keep the tree's original dimensions, with a round bottom. However, it is possible to carefully steam the sides of the hollow log until they are pliable, then bend to create a more flat-bottomed "boat" shape with a wider beam in the center.

For travel in the rougher waters of the ocean, dugouts can be fitted with [[outrigger]]s. One or two smaller logs are mounted parallel to the main hull by long poles. In the case of two outriggers, one is mounted on either side of the hull.

==Africa==
The [[Dufuna canoe]] from Nigeria is an 8000-year-old dugout, the oldest boat discovered in Africa, and is, by varying accounts, the second or third-oldest ship worldwide.
The well-watered [[Tropical rainforests|tropical rainforest]] and [[Miombo|woodland]] regions of sub-Saharan Africa provide both the waterways and the trees for dugout canoes, which are commonplace from the [[Limpopo River basin]] in the south through [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa]] and across to [[West Africa]]. [[African teak]] is the timber favoured for their construction, though this comprises a number of different species, and is in short supply in some areas. Dugouts are paddled across deep lakes and rivers or punted through channels in swamps (see ''[[makoro]]'' or ''[[mtumbwi]]'') or in shallow areas, and are used for transport, fishing, and hunting, including, in the past, the very dangerous [[Water transport in Zambia#Dugout canoes|hunting of hippopotamus]]. Dugouts are called [[pirogue]]s in [[Francophone]] areas of Africa.

A [[Nok culture#Sculptures|Nok sculpture]] portrays two individuals, along with their [[goods]], in a dugout canoe.<ref name="Franke">{{cite journal |last1=Franke |first1=Gabriele |display-authors=etal |title=Pits, pots and plants at Pangwari — Deciphering the nature of a Nok Culture site |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0067270X.2020.1757902 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |year=2020 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=129–188 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2020.1757902 |s2cid=219470059 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Both of the anthropomorphic figures in the [[watercraft]] are [[paddling]].<ref name="Männel">{{cite journal |last1=Männel |first1=Tanja M. |last2=Breunig |first2=Peter |title=The Nok Terracotta Sculptures of Pangwari |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jaa/14/3/article-p313_4.xml |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=12 January 2016 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=313–329 }}</ref> The Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe may indicate that Nok people utilized dugout canoes to transport [[cargo]], along [[tributaries]] (e.g., [[Gurara, Nigeria|Gurara]] River) of the [[Niger River]], and exchanged them in a regional [[trade]] network.<ref name="Männel" /> The Nok terracotta depiction of a figure with a seashell on its head may indicate that the span of these riverine [[trade routes]] may have extended to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] Coast.<ref name="Männel" /> In the [[Maritime history#Ancient times|maritime history]] of [[Africa]], there is the earlier [[Dufuna canoe]], which was constructed approximately 8000 years ago in the northern region of Nigeria; as the second earliest form of water vessel known in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], the Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe was created in the central region of Nigeria during the first millennium BCE.<ref name="Männel" />

The engineering and methodology (e.g., cultural valuations, use of iron tools) used in the construction of [[West Africa]]n dugout canoes (e.g., rounded point sterns and pointed bows with 15° - 50° angle above water surface, increased stability via partly rounded or flat base, v-shaped hull, shallow draft for sailing water depths less than one foot, occasionally spanning more than one hundred feet in length) contributed to the capability of the canoes to be able to persist and navigate throughout the interconnected river system that connected the [[Benue River]], [[Gambia River]], [[Niger River]], and [[Senegal River]] as well as [[Lake Chad]]; this river system connected diverse sources of water (e.g., lakes, rivers, seas, streams) and ecological zones (e.g., [[Sahara]], [[Sahel]], [[West Sudanian savanna|Savanna]]), and allowed for the transport of people, information, and economic goods along riverine trade networks that connect various locations (e.g., [[Bamako]], [[Djenne]], [[Gao]], [[Mopti]], [[Segou]], [[Timbuktu]]) throughout West Africa and [[North Africa]].<ref name="Dawson">{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=Kevin |title=Undercurrents of Power Aquatic Culture in the African Diaspora |date=March 20, 2018 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9780812249897 |pages=99–103, 108 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyVJDwAAQBAJ |chapter=African Canoe-Makers: Constructing Floating Cultures |doi=10.9783/9780812294781 |oclc=994296486 |s2cid=202315785}}</ref> The knowledge and understanding (e.g., [[hydrography]], [[marine geography]], how canoe navigation is affected by the depth of the water, tides in the ocean, currents, and winds) of West African canoers facilitated the skillful navigation of various channels of the regional river system, while engaging in activities such as trade and fishing.<ref name="Dawson" /> The construction schema for West African dugout canoes were also used among canoes in the [[Americas]] constructed by the [[African diaspora]].<ref name="Dawson" /> The sacredness of canoe-making is expressed in a proverb from [[Senegambia]]: "The blood of kings and the tears of the canoe-maker are sacred things which must not touch the ground."<ref name="Dawson" /> In addition to possessing economic value, West African dugout canoes also possessed a sociocultural and psychospiritual value.<ref name="Dawson" />

In 1735 CE, [[John Atkins (naval surgeon)|John Atkins]] observed: "Canoos are what used through the whole Coast for transporting Men and Goods."<ref name="Dawson" /> European [[rowboats]], which frequently capsized, were able to be outmaneuvered and outperformed in terms of speed by West African dugout canoes.<ref name="Dawson" /> Barbot stated, regarding West African canoers and West African dugout canoes, the "speed with which these people generally make these boats travel is beyond belief."<ref name="Dawson" /> [[Alvise Cadamosto|Alvise da Cadamosto]] also observed how "effortlessly" Portuguese [[caravel]]s were outperformed by [[Gambia]]n dugout canoes.<ref name="Dawson" /> The skill of [[Kru people|Kru canoers]] to be able to navigate the challenging conditions of the sea was also observed by Charles Thomas.<ref name="Dawson" />

Amid the 1590s CE, Komenda and [[Takoradi]] in [[Ghana]] served as production areas for dugout canoes made by the [[Ahanta people]].<ref name="Dawson" /> By 1679 CE, Barbot observed Takoradi to be "a major canoe-producing center, crafting dugouts capable of carrying up to eight tons."<ref name="Dawson" /> Between the 17th century CE and 18th century CE, a production area and/or marketplace of dugout canoes was in [[Shama, Ghana|Shama]], which later became only a marketplace on Supome Island.<ref name="Dawson" /> Amid the 1660s CE, in addition to other local canoers manufacturing dugout canoes, the [[Efutu people|Fetu people]] were observed by Muller as having bought dugout canoes that were made by the Ahanta people.<ref name="Dawson" />

West Africans (e.g., [[Ghana]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Senegal]]) and western Central Africans (e.g., [[Cameroon]]) independently developed the skill of [[surfing]].<ref name="Dawson II">{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=Kevin |title=Undercurrents of Power Aquatic Culture in the African Diaspora |date=March 20, 2018 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9780812249897 |pages=28–30 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyVJDwAAQBAJ |chapter=Cultural Meanings of Recreational Swimming and Surfing |doi=10.9783/9780812294781 |oclc=994296486 |s2cid=202315785}}</ref> Amid the 1640s CE, Michael Hemmersam provided an account of surfing in the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]]: "the parents 'tie their children to boards and throw them into the water.{{'"}}<ref name="Dawson II" /> In 1679 CE, Barbot provided an account of surfing among [[Elmina]] children in Ghana: "children at Elmina learned "to swim, on bits of boards, or small bundles of rushes, fasten'd under their stomachs, which is a good diversion to the spectators."<ref name="Dawson II" /> James Alexander provided an account of surfing in [[Accra]], Ghana in 1834 CE: "From the beach, meanwhile, might be seen boys swimming into the sea, with light boards under their stomachs. They waited for a surf; and came rolling like a cloud on top of it. But I was told that sharks occasionally dart in behind the rocks and 'yam' them."<ref name="Dawson II" /> Thomas Hutchinson provided an account of surfing in southern [[Cameroon]] in 1861: "Fishermen rode small dugouts 'no more than six feet in length, fourteen to sixteen inches in width, and from four to six inches in depth.{{'"}}<ref name="Dawson II" />

==Asia==
{{See also|Outrigger canoe|Dragon boat}}
[[File:Dugout Canoe Excavated at Kuahuqiao Site of Hangzhou 02 2014-07.JPG|thumb|Remains of an 8000-year-old dugout excavated in China]]

An 8000-year-old dugout canoe was found by archaeologists in [[Kuahuqiao]], [[Zhejiang Province]], in east China.<ref>Leping Jiang & Li Liu, [http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/liu305/ The discovery of an 8000-year-old dugout canoe at Kuahuqiao in the Lower Yangzi River, China.] 2005 antiquity.ac.uk</ref> This is the earliest canoe found in Asia.

The Moken, an ethnic group that lives in Myanmar's Mergui Archipelago and the north of Thailand as sea nomads, still builds and uses dugout canoes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burmaboating.com/cruising-area/|title=Mergui Archipelago|work=Burma Boating: Sailing Holidays, Yacht Charters and Private Cruises in Myanmar & Beyond}}</ref> According to the Moken's accounts of their people's origin, a mythical queen punished the forbidden love of their ancestral forefather for his sister-in-law by banishing him and his descendants to life on sea in dugout canoes with indentations fore and aft ("a mouth that eats and a rear that defecates"), symbolizing the unending cycle of ingestion, digestion and evacuation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burmaboating.com/the-mergui-archipelago-and-the-moken/|title=The Mergui Archipelago and The Moken|work=Burma Boating: Sailing Holidays, Yacht Charters and Private Cruises in Myanmar & Beyond|date=8 October 2013}}</ref>

A centuries-old unfinished dugout boat, a big banca (five tons, measuring {{Convert|12|m|ft|sp=us}} by {{Convert|2|m|ft|sp=us}} by {{Convert|1.5|m|ft|sp=us}}) was accidentally retrieved in November 2010 by Mayor Ricardo Revita at Barangay Casanicolasan, [[Rosales, Pangasinan]], [[Philippines]], in Lagasit River, near [[Agno River]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philstar.com/nation/632462/centuries-old-wooden-boat-retrieved-pangasinan|title=Centuries-old wooden boat retrieved in Pangasinan|work=philstar.com}}</ref> It is now on display in front of the Municipal Town Hall.

[[File:Kondakarla ava boatman.jpg|thumb|Fisherman in [[Kondakarla Ava]]]]
Dugout canoes are one of the most used traditional fishing vessels in India. Forest Department at [[Kolleru Lake]] held various contests with the dugout canoe among local fishing communities. In an era where the traditional canoe faces extinction, the boat race saw 22 participants. They also noted that within two decades, there were over 1,000 dugout canoes employed for fishing in the lake. Now, their count has dwindled to less than a hundred.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Staff Reporter |date=2018-02-03 |title=Boat race brings back memories of life in Kolleru |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/boat-race-brings-back-memories-of-life-in-kolleru/article22647243.ece |access-date=2024-05-12 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Europe==
[[File:Boomstamkano van Pesse, Drents Museum, 1955-VIII-2.jpg|thumb|The [[Pesse canoe]] is the world's oldest known dugout]]
[[File:Dlubanka swidnica 2.jpg|thumb|Slavic dugout from the 10th century]]
[[File:Dołbanka.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian dugout (dowbanka) from the end of the 19th century]]
[[File:Building a Dugout Canoe.jpg|thumb|Building a dugout in Estonia]]
[[File:Komyaga - Boat of Peter the Great museum.jpg|thumb|Twin dugout, Russia, late 19th century]]

In ancient Europe many dugouts were made from [[Tilia cordata|linden wood]], for several reasons. First, linden trees were abundant in the Paleolithic after the melting of the [[Last glacial period|Weichselian glaciation]] and readily available. Secondly, linden grew to be one of the tallest trees in the forests of the time, making it easier to build longer boats. Linden wood also lends itself well to carving and doesn't split or crack easily. It is also lighter than most other tree types in European [[old-growth forest]]s, and for this reason, boats made from linden wood have a better cargo capacity and are easier to carry.

The [[Pesse canoe]], found in the [[Netherlands]], is a dugout which is believed to be the world's oldest boat, carbon dated to between 8040 BCE and 7510 BCE. Other dugouts discovered in the Netherlands include two in the province of [[North Holland]]: in 2003, near [[Uitgeest]], dated at 617-600 BC;<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://collectie.huisvanhilde.nl/#3e67367a-130e-4c79-b4c0-042b50db4c32 |title=Kano |website=[[Huis van Hilde]] |language=nl |access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> and in 2007, near [[Den Oever]], dated at 3300-3000 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://collectie.huisvanhilde.nl/#fe19ab24-31e5-46f0-8942-7de6edf3d4bd |title=Kano |website=[[Huis van Hilde]] |language=nl |access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref>

Dugouts have also been found in [[Germany]]. In [[German language|German]], the craft is known as ''Einbaum'' (one-tree). In the old Hanseatic town of [[Stralsund]], three log-boats were excavated in 2002. Two of the boats were around 7,000 years old and are the oldest boats found in the Baltic area. The third boat (6,000 years old) was {{Convert|12|m|ft|sp=us}} long and holds the record as the longest dugout in the region. The finds have partly deteriorated due to poor storage conditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/4149354|title=The Terminal Mesolithic and Early Neolithic log boats of Stralsund-Mischwasserspeicher (Hansestadt Stralsund, Fpl. 225). Evidence of early waterborne transport on the German Southern Baltic coast|author=Stefanie Klooss|date=January 2009}}</ref><ref>Kaute, P., G. Schindler & H. Lobke. 2004. "Der endmesolithisch/fruhneolithische Fundplatz Stralsund-Mischwasserspeicher--Zeugnisse fruher Bootsbautechnologie an der Ostseekuste Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns. Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern" (52: 221-41) {{in lang|de}}</ref>

In 1991, remains of a linden wood log-boat of nearly {{Convert|6|m|ft|sp=us}} were found at [[Männedorf]]-Strandbad in [[Switzerland]] at [[Lake Zürich]]. The boat has since been dated to be 6,500 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jkoeninger.de/file/nau9/Eberschweiler_E.pdf |title=Einbäume aus Zürcher Gewässern - Ulmer Museum |year=2002 |access-date=2013-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201063147/http://jkoeninger.de/file/nau9/Eberschweiler_E.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1902 an oak logboat over {{Convert|15|m|ft|sp=us}} long and {{Convert|1|m|ft|sp=us}} wide, was found at [[Addergoole Bog]], [[Lurgan]], [[County Galway]], Ireland, and delivered to the [[National Museum of Ireland]]. The Lurgan boat radiocarbon date was 3940 +/- 25 BP. The boat has holes suggesting that it had an outrigger or was joined to another boat.

In 2012, at [[Parc Glyndwr]], [[Monmouth]], Monmouthshire, Wales, an excavation by the [[Monmouth Archaeological Society]], revealed three ditches suggesting a Neolithic dugout trimaran of similar length to the Lurgan log boat, carbon dated to 3700+/-35 BP.<ref>Clark S, Monmouth Archeological Society. The Lost Lake evidence of Prehistoric Boat Building, 2013 ({{ISBN|978-0-9558242-2-7}})</ref>

''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'' details how the [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] built monoxyla that they sold to [[Rus people|Rus']] in [[Kiev]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html|title=Of the Pechenegs, and how many advantages}}</ref> These boats were then used against the [[Byzantine Empire]] during the [[Rus'–Byzantine War (860)|Rus'–Byzantine Wars]] of the 9th and 10th centuries. They used dugouts to attack [[Constantinople]] and to withdraw into their lands with bewildering speed and mobility. Hence, the name of Δρομίται ("people on the run") applied to the [[Kievan Rus'|Rus]] in some Byzantine sources. The monoxyla were often accompanied by larger galleys, that served as command and control centres. Each Slavic dugout could hold from 40 to 70 warriors.

The [[Cossacks]] of the [[Zaporozhian Host]] were also renowned for their artful use of dugouts, which issued from the [[Dnieper]] to raid the shores of the [[Black Sea]] in the 16th and 17th centuries. Using small, shallow-draft, and highly maneuverable galleys known as ''[[chaika (boat)|chaiky]]'', they moved swiftly across the Black Sea. According to the Cossacks' own records, these vessels, carrying a 50 to 70 man crew, could reach the coast of [[Anatolia]] from the [[Berezan Island|mouth of the Dnieper River]] in forty hours.

More than 40 pre-historic log-boats have been found in the [[Czech Republic]]. The latest discovery was in 1999 of a {{Convert|10|m|ft|sp=us}} long log-boat in [[Mohelnice]]. It was cut out of a single oak log and has a width of {{Convert|1.05|m|ft|sp=us}}. The log-boat has been dated to around 1000 BC and is kept at the Mohelnice Museum (Museum of National History). Geographically, Czech log-boat sites and remains are clustered along the [[Elbe]] and [[Morava (river)|Morava]] rivers.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/1365226|title=Logboats from Bohemia and Moravia, Czech Republic|author=Jason Rogers|journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology|year=2009}}</ref>

Poland is known for so-called ''Lewin''-type log-boats, found at [[Lewin Brzeski]], [[Koźle]] and [[Roszowicki Las]] accordingly, and associated with the [[Przeworsk culture]] in the early centuries CE. Lewin logboats are characterized by a square or trapezoidal cross-section, rectangular hull-ends and low height of the sides in relation to vessel length. In addition, nearly all the Lewin-type boats have a single hole in the bow and two at the stern. The low height is a result of the parent log being split lengthwise in half, in order to obtain two identical timbers from a single trunk. The advantage lies in the resulting identical twin hulls, which are then joined to form a double-hulled raft. The paired hulls were joined by transverse poles, which did not go through the holes in the platform ends but were fastened to the top walls or in special grooves at the hull ends. These vessels were typically {{Convert|7|m|ft|sp=us}}–{{Convert|12|m|ft|sp=us}} in length, and the largest of them could carry up to 1.5 tons of cargo because of the special design.<ref name="Jason">{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/1384861|title=Czech Logboats: Early Inland Watercraft from Bohemia and Moravia|author=Jason Rogers}}</ref><ref>"Radiocarbon and Dendrochronological Dating of Logboats from Poland" Radiocarbon, Vol 43, Nr 2A, 2001, p 403–415 (Proceedings of the 17th International 14C Conference)</ref>

Many pre-historic dugout boats have been found in [[Scandinavia]]. These boats were used for transport on calmer bodies of water, fishing and maybe occasionally for whaling and sealing. Dugouts require no metal parts, and were common amongst the [[Nordic Stone Age|Stone Age]] people in Northern Europe until large trees suitable for making this type of watercraft became scarce. Length was limited to the size of trees in the old-growth forests—up to {{convert|12|m|ft}} in length. In [[Denmark]] in 2001, and some years prior to that, a few dugout canoes of [[Tilia cordata|linden wood]], were unearthed in a large-scale archaeological excavation project in Egådalen, north of [[Aarhus]]. They have been carbon dated to the years 5210-4910 BCE and they are the oldest known boats in [[Northern Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/motorvejen/gammel/dk020302.html|title=Arkæologien under motorvejen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/10/1062902114336.html|title='Viking era' dugout boat found in Norway|date=10 September 2003}}</ref> In Scandinavia, later models increased freeboard (and seaworthiness) by lashing additional boards to the side of the dugout. Eventually, the dugout portion was reduced to a solid [[keel]], and the lashed boards on the sides became a [[Clinker (boat building)|lapstrake]] hull.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jasen01/texts/longship.htm|title=The Viking Longship}}</ref>

In the [[United Kingdom]], two log boats were discovered in [[Newport, Shropshire]], and are now on display at [[Harper Adams University]] Newport. The [[Iron Age]] residents of [[Great Britain]], were known to have used longboats for fishing and basic trade. In 1964, a logboat was uncovered in [[Poole Harbour]], [[Dorset]]. The [[Poole Logboat]] dated to 300 BC, was large enough to accommodate 18 people and was constructed from a giant [[oak tree]]. It is currently located in the [[Poole Museum]]. An even older logboat (the [[Hanson Log Boat|Hanson log boat]]) was unearthed in 1998 in Shardlow south of [[Derby]]. It has been dated to the [[Bronze Age]]s around 1500 BCE and is now exhibited at [[Derby Museum and Art Gallery]]. There was another pre-historic boat at the same location, but it was buried ''[[in situ]]''.

In [[Northern Europe]], the tradition of making dugout canoes survived into the 20th and 21st centuries in [[Estonia]], where seasonal floods in [[Soomaa]], a {{Convert|390|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} [[wilderness]] area, make conventional means of transportation impossible. In recent decades, a new surge of interest in crafting dugouts ([[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''haabjas'') has revitalized the ancient tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://haabjas.blogspot.com/|title=Haabjas - Estonian Dugout Canoe|author=Aivar Ruukel}}</ref> In December 2021 dugout boat culture of Estonia's Soomaa region was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/culture/dugout-boat-culture-of-estonias-soomaa-region-added-to-unescos-intangible-cultural-heritage-list/|title=Estonian World|author=Silver Tambur|date=15 December 2021 }}</ref>

==The Americas==
[[File:Dugout canoe manner boats de bry.jpg|thumb|Native Americans making a dugout canoe, 1590]]
[[File:Imm023 14.jpg|thumb|Contemporary seagoing dugout from the Pacific Northwest]]
{{main article|Pacific Northwest canoes|Lenape canoes}}

Dugout canoes were constructed by [[Indigenous peoples of North America|indigenous people]] throughout the Americas, where suitable logs were available.

The Native Americans of the [[Pacific Northwest]] were and are still very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for [[totem pole]]s up to {{convert|24|m|ft|sp=us|round=5}} tall, they also construct dugout canoes over {{convert|18|m|ft|sp=us|round=5}} long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mle.matsuk12.us/american-natives/nw/nw.html|title=Meadow Lakes Elementary / Overview|access-date=2006-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823030619/http://mle.matsuk12.us/american-natives/nw/nw.html|archive-date=2017-08-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], dugout canoes are traditionally made from huge [[cedar wood|cedar]] logs (such as [[Pacific red cedar]]) for ocean travelers, while natives around smaller rivers use spruce logs. Cedar logs have a resilience in salt water much greater than spruce.

In 1978, Geordie Tocher and two companions sailed a dugout canoe (the ''Orenda II''), based on [[Haida people|Haida]] designs (but with sails), from [[Vancouver|Vancouver, British Columbia]], Canada to [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]. The dugout was {{convert|40|ft|m|adj=on}} long, made of [[Douglas fir]], and weighed {{convert|3.5|ST|MT|adj=on}}. The mission was launched to add credibility to stories that the Haida had travelled to Hawai{{okina}}i in ancient times. Altogether, the group ventured some {{Convert|7242|km|mi}} after two months at sea.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert |last=Stall |title=A man, a tree and an ocean to cross |journal=Maclean's |date=5 March 1979 |pages=4–6}}</ref><ref>Peter Sp{{cite news |first=Peter |last=Speck |title=Orenda recalled |work=North Shore News |date=22 November 1978 |pages=2 and 12}}</ref>

==Oceania==
{{See also|Outrigger canoe|Māori migration canoes|Waka (canoe)}}
[[File:Maori canoe (waka) in the Otago Museum, 2016-01-29.jpg|thumb|Māori [[Waka (canoe)|waka]] canoe in a museum]]

===Pacific Islands===
The [[Pacific Ocean]] has been the nursery for many different forms of dugout sailing craft. They differ in their sail plan (i.e., crab-claw or half-crab-claw, Latin, or triangular), hull formats (single, double, catamaran or proa), the absence or presence of a beam (a bridge for a double hull). Hull shapes and end forms vary greatly. Masts can "be right or made of double spars." Hulls can be constructed by assembling boards or digging out tree trunks. Intended use (fish, war, sea voyage) and geographical features (beach, lagoon, reefs) are reflected in the design. Importantly, there is an important dividing line: some craft use a [[Tacking (sailing)|tacking rig]]; others "shunt" that is change tack "by reversing the sail from one end of the hull to the other." Tacking rigs are similar to those seen in most parts of the world, but shunting rigs change tack by reversing the sail from one end of the hull to the other and sailing in the opposite direction (the "[[Pushmi-pullyu]]" of the sailing world).<ref name="Louis">{{cite web |url=http://philateliemarine.fr/phil_mar_e/canoes.htm |title=Pacific islands sailing canoes |first1=Jean |last1=Louis |publisher=webring.com |access-date=January 18, 2016}}</ref>

In the [[Pacific Island]]s, dugout canoes are very large, made from whole mature trees and fitted with [[outrigger]]s for increased stability in the ocean, and were once used for long-distance travel.<ref name=johns/>

===New Zealand===
The very large [[Waka (canoe)|waka]] is used by [[Māori people]], who came to [[New Zealand]] probably from East [[Polynesia]] in about 1280. Such vessels carried 40 to 80 warriors in calm sheltered coastal waters or rivers. It is believed that trans-ocean voyages were made in Polynesian catamarans and one hull, carbon-dated to about 1400, was found in New Zealand in 2011.<ref name=johns>Johns D. A., Irwin G. J. and Sung Y. K. (2014) [http://www.pnas.org/content/111/41/14728.full "An early sophisticated East Polynesian voyaging canoe discovered on New Zealand's coast"] ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', '''111''' (41): 14728–14733. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.1408491111}}</ref> In New Zealand smaller waka were made from a single log, often [[Podocarpus totara|totara]], because of its lightness, strength and resistance to rotting. Larger waka were made of about seven parts lashed together with flax rope. All waka are characterized by very low freeboard. In [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]], ''wa{{okina}}a'' (canoes) are traditionally manufactured from the trunk of the [[Acacia koa|koa]] tree. They typically carry a crew of six: one steersman and five paddlers.

===Australasia===
{{see also|Aboriginal dugout canoe}}
The [[Australian Aboriginal]] people began using dugout canoes from around 1640 in coastal regions of northern Australia. They were brought by [[Bugis|Buginese]] fishers of [[sea cucumber]]s, known as [[trepanger]]s, from [[Makassar]] in [[South Sulawesi]].<ref name=marshall>{{cite book|url=https://library.dbca.wa.gov.au/static/FullTextFiles/924788.pdf|title=Macassan History and Heritage: Journeys, Encounters and Influences|editor-first1=Marshall|editor-last1= Clark |editor-first2= Sally K. |editor-last2=May|isbn=9781922144966|publisher=ANU Press|date=2013|access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref> In [[Arnhem Land]], dugout canoes are used by the local [[Yolngu people]], called ''lipalipa'' <ref name=buku>{{cite web|url=https://hollowlogdidgeridoos.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Djalu-Gurruwiwi.pdf|title=Djalu' Gurruwiwi|publisher=Buku-Larrnggay Mulka Centre|via=Hollow Logs Didgeridoos|date=2015|access-date=19 January 2020|archive-date=19 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119082252/https://hollowlogdidgeridoos.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Djalu-Gurruwiwi.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> or ''lippa-lippa''.<ref name=marshall/>

[[Torres Strait Islander]] people used a [[double outrigger]], unique to their area and probably introduced from [[New Guinea|Papuan]] communities and later modified. It was about {{convert|14 |metres}} long, with two [[bamboo]] masts and sails made of [[pandanus]]-mat. They could sail as far as {{convert|80|km}} and carry up to 12 people.<ref name=creative>{{cite web | last=Korff | first=Jens  | title=Torres Strait Islander culture | website=Creative Spirits | date=5 November 2019 | url=https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/torres-strait-islander-culture | access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref>

===Solomon Islanders===
The [[Solomon Island]]ers have used and continue to use dugout canoes to travel between islands. In [[World War II]] these were used during the Japanese occupation - with their small visual and noise signatures these were among the smallest boats used by the Allied forces in World War II. After the sinking of [[Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109|''PT-109'']], [[Biuku Gasa]] reached the shipwrecked [[John F. Kennedy]] by dugout.

==See also==
* [[Log canoe]]
* [[Traditional fishing boat]]
* [[Tomol]], Chumash plank-built boat

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Monoxylons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040408213542/http://cma.soton.ac.uk/HistShip/shlect11.htm Fundamental origins of ship types]
* [http://www.abc.se/~m10354/bld/int-repl.htm Ship replicas in the world]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927163754/http://www.modestmoose.ca/geordie_tocher.htm For more information on Tocher's voyage]

{{Ancient seafaring}}
{{Sailing vessels and rigs}}
{{fishing vessel topics}}
{{Culture of Oceania}}
{{Shipbuilding-Footer}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indigenous boats]]
[[Category:Wood products]]
[[Category:Canoes]]