View source for Edo

{{about|historical Tokyo|the city in Nigeria also known historically as Edo|Benin City|other uses}}
{{redirect|Edo, Japan|Japan's history under the Tokugawa shogunate|Edo Japan}}
{{Redirect-distinguish-for|Yeddo|Yedda|the community in the United States|Yeddo, Indiana}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=June 2023}}{{Infobox settlement
|official_name          = Edo
|native_name            = {{nobold|江戸 (えど)}}
|native_name_lang       = ja
|nickname               = 
|settlement_type        = Former city
|motto                  =
|image_skyline          = Edo P.jpg
|imagesize              = 300px
|image_caption          = [[Folding screen]] view of Edo in the 17th century, showing [[Edo Castle]] on the upper right corner
|image_flag             =
|flag_size              =
|image_seal             =
|seal_size              =
|image_shield           =
|shield_size            =
|image_map              = Location TokyoJapan.jpg
|map_caption            = Location of the former city of Edo
|pushpin_map            = 
|pushpin_map_caption    =
|subdivision_type       = Country
|subdivision_name       = [[Tokugawa shogunate|Japan]]
|subdivision_type1      = [[Provinces of Japan|Province]]
|subdivision_name1      = [[Musashi Province|Musashi]]
|subdivision_type2      =
|subdivision_name2      =
|government_footnotes   =
|government_type        = 
|leader_title           = Type of leader
|leader_name            = [[Feudal monarchy|Feudal government]]
|leader_title1          = 
|leader_name1           =
|established_title      = [[Edo Castle]] built
|established_date       = 1457
|established_title2     = Capital of Japan <small>(''[[De facto]]'')</small>
|established_date2      = 1603
|established_title3     = Renamed [[Tokyo]]
|established_date3      = 1868
|unit_pref              = 
|area_footnotes         =
|area_total_km2         = 
|area_land_km2          = 
|area_water_km2         =
|area_water_percent     =
|population_as_of               = 1721
|population_footnotes           = <ref name=Sansom/>
|population_note                =
|population_total               = 1000000
|population_density_km2         =
|timezone                        =
|utc_offset                      =
|timezone_DST           =
|utc_offset_DST         =
|coordinates            = {{coord|35|41|02|N|139|46|28|E|region:JP|display=inline,title}}
|elevation_footnotes    = 
|elevation_m            =
|footnotes              =
}}
'''Edo''' ({{langx|ja|{{linktext|江戸}}||bay-entrance" or "[[estuary]]}}), also [[Romanization of Japanese|romanized]] as '''Jedo''', '''Yedo''' or '''Yeddo''', is the [[geographical renaming|former name]] of [[Tokyo]].<ref>US Department of State. (1906). [https://archive.org/details/digestofinternat05mooriala/page/751  ''A digest of international law as embodied in diplomatic discussions, treaties and other international agreements'' (John Bassett Moore, ed.), Vol. 5, p. 759]; excerpt, "The Mikado, on assuming the exercise of power at Yedo, changed the name of the city to Tokio".</ref>

Far beyond being just the seat of government, Edo matured into an unparalleled early‑modern metropolis under the Tokugawa shogunate. By the early 18th century, its population is believed to have exceeded '''1 million''' — making it, by many estimates, the largest city in the world at the time. <ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.library.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/portals/0/edo/tokyo_library/english/machi/page3-1.html | title=The Emergence of "Greater Edo" (Ōedo) | publisher=Tokyo Metoropolitan Library | access-date=November 17, 2025 }}</ref>

The city’s dramatic growth was the result of deliberate statecraft: reclaimed land from Edo Bay, meticulously planned streets, vast samurai estates, and a well‑engineered system of waterways. These elements supported a thriving society of samurai, townspeople (chōnin), and artisans, and enabled a dynamic economy, a rich urban culture, and sophisticated public order.

After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the city was renamed Tokyo ("Eastern Capital"), and the emperor relocated from Kyoto. The Edo period (1603‑1868) left a legacy of urban brilliance whose echoes shaped modern Tokyo.

==History==

=== Before Tokugawa ===
Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area. That name for the area first appears in the [[Azuma Kagami]] chronicles, which have probably been used since the second half of the [[Heian period]]. Edo's development started in the late 11th century with a branch of the {{Nihongo|2=桓武平氏|Kanmu-[[Taira]] clan}} called the {{Nihongo|Chichibu clan|秩父氏}} coming from the banks of the then-[[Iruma River]], present-day upstream of the Arakawa river. A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name {{Nihongo|Edo Shigetsugu|江戸重継}}, likely based on the name used for the place, and founded the [[Edo clan]]. Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the edge of the [[Musashino Plateau|Musashino Terrace]], that would become Edo castle. Shigetsugu's son, {{Nihongo|[[Edo Shigenaga]]|江戸重長}}, took the Taira's side against [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] in 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became a [[gokenin]] for the [[Kamakura shogunate]]. At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of the [[Southern Court]], and its influence declined during the [[Muromachi period]].

In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of the [[Uesugi clan]] started to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the name [[Ōta Dōkan]]. Dōkan lived in the castle until his assassination in 1486. Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, [[Odawara]] and other parts of [[Kantō region|Kanto]] and the country, Edo expanded as a ''[[jōkamachi]]'', with the castle bordering a cove (now [[Hibiya Park]]) opening into [[Tokyo Bay|Edo Bay]], and the town developing along the Hirakawa River running into the cove, and on {{Nihongo|''Edomaeto''|江戸前島}}, the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (now roughly where [[Tokyo Station]] is). Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after the [[Ōnin War]] came to Edo during that period.

After the death of Dōkan, the castle became one of strongholds of the Uesugi clan, which fell to the [[Later Hōjō clan]] at the [[Siege of Edo|battle of Takanawahara]] in 1524, during the expansion of their rule over the Kantō area. 

When the Hōjō clan was finally defeated by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] in 1590, the Kanto area was given to rule to Toyotomi's senior officer [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who took his residence in Edo.

=== Ieyasu’s Initial Urban Vision and the Transformation of an Unformed Settlement (1590–1603) ===
[[File:Tokugawa Ieyasu2.JPG|thumb|right|[[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]]]
When Tokugawa Ieyasu first entered Edo in 1590, the area was not yet a town or city in any meaningful sense. What existed was a small fortified residence—commonly called “Edo Castle” (Edo-jō)—consisting of only a handful of (small) buildings standing on the edge of the [[Musashino Plateau]]. To the east of the residence stretched nothing but wetlands, tidal inlets, marshes, and patches of undeveloped wasteland. There was no urban district, no planned streets, and no concentrated population.

Recognizing the strategic potential of the site, Ieyasu immediately initiated surveys of the surrounding topography, focusing on the plateau, the Hibiya inlet（日比谷入り江）, and the low-lying marshland east of the "castle". These surveys formed the basis of his first deliberate urban plan. Under his direction, early engineering works began: preliminary modification of the Hibiya inlet, initial attempts to redirect the Hirakawa River, and the earliest stages of constructing outer moats and functional canals.

Although large-scale land reclamation and restructuring would accelerate only after Ieyasu’s victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the fundamental ''conceptual blueprint'' for transforming Edo from an undeveloped landscape into a governable urban center was already established during this period. This development was not spontaneous or natural—Edo’s growth began as an intentional political and military project shaped directly by <u>Ieyasu’s vision</u> and administrative control.

=== Tokugawa shogunate ===
{{See also|Edo period}}
[[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] emerged as the paramount warlord of the [[Sengoku period]] following his victory at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in October 1600. He formally founded the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 and established his headquarters at [[Edo Castle]]. Edo became the center of political power and the ''de facto'' capital of Japan, although the historic capital of [[Kyoto]] remained the ''[[de jure]]'' capital as the seat of the emperor. Edo grew from a fishing village in [[Musashi Province]] in 1457 into the largest [[metropolis]] in the world, with an estimated population of 1 million by 1721.<ref name="Sansom">Sansom, George. ''A History of Japan: 1615–1867'', p. 114.</ref><ref>Gordon, Andrew. (2003). ''A Modern History of Japan from Tokugawa Times to the Present'', p. 23.</ref>

;The Great Reconstruction (1603–1630s)
After the shogunate was firmly established and especially after 1615, the Tokugawa regime undertook massive expansion works under ''Tenka-Bushin'' ([[:ja:天下普請|天下普請]]) : 
* Expansion of Edo Castle into one of the largest fortified complexes in the world
* Large-scale cutting of the Musashino Plateau for earth
* Reclamation of coastlines throughout Edo Bay ([[Nihonbashi]], [[Kyōbashi]], [[Tsukiji]], etc.)
* Excavation of the [[Kanda River]]
* Construction of a vast water-control and canal network
The city expanded primarily eastward into reclaimed land, forming the basis of ''Shitamachi'' (下町), where townspeople (chōnin, 町人) lived and worked.
Large-scale construction after 1600 was undertaken through shogunate-imposed public works known as ''Tenka-bushin'' (天下普請), which were financed and carried out by the [[daimyō]]s and their retainers. Although commonly described as “public works”, these projects were in fact compulsory obligations: the shogunate issued the plans, and the daimyō were required to allocate enormous funds and mobilize their retainer bands or hired laborers to execute them. This system enabled
the Tokugawa regime to reshape Edo’s topography on a massive scale, transforming wetlands and coastal shallows into new urban districts.

These early projects laid the conceptual and physical groundwork for Edo's later transformation into a major political and urban center.

;Development under the Second Shogun, Tokugawa Hidetada (1605–1623)
Under [[Tokugawa Hidetada]], Edo's urban planning was expanded and systematized. Key developments during his tenure included:
* Expansion of Edo Castle's administrative and residential compounds
* Systematic layout of streets, bridges, and residential quarters for samurai, townspeople (chōnin), and temple/shrine precincts
* Early water supply initiatives, including preliminary works that would later contribute to the Kanda and Tamagawa waterworks
* Continued reclamation and development of lowlands along the eastern riverbanks
Hidetada's efforts consolidated Edo's status as the shogunate’s administrative center and improved the city's livability, particularly for samurai and townspeople alike.

;Development under the Third Shogun, Tokugawa Iemitsu (1623–1651)
[[Tokugawa Iemitsu]] oversaw the most ambitious infrastructural developments to date, with large-scale urban engineering projects and water supply systems. Notable accomplishments included:
* Construction of the '''[[Tamagawa Aqueduct]]''' (''Tamagawa-jōsui'', 玉川上水), completed in 1653, which transported water from the [[Tama River]] to Edo for drinking and firefighting purposes
* Expansion of the [[Kanda Aqueduct]] (Kanda-jōsui, [[:ja:神田上水|神田上水]]) to supply central districts, temples, and shrines
* Extensive canal and moat works connecting rivers and facilitating transport and flood control
* Further reclamation of coastal and marshland areas, enabling new districts to be established, particularly in the ''Shitamachi'' (下町) region
* Reinforcement and expansion of Edo Castle fortifications, as well as improved road access linking the castle to provincial routes
These projects under Iemitsu not only ensured reliable water supply and sanitation but also transformed Edo’s topography into a structured, resilient urban landscape capable of supporting a rapidly growing population. By mid-17th century, Edo had become one of the largest and most systematically planned cities in the world, setting the stage for its peak population and urban complexity in the 18th century.

{{Gallery|width=350px
|File:Famous-Places-of-Edo-1803-Kuwagata-Shoshin.jpg|Famous places of Edo in 1803
|File:Edo 1844-1848 Map.jpg|Map of Edo in the 1840s
}}

==Urbanism==
Very quickly after its inception, the shogunate undertook major works in Edo that drastically changed the topography of the area, notably under the {{Nihongo|Tenka-Bushin|天下普請}} nationwide program of major civil works involving the now pacified ''[[Daimyo|daimyō]]'' workforce. The Hibiya cove facing the castle was soon filled after the arrival of Ieyasu, the Hirakawa river was diverted, and several protective moats and logistical canals were dug (including the [[Kanda River|Kanda river]]), to limit the risks of flooding. [[Land reclamation|Landfill works]] on the bay began, with several areas reclaimed during the duration of the shogunate (notably the Tsukiji area). East of the city and of the [[Sumida River]], a massive network of canals was dug.

Fresh water was a major issue, as direct wells would provide brackish water because of the location of the city over an estuary. The few fresh water ponds of the city were put to use, and a network of canals and underground wooden pipes bringing freshwater from the western side of the city and the [[Tama River]] was built. Some of this infrastructure was used until the 20th century.

=== General layout of the city ===
The city was laid out as a castle town around Edo Castle, which was positioned at the tip of the [[Musashino Terrace|Musashino terrace]]. The area in the immediate proximity of the castle consisted of samurai and ''daimyō'' residences, whose families lived in Edo as part of the ''[[sankin-kōtai]]'' system; the ''daimyō'' made journeys in alternating years to Edo and used the residences for their entourages. The location of each residence was carefully attributed depending on their position as [[Tozama daimyō|''tozama'']], ''[[Shinpan (daimyo)|shinpan]]'' or [[Fudai daimyō|''fudai'']]. It was this extensive organization of the city for the samurai class which defined the character of Edo, particularly in contrast to the two major cities of Kyoto and [[Osaka]], neither of which were ruled by a ''daimyō'' or had a significant samurai population. Kyoto's character was defined by the Imperial Court, the [[kuge|court nobles]], its Buddhist temples and its history; Osaka was the country's commercial center, dominated by the ''[[chōnin]]'' or the merchant class. On the contrary, the samurai and ''daimyō'' residences occupied up to 70% of the area of Edo. On the east and northeast sides of the castle lived the {{Nihongo|''chōnin'' |町人|4="townspeople"}} including {{Nihongo|''shomin'' |庶民|4="commoner"}} in a much more densely populated area than the samurai class area, organized in a series of gated communities called ''machi'' (町, "town" or "village"). This area, [[Yamanote and Shitamachi|Shitamachi]] (下町, "lower town" or "lower towns"), was the center of urban and merchant culture. Shomin also lived along the main roads leading in and out of the city. The Sumida River, then called the Great River (大川, ''Ōkawa''), ran on the eastern side of the city. The shogunate's official rice-storage warehouses<ref>Taxes, and samurai stipends, were paid not in [[Money|coin]], but in rice. See ''[[koku]]''.</ref> and other official buildings were located here.

[[File:Hiroshige le pont Nihonbashi à l'aube.jpg|thumb|Nihonbashi in Edo, ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' print by [[Hiroshige]]|alt=Illustration of people crossing the wooden Edo Bridge]]
The {{Nihongo|[[Nihonbashi]] bridge|日本橋|4=lit. "bridge of Japan"}} marked the center of the city's commercial center and the starting point of the [[Edo Five Routes|gokaidō]] (thus making it the de facto "center of the country"). Fishermen, craftsmen and other producers and retailers operated here. Shippers managed ships known as ''tarubune'' to and from Osaka and other cities, bringing goods into the city or transferring them from sea routes to river barges or land routes.

The northeastern corner of the city was considered dangerous in the traditional ''[[onmyōdō]]'' cosmology and was protected from evil by a number of temples including [[Sensō-ji]] and [[Kan'ei-ji]], one of the two tutelary [[Bodaiji]] temples of the Tokugawa. A path and a canal, a short distance north of Sensō-ji, extended west from the Sumida riverbank leading along the northern edge of the city to the [[Yoshiwara]] pleasure district. Previously located near Ningyōchō, the district was rebuilt in this more remote location after the great fire of Meireki. Danzaemon, the hereditary position head of ''[[burakumin|eta]],'' or outcasts, who performed "unclean" works in the city resided nearby.

Temples and shrines occupied roughly 15% of the surface of the city, equivalent to the living areas of the townspeople, with however an average of one-tenth of its population. Temples and shrines were spread out over the city. Besides the large concentration in the northeast side to protect the city, the second Bodaiji of the Tokugawa, [[Zōjō-ji]] occupied a large area south of the castle.

=== Housing ===

==== Military caste ====
The samurai and ''daimyōs'' residential estates varied dramatically in size depending on their status. Some daimyōs could have several of those residences in Edo. The {{Nihongo|upper residence|上屋敷|kami-yashiki}}, was the main residence while the lord was in Edo and was used for official duties. It was not necessarily the largest of his residences, but the most convenient to commute to the castle. The upper residence also acted as the representative embassy of the domain in Edo, connecting the shogunate and the clan. The shogunate did not exercise its investigative powers inside the precincts of the residential estate of the upper residence, which could also act as a refuge. The estate of the upper residence was attributed by the shogunate according to the status of the clan and its relation with the Shogun. The {{Nihongo|middle residence|中屋敷|naka-yashiki}}, a bit further from the castle, could house the heir of the lord, his servants from his fief when he was in Edo for the [[Sankin-kōtai|sankin-kotai]] alternate residency, or be a hiding residence if needed. The {{Nihongo|lower residence|下屋敷|shimo-yashiki}}, if there was any, was on the outskirts of town, more of a pleasure retreat with gardens. The lower residence could also be used as a retreat for the lord if a fire had devastated the city. Some of the powerful ''daimyōs'' residences occupied vast grounds of several dozens of hectares. Maintenance and operations of those residential estates could be extremely expensive. Samurai in service of a specific clan would normally live in the residence of their lord.

The {{Lang|ja-latn|[[hatamoto]]}} samurais, in direct service of the Shogun, would have their own residences, usually located behind the castle on the Western side in the [[Banchō]] area.

{{wide image|Panorama of Edo bw.jpg|1666px|"Panorama of Edo" from ''Mount Atago''([[:ja:愛宕山 (東京都港区)|愛宕山]]), showing the [[daimyo]] residences. Photographed by [[Felice Beato]] around 1865–1866. This panorama, viewed from Atagoyama, captures Edo shortly before the Meiji Restoration. The Tokugawa shogunate, seeking to protect the city and its inhabitants, surrendered Edo peacefully. Nevertheless, the Meiji authorities subsequently ordered the demolition of many of the city’s grand daimyo residences, bringing an end to a cherished feudal landscape.}}


==== Townspeople ====
;The Common People
[[File:Edo Fukagawa 3.JPG|right|thumb|Typical　''roji'' and ''nagaya'' housing]]
[[File:Fukagawa Edo Museum on the 30th of october 2010 - 16.jpg|thumb|right|Interior of ''nagaya'' (長屋) in a display at the [[Fukagawa Edo Museum]], showing typical living spaces of Edo commoners]]
Edo was a city with three main social groups: samurai (samurai, 武士), monks (''sōryo'', 僧侶), and townspeople (''chōnin'', 町人). Among the townspeople, roughly 70% were commoners (shomin, 庶民), making up about half of the total population of Edo.<ref name="eonet">[https://www.eonet.ne.jp/~shoyu/mametisiki/reference-8.html 裏長屋の生活]</ref><ref name=Kikuchi-176>菊地 ひと美『江戸の暮らし図鑑：女性たちの日常』東京堂出版 2015,pp.176-177「長屋の住人」</ref> These commoners lived in modest wooden housing called ''[[Nagaya (architecture)|nagaya]]'' ([[:ja:長屋|長屋]]) or ''ura-nagaya''（裏長屋）, which were typically long, single-story row houses, often built along narrow back streets. The commoners who lived in these backstreet nagaya were mostly artisans, craftsmen, laborers, small shop workers, and other lower-income members of the city. Many worked as woodworkers, carpenters, potters, tailors, metalworkers, or food vendors, providing essential goods and services to the community. The larger and more affluent townspeople lived in spacious residences with shops facing the main streets.

The backstreets, or ''roji'' ([[:ja:路地|路地]]), were not merely narrow alleys for passage. They often widened behind their narrow entrances, forming communal spaces similar to [[:es:Cour# |Spanish patios or Italian cortile]]s. These roji served as multifunctional areas where children could play safely under the watchful eyes of their mothers. Women gathered around shared water basins to wash vegetables or laundry, and at the same time, exchanged gossip and news, observing their children at play. This intimate spatial arrangement fostered strong neighborhood ties and created a sense of community.<ref name="eonet" />

Each ''nagaya'' (長屋) or ''roji'' (路地) had a wooden gate called ''roji-kido'' (路地木戸) or ''nagaya-kido'' (長屋木戸) that could be locked at night. These gates were generally closed around 6 PM (kure-mutsu, 暮六つ) and reopened around 6 AM (ake-mutsu, 明六つ). <ref name="eonet" />　The keys were held by the nagaya owner or trusted neighbors, helping to prevent late-night intrusions. This system gave residents a sense of safety and helped prevent nighttime crime among the common people, playing a crucial role in maintaining overall public order in Edo.

;Shopkeepers and Landlords
In contrast to the compact and communal nagaya in the backstreets, more affluent townspeople operated shops along the main streets, known as ''omote-dana'' (表店). These shopkeepers, or ''ooya'' (大家, landlords/householders), maintained larger, often two-story buildings, where the first floor was used for business and the second floor for their living quarters. Their prominent placement along the main streets signified both wealth and social status, distinguishing them clearly from the commoners in the backstreets.

{{Wide image|'Kidai Shoran', Japanese handscroll c. 1805.jpg|6000 px|''[[Kidai shōran]]'': by scrolling left, the viewer can see the ''omote-dana''(表店), the shops and residences situated along Edo’s main streets.|alt=Kidai shōran: by scrolling left, the viewer can see the ''omote-dana''|dir=rtl}}

==Government and administration==
Edo's municipal government was under the responsibility of the ''[[rōjū]]'', the senior officials who oversaw the entire ''bakufu'' – the government of the Tokugawa shogunate. The administrative definition of Edo was called {{Nihongo|''Gofunai''|御府内|4=litt. "where the government is"}}.

The ''[[Kanjō-bugyō]]'' (finance commissioners) were responsible for the financial matters of the shogunate,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deal |first1=William E. |title=Handbook to life in medieval and early modern Japan |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195331264 |location=New York}}</ref> whereas the ''[[Jisha-bugyō|Jisha-Bugyō]]'' handled matters related to shrines and temples. The {{Nihongo|''[[Machi-bugyō]]''|町奉行}} were ''[[samurai]]'' (at the very beginning of the shogunate [[Daimyo|daimyōs]], later [[hatamoto]]) officials appointed to keep the order in the city, with the word designating both the heading magistrate, the magistrature and its organization. They were in charge of Edo's day-to-day administration, combining the role of police, judge and fire brigade. There were two offices, the South Machi-Bugyō and the North Machi-Bugyō, which had the same geographical jurisdiction in spite of their name but rotated roles on a monthly basis. Despite their extensive responsibilities, the teams of the Machi-Bugyō were rather small, with 2 offices of 125 people each. The Machi-Bugyō did not have jurisdiction over the samurai residential areas, which remained under the shogunate direct rule. The geographical jurisdiction of the Machi-Bugyō did not exactly coincide with the Gofunai, creating some complexity on the handling on the matters of the city. The Machi-bugyō oversaw the numerous Machi where shonin lived through representatives called {{Nihongo|''Machidoshiyori''|町年寄}}. Each Machi had a Machi leader called {{Nihongo|''[[Nanushi]]''|名主}}, who reported to a {{Nihongo|''Machidoshiyori''|町年寄}} who himself was in charge of several Machis.

== Transportation ==
=== Water Transportation ===  
[[File:100_views_edo_097.jpg|thumb|''Onagigawa''(Onagi River、[[:ja:小名木川|小名木川]])]]
Water transport served as the logistical backbone of Edo. Bulk cargo, such as rice, timber, charcoal, salt, and other necessities, was carried primarily by boat, since Edo was built on low‑lying terrain with numerous rivers and canals. Studies of urban hydrology estimate that Edo’s combined network of rivers, canals, and moats extended for roughly 160–200 kilometers, although the exact figure varies depending on definitional criteria.

A key artery in this network was the ''Onagigawa'' (Onagi River、[[:ja:小名木川|小名木川]]), an artificial canal ordered by Tokugawa Ieyasu soon after his arrival in Edo, to secure a salt supply route from Gyōtoku to the city.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://edokara.tokyo/conts/2017/04/08/167 | publisher=江戸から | title=江戸時代の運河、小名木川 |access-date=November 15, 2025}}</ref> The Onagigawa connected to the [[Kanda River]] (神田川) and the Nihonbashi River (日本橋川), forming part of a broader waterway system that linked Edo Castle, peripheral districts, and Edo Bay (present-day [[Tokyo Bay]]).<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.mlit.go.jp/river/kankyo/main/kankyou/machizukuri/utsukushiimizube/pdf/83-130001-16.pdf | title=江戸情緒を感じられる水辺の道 小名木川 | publisher=国土交通省 | access-date=November 15, 2025}}</ref> Historical studies of Edo logistics note that such canals were deliberately constructed to support large‑scale inland shipping. <ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ymf.or.jp/wp-content/themes/yamagata/images/56_7.pdf | title=江戸期における物流システム構築と都市の発展衰退 | access-date=November 15, 2025}}</ref>  

Landing points (“kashi”, [[:ja:河岸|河岸]]) along these waterways functioned as commercial hubs, each specialized in particular cargo—rice wharves, timber wharves, salt wharves, and so on.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ymf.or.jp/wp-content/themes/yamagata/images/56_7.pdf | author=苦瀬博仁 | title=江戸期における物流システム構築と都市の発展衰退 | access-date=November 15, 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Onagi River Aerial photograph 1984.jpg|thumb|600x600px|left|Aerial view of the Onagigawa (小名木川) canal, showing its full stretch from the Sumida River (隅田川) in the west to the Old Nakagawa (旧中川) in the east. The canal, approximately 5.3 kilometers long, was constructed in 1604 under the orders of Tokugawa Ieyasu to transport salt from Gyōtoku to Edo. Even 400 years later, the Onagigawa remains an active waterway, supporting both modern logistics and tourism in Tokyo. (Composite of six photographs taken in 1984）]] 
{{clear}}

=== Overland Roads ===  
From [[Nihonbashi]] (日本橋) in Edo, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the ''[[Edo Five Routes|Gokaidō]]'' (五街道, “Five Highways”), which radiated out to other provinces, forming the centralized road network of the shogunate.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c08604/the-five-highways-and-other-routes-across-edo-period-japan.html | title=The Five Highways and Other Routes Across Edo-Period Japan | date=21 April 2021 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> These routes served not only for political and military movement (such as [[Sankin-kōtai|sankin-kōtai]]), but also for commercial and civilian travel.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.diffworlds.com/samurai/major_roads.htm | title=Gokaido "Edo Five Routes" | publisher=Diffworlds.com | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

Within Edo, most people travelled on foot. Officials or wealthy individuals used [[kago]] (駕籠) (palanquins), while samurai sometimes rode on horseback. The road infrastructure—including bridges, pathways, and post‑stations—was designed to accommodate both foot and horse traffic, integrating profoundly with the waterborne transport system.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c08604/the-five-highways-and-other-routes-across-edo-period-japan.html | title=The Five Highways and Other Routes Across Edo-Period Japan | date=21 April 2021 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

== Economy ==

During the Edo period, the city of Edo functioned as a vast economic center. Its economy was sustained by a complex system of consumption, supply, trade, rental, and resource circulation, shaped by both high-status samurai and townspeople (chōnin, 町人).

=== Consumption and Demand ===

Many ''daimyō'' (大名) and their retainers, under the ''sankin-kōtai'' (参勤交代) obligation, kept residences in Edo, which stimulated constant demand for goods — luxury items, building materials, household furnishings, and food. Their spending power helped drive the city’s markets for both everyday and high-quality commodities. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/rentalshopinedo/ | title=江戸のレンタル屋さん・・・損料屋 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
In parallel, the townspeople (chōnin, 町人) — merchants and artisans — formed a large, economically active class. Among them, lower-income households made frequent use of rental services to access daily goods without owning them outright. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://mainichigahakken.net/hobby/article/kyoyozatsugaku06.php | title=江戸時代でも繁盛していた「レンタル」店 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>

=== Food Supply and Distribution ===

;Agricultural Produce
Because Edo was densely urbanized with little arable land inside the city, many vegetables, fruits, and other farm products were supplied by the surrounding rural villages. Produce from the nearby lowland areas was delivered daily by boat via Edo’s network of canals and waterways. In contrast, produce from the Musashino Plateau (武蔵野台地) was brought into the city overland, carried by farmers on foot or transported by handcarts along gently descending roads leading toward Edo.

;Fish and Seafood
Fish and seafood from Edo Bay (modern Tokyo Bay) were landed daily at the ''Nihonbashi fish quay'' (日本橋魚河岸). There wholesalers bought from fishers and then distributed to other dealers or retailers. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ndl.go.jp/kaleido/entry/30/2.html | title=魚市場の賑わい／第二節 江戸—日本橋魚河岸 | access-date=2025-11-19}}</ref>
Retail sales included itinerant vendors known as ''bote-furi'' (棒手振り), who carried fish in baskets on a balancing pole (''tenbin-bō'') and walked through neighborhoods selling directly. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ndl.go.jp/kaleido/entry/30/2.html | title=魚市場の賑わい／第二節 江戸—日本橋魚河岸 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
Contemporary sources suggest that the daily transaction value of the Nihonbashi fish market reached 100 ryō (両) per day, which would be roughly ¥1,000,000 in modern equivalent  <ref>{{cite web | url=https://sengoku-his.com/2771| title=日本橋魚河岸の取引高は日に百両とも | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>

=== Salt Supply ===

Salt was a staple commodity for Edo households, used not only in cooking but also in food preservation. Production primarily came from coastal salt fields using ''iri-hama'' salt production techniques(入浜式 ). <ref>{{cite web | url=https://lib.ruralnet.or.jp/edu/sirabe2/thema09.html | title=産業、流通、商業、貿易：製塩 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
Large volumes of salt from the [[Seto Inland Sea]] region and other coastal areas were transported to Edo via sea routes (coastal shipping). <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.saltscience.or.jp/images/2023/07/2018_1-yanagihara.pdf | title=江戸時代の塩とその流通 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
In Edo, salt wholesalers (''shio-donya'', 塩問屋) distributed salt to both merchant households and commoners, helping ensure stable supply for urban consumption. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.saltscience.or.jp/images/2023/07/2018_1-yanagihara.pdf | title=江戸時代の塩とその流通 | access-date=2025-11-20}}</ref>

=== Timber and Building Materials ===

The need for timber in Edo was immense: virtually all buildings were built of wood, and frequent fires meant constant demand for reconstruction.
Much of the timber came from remote forest regions. Notably, the ''Kiso'' ([[:ja:木曽|木曽]], present-day [[Nagano Prefecture]])  region was a major supplier: under the so-called ''Kiso-style log transport method'' (木曽式伐木運材法), felled logs were floated down the Kiso River on rafts and subsequently shipped by river and by sea to Edo. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/chubu/kiso/morigatari/unzaihou.html | title=木曽式伐木運材法 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forestry.jp/forestryheritage/2016-3177/ | title=木曽式伐木運材図会 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref> High-grade woods such as ''[[Chamaecyparis obtusa|Japanese cypress]]'' (''hinoki'', [[:ja:ヒノキ|檜]]) from ''Kiso'' (木曽) or ''Kishu'' ([[:ja:紀伊国|紀州]], present-day [[Wakayama Prefecture]]) were especially prized and used in samurai residences, temples, and official architecture. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pref.wakayama.lg.jp/prefg/070600/kisyuzai/history.html | title=和歌山県の材木史 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
In Edo, specialist timber wholesalers (材木問屋) near Nihonbashi, Kanda, and other riverfront locales sold wood to carpenters, builders, and affluent clients. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tokyo-cci.or.jp/koto/mokuzai_WEB_fin/book/pageindices/index4.html | title=江東区　木材総目録 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
A key center for timber trade and storage was ''Kiba'' ([[:ja:木場|木場]]),  established in the Fukagawa area along the Sumida River. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tokyo-cci.or.jp/koto/mokuzai_WEB_fin/book/pageindices/index4.html | title=江東区　木材総目録 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
The Kiba district was also advantageous because its waterways allowed for ''water storage'' (floating logs in fresh or brackish water), preserving timber during transport and stockpiling. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/26hakusyo/pdf/5hon1-1.pdf | title=森林白書：木材流通構造 | access-date=2025-11-20}}</ref>

=== Fuel ===

Charcoal (''sumi'', [[:ja:炭|炭]]) was the dominant fuel for cooking and heating in Edo. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://cleanup.jp/life/edo/18.shtml | title=江戸散策 第18回：炭の供給 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref> It was produced from wood and plant residues in managed coppice forests around Edo, for instance in the ''Tama'' / ''Ōme'' region, which supplied both wood and charcoal. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://mokuiku.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/news/2024/pdf/leaflet_r5_04.pdf | title=青梅林業と四谷林業 | access-date=2025-11-19}}</ref>
Wood offcuts and residual timber were often burned, and the resultant ''ash'' was collected by itinerant ash buyer (''hai-gai'', 灰買い). <ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/recycle2/ | title=江戸のリサイクル２…灰買いとは | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref> This ash was then sold as fertilizer or used in [[dyeing]] processes, such as in ''indigo dyeing'' (''aizome'', [[:ja:藍染め|藍染]]), where the alkaline ash-water (''haijiru'', 灰汁) played a key role. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/recycle2/ | title=江戸のリサイクル２…灰買いとは | access-date=2025-11-19}}</ref>

In short, charcoal production, wood reuse, and ash recycling formed a '''biomass-based energy and material cycle'''.

=== Textiles, Clothes, and Clothing Shops ===

Textiles — including silk, hemp, and cotton — played a central role in Edo’s economy. These fabrics were produced in regional weaving centers and transported into Edo via coastal and inland water transport. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eonet.ne.jp/~shoyu/mametisiki/sm-shoyu01.html | title=日本の醤油の歴史 … 日用品と海運 | access-date=2025-11-20}}</ref>
Refined garments such as silk kimono were sold in ''gofuku-shō'' (呉服商), i.e., high-end cloth shops targeting samurai and wealthy merchants. Meanwhile, the commons (庶民) acquired more modest clothing through local cloth shops or seamstresses. Some may have made their own garments, but many utilized tailors or seamstresses in longhouse communities to sew, repair, or remake clothes.

=== Rental Culture ===

A distinctive feature of Edo’s urban economy was its robust '''rental system''', centered on shops called ''sonryō-ya'' (損料屋), from ''sonryō'' meaning “wear-and-tear compensation” (i.e., depreciation). <ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/rentalshopinedo/ | title=江戸のレンタル屋さん・・・損料屋 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
Items commonly rented included ''cooking pots'', ''pans'', ''ceramics'', ''[[futon]]'', ''ceremonial dress'' and ''travel gear''. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://econews.jp/column/imamukashi/5315/ | title=損料屋が支える物を持たない生活 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/rentalshopinedo/ | title=江戸のレンタル屋さん・・・損料屋 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
The business model often included a deposit-like system: when the item was returned undamaged, part of the payment would be refunded. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.excite.co.jp/news/article/Japaaan_61720/ | title=宵越しの金は持たねえ！そんな江戸っ子の暮らし | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
High demand for rentals was driven by the frequent risk of fire in the city, which discouraged accumulation of many personal possessions. Lower-income townspeople in particular relied heavily on rental-shops (''sonryō-ya'') to furnish their daily lives with minimal capital outlay. <ref>{{cite web | url=[https://mainichigahakken.net/hobby/article/kyoyozatsugaku06.php | title=江戸時代でも繁盛していた「レンタル」店 | access-date=2025-11-20}}</ref>

=== Resource Circulation and Recycling ===
Edo’s economy was notable for how thoroughly it reused and recycled materials, forming a highly developed circular economy.

* ''Paper'': Used [[washi]] (和紙) was collected by itinerant paper-waste-buyer (kami-kuzu-gai, 紙屑買い), pulped, and re-formed into ''sukikaeshi'' paper ([[:ja:漉返紙|漉返紙]]). Some of the lower-grade recycled paper was used as “toilet paper” or for lightweight writing. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/recyclepaper/ | title=江戸のリサイクル１…こんな昔に再生紙 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
* ''Ash'': As above, ash from charcoal and burned wood was collected by ash-buyer (''hai-gai'', 灰買い) and reused in agriculture (fertilizer) or for dyeing. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://edo100.tokyo/recycle2/ | title=江戸のリサイクル２…灰買いとは | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
* ''metal-scrap and nails'': There were itinerant metal-scrap collectors who went through neighborhoods. The metal-scrap collectors sometimes recruited neighborhood children by calling out “totteke-be” (とってけべえ), meaning “take it,” offering small candys or toys as incentives and encouraging them to pick up discarded nails not only from houses but also from backstreets, ''roji''（[[:ja:路地|路地]]）.  <ref>{{cite web | url=[https://edo100.tokyo/recycle6/ | title=江戸のリサイクル６（最終回）…回収業者 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>
* '''Repair & Reuse''': Broken ceramics were repaired by specialists (''yakitsugi-shi'', 焼継師) who fused shards using a mixture (historically, an adhesive made from lead and other materials) and then refired them. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ameblo.jp/sitamachimisakiikka/entry-12547912326.html | title=江戸時代ちょっと面白い生業|損料屋と焼継師 | access-date=2025-11-18}}</ref>


== Policing and Firefighting ==

=== Policing ===  
In Edo, law enforcement was administered by the ''machi‑bugyō'' (town magistrates), a hybrid judicial‑administrative institution rather than a modern police force. These magistrates presided over both criminal justice and municipal governance, supported by samurai assistants and local collaborators. There were two ''machi‑bugyō'' offices in Edo — the North and South magistrates — which alternated in managing civic order, investigations, and other legal matters. <ref name="bugyo-org">{{Cite web | url=https://nihonsizatugaku.net/edo-matibugyousyo/ | title=江戸の町奉行所の実態 | date=3 November 2023 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

Each magistrate office employed a small number of ''[[yoriki]]'' ([[:ja:与力|与力]]), higher‑ranking samurai who served as inspectors and administrators, and ''dōshin'' ([[:ja:同心|同心]]), lower-ranked samurai who conducted patrols, guarded prisons, and carried out investigations. <ref name="tsutajuu">{{Cite web | url=https://tsutajuu.com/edomachibugyou/ | title=Organization of Edo Machi Bugyō, Yoriki, and Dōshin | date=21 October 2025 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> According to historical sources, each bugyō office typically had around ''25 yoriki'' and about ''120 dōshin'', making a total police-administrative staff of about 50 yoriki and 240 dōshin for the city. <ref name="bugyo-org" /><ref name="samurai-cops">{{Cite web | url=https://www.tokyoweekender.com/art_and_culture/samurai-cops-inside-edos-police-force-during-feudal-japan/ | title=Samurai Cops: Inside Edo's Police Force During Feudal Japan | date=9 April 2025 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

Because the formal samurai contingent was limited, the ''machi-bugyō'' system also made use of auxiliary assistants known as ''okappiki'' ([[:ja:岡っ引|岡っ引]]), drawn from trusted townspeople by ''yoriki'' or ''dōshin''. These men, often familiar with the underworld, aided in intelligence gathering, surveillance, and the apprehension of criminals. <ref name="okappiki">{{Cite web | url=https://plaza.rakuten.co.jp/tokyogokuraku/12045/ | title=同心と岡っ引き (Dōshin and Okappiki) | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

Though not formal government officials, some okappiki were entrusted with a ''[[jitte]]'' ([[:ja:十手|十手]])—a policing symbol—when participating in arrests. <ref name="jitte">{{Cite web | url=https://act.kindai.ac.jp/kindai_index/donden13/4.html | title=十手と岡っ引き | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> Their tasks included registering and profiling suspects (''ninsōgaki''), collecting tip‑offs, aiding in investigations, and even direct involvement in arrests.

Below the okappiki were the ''shita-ppiki'' (下っ引), lower-level helpers who worked under them. They acted as informants, carried out street-level inquiries, and supported okappiki operations. <ref name="tsutajuu" /> Compensation for both groups was largely informal: okappiki and their subordinates did not receive fixed salaries, but were rewarded by dōshin or yoriki, or shared in bounty payments when cases were resolved. <ref name="okappiki" />

Through this layered enforcement network — magistrates, samurai, and civilian auxiliaries — Edo managed to maintain public security even though its formal law-enforcement arm was limited in size relative to the city’s population.

=== Firefighting ===  
Fire was a perpetual and serious threat in Edo, famously captured in the saying “''fire and quarrel are Edo’s flowers''.” [[Great Fire of Meireki|The Great Fire of Meireki]] in 1657, which devastated a large portion of the city, prompted the formal establishment of firefighting mechanisms. <ref name="fire-museum">{{Cite web | url=https://www.edo-tokyo-museum.or.jp/assets/img/2015/02/edo_kaisetsu_j.pdf | title=Edo‑Tokyo Museum: Great Fire and Firefighting | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

By the mid‑Edo period, fire suppression was organized through ''three main types'' of brigades, [[Hikeshi|hikeshi]] ([[:ja:火消|火消]]) :
* (1) ''daimyō hikeshi'' ([[:ja:大名火消|大名火消]]), raised by certain daimyō from about 1643 <ref name="daimyo-fire">{{Cite web | url=https://tsujimoto.sub.jp/TUS-SOTSU/KANEMURA2007.pdf | title=Establishment of Daimyō, Jō, and Town Hikeshi in Edo | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> 
* (2) ''jō-bikeshi'' ([[:ja:定火消|定火消]]), permanent samurai‑unit firefighters <ref name="jofire">{{Cite web | url=https://www.nissho.or.jp/fire-brigade/rekishi/ | title=History of the Fire Brigade: Edo Period | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> 
* and (3) ''machi‑bikeshi'' ([[:ja:町火消|町火消]]),  town firefighting groups composed of commoners — in particular, ''tobi'' (scaffolders) — organized under their own "kumi" (組, units), originally the “Iroha 48” groups. <ref name="iroha">{{Cite web | url=https://www.tfd.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/learning/elib/qa/qa_03.html | title="Iroha Forty‑Eight" Firefighting Units | access-date=November 18, 2025}}</ref> Each ''machi‑bikeshi'' carried a ''matoi'' (纏), a banner symbolizing its unit, which became a powerful cultural icon of Edo’s firefighting tradition. <ref name="matoi">{{Cite web | url=https://www.edo-tokyo-museum.or.jp/purpose/library/reference/alphabet/33510/%E6%B1%9F%E6%B0%B8%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E3%81%AB%E3%81%BE%E3%81%A8%E3%81%84%E3%82%92%E6%8C%81%E3%81%A3%E3%81%9F%E7%81%AB%E6%B6%88%E3%81%97%E9%9A%8A%E3%81%8C%E3%81%84%E3%81%9F%E3%81%A8%E6%80%9D%E3%81%86/ | title=Edo‑Tokyo Museum: Firefighting Teams in Edo | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

In this three‑tiered system — daimyō, samurai, and townspeople — Edo combined centralized command with community-based response, creating a resilient fire‑fighting network suited to the city’s wooden architecture and dense urban fabric.
== Fire ==
[[File:Meireki fire.JPG|thumb|right|Scroll depicting the Great Fire of Meireki|alt=Painted scroll of a great fire, with people trying to escape]]
Edo was repeatedly devastated by fires, the [[Great Fire of Meireki]] in 1657 being the most disastrous, with an estimated 100,000 victims and a vast portion of the city completely burnt. The population of Edo was around 300,000,{{citation needed|date=May 2024|reason=Some sources say 400,000 or 500,000.}} and the impact of the fire was tremendous. The fire destroyed the central keep of Edo Castle, which was never rebuilt, and it influenced the urban planning afterwards to make the city more resilient, with many empty areas to break spreading fires, and wider streets. Reconstruction efforts expanded the city east of the Sumida River, and some ''[[daimyo|daimyō]]'' residences were relocated to give more space to the city, especially in the immediate vicinity of the shogun's residence, creating a large green space beside the castle, now the Fukiage gardens of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]]. During the Edo period, there were about 100 major fires, mostly begun by accident and often quickly escalating and spreading through neighborhoods of wooden ''[[Nagaya (architecture)|nagaya]]'' that were heated with charcoal fires.

== 1868 ==
In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown in the [[Meiji Restoration]] by supporters of [[Emperor Meiji]] and his [[Imperial Court in Kyoto]], ending Edo's status as the ''de facto'' capital of Japan. However, the new Meiji government soon renamed Edo to ''[[Tōkyō]]'' (東京, "Eastern Capital") and the city became the formal capital of Japan when the emperor moved his residence to the city.


==See also==
{{Portal|Tokyo}}
* [[Edo society]]
* [[Fires in Edo]]
* [[1703 Genroku earthquake]]
* [[Edokko]] (native of Edo)
* [[History of Tokyo]]
* [[Iki (aesthetics)|Iki]] (a Japanese aesthetic ideal)
* [[Asakusa]]

==Notes==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

<!-- Onagigawa: Edo-period canal -->
{{Cite web
 | url = https://edo.XXXX.jp/onagigawa     <!-- ←正しいURLに置き換えてください -->
 | title = 江戸時代の運河、小名木川
 | website = 江戸から
 | language = ja
 | access-date = 17 November 2025
}}

<!-- Edo logistics system (PDF) -->
{{Cite web
 | url = https://www.ymf.or.jp/wp-content/themes/yamagata/images/56_7.pdf
 | title = 江戸期における物流システム構築と都市の発展衰退
 | website = 山形経済同友会
 | language = ja
 | access-date = 17 November 2025
}}

<!-- Edo canal length / general waterways reference -->
{{Cite book
 | last = Sorensen
 | first = André
 | title = The Making of Urban Japan: Cities and Planning from Edo to the Twenty First Century
 | publisher = Routledge
 | year = 2002
 | pages = 42–47
}}

<!-- Gokaidō (Five Highways) reference -->
{{Cite book
 | last = Vaporis
 | first = Constantine Nomikos
 | title = Breaking Barriers: Travel and the State in Early Modern Japan
 | publisher = Harvard University Asia Center
 | year = 1994
}}

<!-- Edo water transport / commercial wharves -->
{{Cite book
 | last = Nishiyama
 | first = Matsunosuke
 | title = Edo Culture: Daily Life and Diversions in Urban Japan, 1600–1868
 | publisher = University of Hawaii Press
 | year = 1997
}}


==References==
* Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2014). ''100 Famous Views of Edo''. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B00HR3RHUY
* Gordon, Andrew. (2003). ''A Modern History of Japan from Tokugawa Times to the Present.'' Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].  {{ISBN|0-19-511060-9}}/{{ISBN|978-0-19-511060-9}} (cloth); {{ISBN|0-19-511061-7}}/{{ISBN|978-0-19-511061-6}}.
* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1956). ''Kyoto: the Old Capital, 794–1869.'' Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
* [[George Bailey Sansom|Sansom, George]]. (1963). ''A History of Japan: 1615–1867''. Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8047-0527-5}}/{{ISBN|978-0-8047-0527-1}}.
* Akira Naito (Author), Kazuo Hozumi. ''Edo, the City that Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History''. Kodansha International, Tokyo (2003). {{ISBN|4-7700-2757-5}}
* Alternate spelling from [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']] article.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100206061835/http://www.ginacolliasuzuki.com/author/a-trip-to-old-edo.html A Trip to Old Edo]
*  {{in lang|ja}} [https://www.kcf.or.jp/fukagawa/ Fukagawa Edo Museum]
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9931 Map of Bushū Toshima District, Edo] from 1682

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Edo| ]]
[[Category:Edo period]]
[[Category:History of Tokyo by period]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1450s]]
[[Category:1457 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1450s establishments in Japan]]
[[Category:1868 disestablishments in Japan]]