View source for Edwin Hubble

{{short description|American astronomer (1889–1953)}}
{{about|the astronomer|the politician|Edwin N. Hubbell|the jazz trombonist|Eddie Hubble}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox scientist
| image              = Studio portrait photograph of Edwin Powell Hubble (cropped).JPG
| caption            = Portrait by [[Johan Hagemeyer]], 1931
| birth_name         = Edwin Powell Hubble
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1889|11|20|mf=y}}
| birth_place        = [[Marshfield, Missouri]], U.S.
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1953|09|28|1889|11|20|mf=y}}
| death_place        = [[San Marino, California]], U.S.
| spouse             = {{marriage|Grace Burke|February 26, 1924}}
| field              = [[Astronomy]]
| work_institutions  = {{Unbulleted list|[[University of Chicago]]|[[Mount Wilson Observatory]]|[[Carnegie Institution for Science]]|[[University of Cambridge]]}}
| alma_mater         = {{Unbulleted list|{{nowrap|[[University of Chicago]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]], [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])}}|[[The Queen's College, Oxford]] ([[Master of Arts|MA]])}}
| known_for          = {{Unbulleted list|[[Hubble sequence]]|[[Hubble's law]]|[[Reflection nebula#Luminosity law|Hubble luminosity law]]|[[Hubble–Reynolds law]]}}
| prizes             = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}|[[Newcomb Cleveland Prize]] (1924)|[[Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science]] (1935)|[[Bruce Medal]] (1938)|[[Franklin Medal]] (1939)|[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] (1940)|[[Legion of Merit]] (1946)}}
| signature          = Edwin Hubble signature.svg
| footnotes          = 
| module             = {{Infobox military person | embed = yes
| allegiance         = <!-- United States -->
| branch             = [[United States Army]]
| serviceyears       = 1918
| rank               = [[Major (United States)|Major]]
| unit               = [[86th Infantry Division (United States)|86th Division]], 2nd Battalion, 343rd Infantry Regiment
| commands           = 
| battles            = [[World War I]]
}}
}}
{{Physical cosmology|scientists}}

'''Edwin Powell Hubble''' (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953)<ref name="NASABio">{{cite web|title=Biography of Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) |url=http://hubble.nasa.gov/overview/hubble_bio.php |publisher=NASA |access-date=June 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630015230/http://hubble.nasa.gov/overview/hubble_bio.php |archive-date=June 30, 2011}}</ref> was an American astronomer. He played a crucial role in establishing the fields of [[extragalactic astronomy]] and [[observational cosmology]].<ref name="space.com">{{cite web |last=Redd |first= Nola Taylor |title= Famous Astronomers {{!}} List of Great Scientists in Astronomy |url= https://www.space.com/16095-famous-astronomers.html |website= SPACE.com |publisher= Perch |access-date=April 6, 2018 |ref=space.com}}</ref><ref name="futurism">{{cite web|last1=Reese|first1=Riley|title=Most Influential Astronomers of All Time|url=https://futurism.media/most-influential-astronomers-of-all-time|website=Futurism|publisher=Jerrick Ventures LLC|access-date=April 6, 2018|ref=futurism}}</ref>

Hubble proved that many objects previously thought to be clouds of dust and gas and classified as "[[nebula]]e" were actually [[Galaxy|galaxies]] beyond the [[Milky Way]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hubble |first=Edwin |title=Extragalactic nebulae |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1926 |issue=64 |pages=321–369 |doi=10.1086/143018 |bibcode = 1926ApJ....64..321H |volume=64|doi-access=free }}</ref> He used the strong direct [[period-luminosity relation|relationship]] between a [[classical Cepheid variable]]'s [[luminosity]] and [[periodic function|pulsation period]]<ref name=udalski99>{{cite journal |arxiv=astro-ph/9908317 |bibcode=1999AcA....49..223U |title=The Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment. Cepheids in the Magellanic Clouds. IV. Catalog of Cepheids from the Large Magellanic Cloud |author1=Udalski, A. |author2=Soszynski, I. |author3=Szymanski, M. |author4=Kubiak, M. |author5=Pietrzynski, G. |author6=Wozniak, P. |author7=Zebrun, K. |volume=49 |date=1999 |pages=223–317 |journal=Acta Astronomica}}</ref><ref name=sos08>{{cite journal |arxiv=0808.2210 |bibcode=2008AcA....58..163S |title=The Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment. The OGLE-III Catalog of Variable Stars. I. Classical Cepheids in the Large Magellanic Cloud |author1=Soszynski, I. |author2=Poleski, R. |author3=Udalski, A. |author4=Szymanski, M. K. |author5=Kubiak, M. |author6=Pietrzynski, G. |author7=Wyrzykowski, L. |author8=Szewczyk, O. |author9=Ulaczyk, K. |volume=58 |date=2008 |pages=163 |journal=Acta Astronomica  }}</ref> (discovered in 1908 by [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]]<ref name="Henrietta">{{cite journal |bibcode=1907AnHar..60...87L |title=1777 variables in the Magellanic Clouds |author1=Leavitt, Henrietta S. |volume=60 |date=1908 |pages=87 |journal=Annals of Harvard College Observatory}}</ref>) for scaling [[cosmic distance ladder|galactic and extragalactic distances]].<ref name=freedman2001>{{cite journal |arxiv=astro-ph/0012376 |bibcode=2001ApJ...553...47F |doi=10.1086/320638 |title=Final Results from the ''Hubble Space Telescope'' Key Project to Measure the Hubble Constant |date=2001 |last1=Freedman |first1=Wendy L. |last2=Madore |first2=Barry F. |last3=Gibson |first3=Brad K. |last4=Ferrarese |first4=Laura |last5=Kelson |first5=Daniel D. |last6=Sakai |first6=Shoko |last7=Mould |first7=Jeremy R. |last8=Kennicutt, Jr. |first8=Robert C. |last9=Ford |first9=Holland C. |last10=Graham |first10=John A. |last11=Huchra |first11=John P. |last12=Hughes |first12=Shaun M. G. |last13=Illingworth |first13=Garth D. |last14=Macri |first14=Lucas M. |last15=Stetson |first15=Peter B. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=553 |issue=1 |pages=47–72|s2cid=119097691 }}</ref><ref name=freedman2010>{{cite journal |arxiv=1004.1856 |bibcode=2010ARA&A..48..673F |title=The Hubble Constant |author1=Freedman, Wendy L. |author2=Madore, Barry F. |volume=48 |date=2010 |pages=673–710 |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |doi=10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101829|s2cid=119263173 }}</ref>

Hubble confirmed in 1929 that the [[recessional velocity]] of a galaxy increases with its distance from Earth, a behavior that became known as [[Hubble's law]], although it had been proposed two years earlier by [[Georges Lemaître]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.space.com/13616-universe-expansion-discovery-hubble-lemaitre-mystery.html| title = Astronomer Sleuth Solves Mystery of Big Cosmos Discovery by Nola Taylor Redd, ''Space.com'', November 14, 2011  | website = [[Space.com]] | date = November 14, 2011 }}</ref> The Hubble law implies that the universe is expanding.<ref name="Hubbles Law">{{cite journal |last=Hubble |first=Edwin |date=1929 |title=A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=168–173 |doi=10.1073/pnas.15.3.168 |pmid=16577160 |pmc=522427 |bibcode=1929PNAS...15..168H|doi-access=free }}</ref> A decade before, the American astronomer [[Vesto Slipher]] had provided the first evidence that the light from many of these nebulae was strongly red-shifted, indicative of high recession velocities.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Slipher | first=V. M. | title=Nebulæ | journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | publisher=American Philosophical Society | volume=56 | issue=5 | year=1917 | issn=0003-049X | jstor=984028 | pages=403–409 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/984028 | access-date=July 9, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Segal |first=I. E. |date=December 1993 |title=Geometric derivation of the chronometric redshift |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |volume=90 |issue=23 |pages=11114–11116 |bibcode=1993PNAS...9011114S |doi=10.1073/pnas.90.23.11114 |pmc=47932 |pmid=11607440 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Hubble's name is most widely recognized for the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], which was named in his honor, with a model prominently displayed in his hometown of [[Marshfield, Missouri]].

== Early life and education ==
Edwin Hubble was born in 1889 to Virginia Lee Hubble (née James) (1864–1934)<ref>{{cite web |date=May 16, 1864 |title=Virginia Lee Hubble (James) (c. 1864–1934) |url=http://www.geni.com/people/Virginia-Hubble/366307793650012341 |access-date=March 11, 2014}}</ref> and John Powell Hubble, an insurance executive, in Marshfield, Missouri, and moved to [[Wheaton, Illinois]], in&nbsp;1900.<ref>{{cite book |author=Christianson |first=Gale E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gmdthgi8_CkC&q=eDWIN+HUBBLE |title=Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the nebulae |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226105215 |pages=13–18}}</ref> In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic prowess than his intellectual abilities, although he did earn good grades in every subject except spelling. Edwin was a gifted athlete, playing [[baseball]], [[American football|football]], and running track in both high school and college. He won seven first places and a third place in a single high school [[track and field]] meet in 1906, and he played a variety of positions on the [[basketball]] court, from [[Center (basketball)|center]] to [[shooting guard]]. Hubble led the [[Chicago Maroons men's basketball|University of Chicago's basketball team]] to their first [[List of Big Ten Conference men's basketball regular season champions|Big Ten Conference]] title in [[1906–07 Chicago Maroons men's basketball team|1907]].<ref name="Gale E. Christianson 1996"/>

===Undergraduate studies===
Hubble's studies at the [[University of Chicago]] were concentrated on [[mathematics]], astronomy and [[philosophy]], which resulted in a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree by 1910. For a year he was also a student laboratory assistant for the physicist [[Robert Andrews Millikan|Robert Millikan]], a future [[Nobel Prize]] winner.<ref name=":0" /> Hubble also became a member of [[Kappa Sigma]] fraternity. A [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes Scholar]], he spent three years at [[The Queen's College, Oxford]] studying [[jurisprudence]] instead of science (as a promise to his dying father),<ref name="Times">{{cite web |author=Lemonick |first=Michael D. |date=March 29, 1999 |title=Astronomer Edwin Hubble |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990615,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319180642/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990615,00.html |archive-date=March 19, 2007 |access-date=May 29, 2011 |work=The Times |location=UK}}</ref> and later added studies in literature and Spanish,<ref name="Times" /> eventually earning a master's degree.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rhodes Scholars: Complete List, 1903–2010|author=The Rhodes Trust|publisher=The Rhodes Trust|quote=Hubble, Edwin – The Queen's College, Illinois (1910)|access-date=May 29, 2011|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/section/rhodes-scholars-complete-list-1903-2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716231851/http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/section/rhodes-scholars-complete-list-1903-2009|archive-date=July 16, 2011}}</ref>

In 1909, Hubble's father moved his family from [[Chicago]], Illinois to [[Shelbyville, Kentucky]], so that the family could live in a small town, ultimately settling in nearby [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]]. His father died in the winter of&nbsp;1913, while Edwin was still in England. In the following summer, Edwin returned home to care for his mother, two sisters, and younger brother, along with his brother William. The family moved once more to Everett Avenue, in Louisville's Highlands neighborhood, to accommodate Edwin and William.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kielkopf |first=John F. |title=Edwin Hubble, Family, and Friends in Louisville 1909–1916 |url=http://www.astro.louisville.edu/education/hubble_in_louisville/index.html}}</ref>

Hubble was a dutiful son, who despite his intense interest in astronomy since boyhood, acquiesced to his father's request to study law, first at the University of Chicago and later at Oxford University. In this time, he also took some math and science courses. After the death of his father in 1913, Edwin returned to the Midwest from Oxford but did not have the motivation to practice law. Instead, he proceeded to teach Spanish, [[physics]] and [[mathematics]] at [[New Albany High School (Indiana)|New Albany High School]] in [[New Albany, Indiana|New Albany]], Indiana, where he also coached the boys' basketball team. After a year of high-school teaching, he entered graduate school with the help of his former professor from the University of Chicago to study astronomy at the university's [[Yerkes Observatory]], where he received his Ph.D. in 1921. His [[Thesis|dissertation]] was titled "Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hubble |first=Edwin Powell |url=https://archive.org/details/photographicinve00hubbrich |title=Photographic investigations of faint nebulae |date=1920 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |access-date=September 15, 2016 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> At Yerkes, he had access to its 40-inch refractor telescope built by [[George Ellery Hale]] in 1897, as well as an innovative 26-inch (61&nbsp;cm) reflector telescope.<ref name=":0">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edwin-Hubble|title=Edwin Hubble {{!}} American astronomer|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=November 20, 2017|language=en}}</ref>

===Doctoral studies===
[[File:Hubble identity card.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|Hubble's identity card in the [[American Expeditionary Forces]].]]
After the [[United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)|United States declared war on Germany in 1917]] during [[World War I]], Hubble rushed to complete his Ph.D. dissertation so he could join the military. Hubble volunteered for the [[United States Army]] and was assigned to the newly created [[86th Infantry Division (United States)|86th Division]], where he served in the 2nd Battalion, 343rd Infantry Regiment. He rose to the rank of major,<ref>{{cite news |title=Major Edwin Hubble is Made Lieutenant Colonel |url=https://www.newspapers.com/search/#lnd=1&query=Major+Edwin+Hubble+is+Made+Lieutenant+Colonel&t=965 |access-date=October 19, 2015 |work=Springfield Missouri Republican |date=August 11, 1918 |page=6}}</ref> and was found fit for overseas duty on July 9, 1918; the 86th Division moved overseas, but never saw combat as it was broken up and its personnel used as replacements in other units. After the end of World War I, Hubble spent a year at [[University of Cambridge]], where he renewed his studies of astronomy.<ref>{{cite book |author=Christianson |first=Gale E. |title=Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226105215 |page=183}}</ref>

==Career==
In 1919, Hubble was offered a staff position at the [[Carnegie Institution for Science]]'s [[Mount Wilson Observatory]], near [[Pasadena, California]], by [[George Ellery Hale]], the founder and director of the observatory. Hubble remained on staff at Mount Wilson until his death in 1953. Shortly before his death, Hubble became the first astronomer to use the newly completed giant {{convert|200|in|m|adj=on}} reflector [[Hale Telescope]] at the [[Palomar Observatory]] near San Diego, California.

Hubble also worked as a civilian for [[United States Army]] at [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]] in Maryland during [[World War II]] as the Chief of the External Ballistics Branch of the [[Ballistic Research Laboratory]] during which he directed a large volume of research in exterior [[ballistics]] which increased the effective firepower of bombs and projectiles. His work was facilitated by his personal development of several items of equipment for the instrumentation used in exterior ballistics, the most outstanding development being the high-speed clock camera, which made possible the study of the characteristics of bombs and low-velocity projectiles in flight. The results of his studies were credited with improving the design, performance, and military effectiveness of bombs and rockets. For his work there, he received the [[Legion of Merit]] award.<ref>Sharov, Alexander S., Igor D. Novikov, "Edwin Hubble, The Discoverer of the Big Bang Universe". Cambridge, UK: The Cambridge University Press (1989), p. 101.</ref>

==Discoveries==
===Universe goes beyond the Milky Way galaxy===
[[File:100inchHooker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The {{convert|100|in|m|adj=on}} [[Mount Wilson Observatory#100-inch Hooker telescope|Hooker telescope]] at Mount Wilson Observatory that Hubble used to measure galaxy distances and a value for the rate of [[expansion of the universe]].]]
Edwin Hubble's arrival at Mount Wilson Observatory, California, in 1919 coincided roughly with the completion of the {{convert|100|in|m|adj=on}} [[Mount Wilson Observatory#100-inch Hooker telescope|Hooker Telescope]], then the world's largest. At that time, the prevailing view of the cosmos was that the universe consisted entirely of the [[Milky Way]] galaxy.

[[File:Hubble Tuning Fork diagram.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.5|Hubble's [[Hubble sequence|classification scheme]]]]
Using the Hooker Telescope at [[Mount Wilson Observatory|Mount Wilson]], Hubble identified [[Cepheid variable]]s, a [[Cosmic distance ladder#Standard candles|standard candle]] discovered by [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]].<ref name="Henrietta"/> Comparing their [[Apparent magnitude|apparent luminosity]] to their intrinsic luminosity gives their distance from Earth.<ref>A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries.</ref><ref>1929: Edwin Hubble Discovers the universe is expanding.</ref> Hubble found Cepheids in several [[Spiral galaxy#Spiral nebula|nebulae]], including the [[Andromeda Galaxy|Andromeda Nebula]] and [[Triangulum Galaxy|Triangulum Nebula]]. His observations, made in 1924, proved conclusively that these nebulae were much too distant to be part of the Milky Way and were, in fact, entire galaxies outside the Milky Way galaxy; thus, today they are no longer considered [[nebula]]e.

This was first [[Hypothesis|hypothesized]] as early as 1755 when [[Immanuel Kant]]'s ''General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens'' appeared. Hubble's hypothesis [[Great Debate (astronomy)|was opposed]] by many in the astronomy establishment of the time, in particular by [[Harvard University]]{{En dash}}based [[Harlow Shapley#The Great Debate of 1920|Harlow Shapley]]. Despite the opposition, Hubble, then a thirty-five-year-old scientist, had his findings first published in ''[[The New York Times]]'' on {{nowrap|November 23}}, 1924,<ref name="SharovNovikov1993">{{cite book|last1=Sharov|first1=Aleksandr Sergeevich|last2=Novikov|first2=Igor Dmitrievich|title=Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the Big Bang universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34|access-date=December 31, 2011|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41617-7|page=34}}</ref> then presented them to other astronomers at the January 1, 1925, meeting of the [[American Astronomical Society]].<ref name="MB2">{{cite book |author=Bartusiak |first=Marcia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XojzXh4_KEC&q=The+Day+We+Found+the+Universe |title=The Day We Found the Universe |date=2010 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc |isbn=9780307276605 |pages=x–xi}}</ref> Hubble's results for the Andromeda galaxy were not formally published in a [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[scientific journal]] until 1929.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=E. P.|last1=Hubble|author-link=Edwin Hubble|title=A spiral nebula as a stellar system, Messier 31|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=69|page=103|date=1929|bibcode=1929ApJ....69..103H|doi=10.1086/143167|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Hubble's findings fundamentally changed the scientific view of the universe. Supporters state that Hubble's discovery of nebulae outside of our galaxy helped pave the way for future astronomers.<ref>{{cite news |date=2002 |title=life in the universe Astronomy Encyclopedia. Philip's. Credo Reference |location=London, England}}</ref> Although some of his more renowned colleagues simply scoffed at his results, Hubble published his findings. This published work earned him an award titled the American Association Prize and five hundred dollars from Burton E. Livingston of the Committee on Awards.<ref name="Gale E. Christianson 1996" />

Hubble also devised the most commonly used [[Galaxy morphological classification|system for classifying galaxies]], grouping them according to their appearance in photographic images. He arranged the different groups of galaxies in what became known as the Hubble sequence.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Block |first1=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQh9hoLfoHoC&q=Hubble+sequence&pg=PA149 |title=Toward a new millennium in galaxy morphology |last2=Puerari |first2=Ivacircnio |last3=Stockton |first3=Alan |date=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9780792361855 |pages=146–150}}</ref>

===Redshift increases with distance===
Hubble went on to estimate the distances to 24 extra-galactic nebulae, using a variety of methods. In 1929, Hubble examined the relationship between these distances and their [[Radial velocity|radial velocities]] as determined from their [[redshift]]s. All of his estimated distances are now known to be too small, by up to a factor of about 7. This was due to factors such as the fact that there are two kinds of Cepheid variables or confusing bright gas clouds with bright stars.<ref name=Kirshner/> However, his distances were more or less proportional to the true distances, and combining his distances with measurements of the redshifts of the galaxies by [[Vesto Slipher]], and by his assistant [[Milton L. Humason]], he found a roughly linear relationship between the distances of the galaxies and their radial velocities (corrected for solar motion),<ref name="Hubbles Law" /> a discovery that later became known as Hubble's law.

This meant that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation. When interpreted that way, Hubble's measurements on 46 galaxies lead to a value for the [[Hubble's law|Hubble constant]] of 500&nbsp;km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted values of 74&nbsp;km/s/Mpc<ref name="gaiariess2018">{{cite journal |last1=Riess |first1=Adam G. |last2=Casertano |first2=Stefano |last3=Yuan |first3=Wenlong |last4=Macri |first4=Lucas |last5=Bucciarelli |first5=Beatrice |last6=Lattanzi |first6=Mario G. |last7=MacKenty |first7=John W. |last8=Bowers |first8=J. Bradley |last9=Zheng |first9=WeiKang |last10=Filippenko |first10=Alexei V. |last11=Huang |first11=Caroline |last12=Anderson |first12=Richard I. |title=Milky Way Cepheid Standards for Measuring Cosmic Distances and Application to Gaia DR2: Implications for the Hubble Constant |arxiv=1804.10655|journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=2018 |volume=861 |issue=2 |pages=126 |doi=10.3847/1538-4357/aac82e |language=en |issn=0004-637X|bibcode=2018ApJ...861..126R |s2cid=55643027 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="guardianhubbleconstant">{{cite news|last1=Devlin|first1=Hannah|title=The answer to life, the universe and everything might be 73. Or 67|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/may/10/the-answer-to-life-the-universe-and-everything-might-be-73-or-67|access-date=May 13, 2018|work=the Guardian|date=May 10, 2018|language=en}}</ref> (cosmic distance ladder method) or 68&nbsp;km/s/Mpc<ref name="2018planckcosmos">{{cite journal |title=Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters |url=https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/planck/publications#Planck2018 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |access-date=July 18, 2018|bibcode=2020A&A...641A...6P |author1=Planck Collaboration |last2=Aghanim |first2=N.|author2-link=Nabila Aghanim |last3=Akrami |first3=Y. |last4=Ashdown |first4=M. |last5=Aumont |first5=J. |last6=Baccigalupi |first6=C. |last7=Ballardini |first7=M. |last8=Banday |first8=A. J. |last9=Barreiro |first9=R. B. |last10=Bartolo |first10=N. |last11=Basak |first11=S. |last12=Battye |first12=R. |last13=Benabed |first13=K. |last14=Bernard |first14=J. -P. |last15=Bersanelli |first15=M. |last16=Bielewicz |first16=P. |last17=Bock |first17=J. J. |last18=Bond |first18=J. R. |last19=Borrill |first19=J. |last20=Bouchet |first20=F. R. |last21=Boulanger |first21=F. |last22=Bucher |first22=M. |last23=Burigana |first23=C. |last24=Butler |first24=R. C. |last25=Calabrese |first25=E. |last26=Cardoso |first26=J. -F. |last27=Carron |first27=J. |last28=Challinor |first28=A. |last29=Chiang |first29=H. C. |last30=Chluba |first30=J. |display-authors=29 |year=2020 |volume=641 |pages=A6 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 |arxiv=1807.06209 |s2cid=119335614 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Large Magellanic Cloud Cepheid Standards Provide a 1% Foundation for the Determination of the Hubble Constant and Stronger Evidence for Physics Beyond LambdaCDM|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 876|issue = 1|pages = 85|first1=Dan|last1=Scolnic|author1-link=Daniel M. Scolnic|first2=Lucas M.|last2=Macri|first3=Wenlong|last3=Yuan|first4=Stefano|last4=Casertano|first5=Adam G.|last5=Riess|date=March 18, 2019|arxiv = 1903.07603|doi = 10.3847/1538-4357/ab1422|bibcode = 2019ApJ...876...85R|s2cid = 85528549 | doi-access=free }}</ref> ([[Cosmic microwave background|CMB method]]) due to errors in their distance calibrations.

Yet the reason for the redshift remained unclear. Georges Lemaître predicted on theoretical grounds based on Einstein's equations for [[general relativity]] the [[redshift]]-distance relation, and published observational support for it, two years before the discovery of Hubble's law.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal| title = Lost in translation: Mystery of the missing text solved Mario Livio ''Nature'' 479, 171–173 (10 November 2011)| journal = Nature| date = November 2011| volume = 479| issue = 7372| pages = 171–173| doi = 10.1038/479171a| last1 = Livio| first1 = Mario| pmid = 22071745| s2cid = 203468083| doi-access = free}}</ref> Although he used the term "velocities" in his paper (and "apparent radial velocities" in the introduction), he later expressed doubt about interpreting these as real velocities. In 1931, he wrote a letter to the Dutch cosmologist [[Willem de Sitter]] expressing his opinion on the theoretical interpretation of the redshift-distance relation:<ref name="Kirshner">{{Cite journal |author=Kirshner |first=Robert P. |date=January 6, 2004 |title=Hubble's diagram and cosmic expansion |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=8–13 |bibcode=2004PNAS..101....8K |doi=10.1073/pnas.2536799100 |pmc=314128 |pmid=14695886 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Mr. Humason and I are both deeply sensible of your gracious appreciation of the papers on velocities and distances of nebulae. We use the term 'apparent' velocities to emphasize the empirical features of the correlation. The interpretation, we feel, should be left to you and the very few others who are competent to discuss the matter with authority.}}

Today, the "apparent velocities" in question are usually thought of as an increase in [[Comoving and proper distances|proper distance]] that occurs due to the [[expansion of the universe]]. Light traveling through an expanding metric will experience a Hubble-type redshift, a mechanism somewhat different from the [[Doppler effect]], although the two mechanisms become equivalent descriptions related by a [[Coordinate system#Transformations|coordinate transformation]] for nearby galaxies.

In the 1930s, Hubble was involved in determining the distribution of galaxies and [[shape of the universe|spatial curvature]]. These data seemed to indicate that the universe was [[Euclidean geometry|flat]] and homogeneous, but there was a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. According to [[Allan Sandage]],
{{blockquote|Hubble believed that his count data gave a more reasonable result concerning spatial curvature if the redshift correction was made assuming no recession. To the very end of his writings, he maintained this position, favouring (or at the very least keeping open) the model where no true expansion exists, and therefore that the redshift "represents a hitherto unrecognized principle of nature."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sandage | first1 = Allan | year = 1989 | title = Edwin Hubble 1889–1953 | url = http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/1996/sandage_hubble.html| journal = The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada | volume = 83 | issue = 6 }}</ref>}}

There were methodological problems with Hubble's survey technique that showed a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. In particular, the technique did not account for changes in luminosity of galaxies due to [[Galaxy formation and evolution|galaxy evolution]]. Earlier, in&nbsp;1917, [[Albert Einstein]] had found that his newly developed theory of general relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a [[cosmological constant]] (a&nbsp;"[[Wiktionary:fudge factor|fudge factor]]") to the equations to avoid this "problem". When Einstein learned of Hubble's redshifts, he immediately realized that the expansion predicted by general relativity must be real, and in later life, he said that changing his equations was "the biggest blunder of [his] life".<ref>{{cite web|title=Cosmological Constant|author=Public Broadcasting Station (PBS)|publisher=PBS.org|access-date=May 29, 2011|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/strange/html/strange_cosmo.html|archive-date=June 4, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604145438/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/strange/html/strange_cosmo.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Einstein visited Mount Wilson Observatory in 1931, and met Hubble. Einstein announced there that "the visit had changed his mind".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://carnegiescience.edu/about/history/carnegie-caltech-history|title=Carnegie Science and Caltech: A History of Collaboration|date=July 22, 2025|website=carnegiescience.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fi.edu/en/news/case-files-edwin-hubble|title=Case Files: Edwin Hubble &#124; The Franklin Institute|date=June 1, 2016|website=fi.edu}}</ref>

Hubble also discovered the [[asteroid]] [[1373 Cincinnati]] on August 30, 1935. In 1936 he wrote ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' and ''The Realm of the Nebulae'' which explained his approaches to extra-galactic astronomy and his view of the subject's history.

In December 1941, Hubble reported to the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] that results from a six-year survey with the Mount Wilson telescope did not support the expanding universe theory. According to a ''Los Angeles Times'' article reporting on Hubble's remarks, "The nebulae could not be uniformly distributed, as the telescope shows they are, and still fit the explosion idea. Explanations which try to get around what the great telescope sees, he said, fail to stand up. The explosion, for example, would have had to start long after the earth was created, and possibly even after the first life appeared here."<ref name="LATimes">{{cite journal|title=Savant Refutes Theory of Exploding Universe – Mt. Wilson Astronomer Reports Results of Long Searching With 100-Inch Telescope|journal=The Los Angeles Times |date=December 31, 1941 |page=10|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/160887084/}}</ref><ref name="Harnisch">{{cite web |author=Harnisch |first=Larry |date=December 31, 2011 |title=Hubble: No Evidence of 'Big Bang' Theory |url=https://ladailymirror.com/2011/12/31/hubble-no-evidence-of-big-bang-theory/ |website=Los Angeles Daily Mirror ([[WP:NEWSBLOG]])}} (Shows legible photo of the article.)</ref> (Hubble's estimate of what we now call the Hubble constant would put the Big Bang only 2 billion years ago.)

==Personal life==
Hubble married Grace Lillian (Burke) Leib (1889–1980), daughter of John Patrick and Luella (Kepford) Burke, on February 26, 1924.

Hubble was raised as a Protestant Christian, but some of his later statements suggest uncertainty.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6pMqCjVynG0C | isbn=9781609613204 | title=Fool Me Twice: Fighting the Assault on Science in America | date=October 11, 2011 | publisher=Harmony/Rodale }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Christianson |first=Gale E. |title=Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226105215 |location=Chicago, Illinois |page=183 |quote=One morning, while driving north with Grace after the failed eclipse expedition of 1923, he broached Whitehead's idea of a God who might have chosen from a great many possibilities to make a different universe, but He made this one. By contemplating the universe, one might approximate some idea of its Creator. As time passed, however, he seemed even less certain: "We do not know why we are born into the world, but we can try to find out what sort of a world it is – at least in its physical aspects." His life was dedicated to science and the objective world of phenomena. The world of pure values is one which science cannot enter, and science is unconcerned with the transcendent, however, compelling a private revelation or individual moment of ecstasy. He pulled no punches when a deeply depressed friend asked him about his belief: "The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I can't understand it, so I just trust myself to it, and forget about it."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bezzi |first=Tom |url=https://archive.org/details/hubbletime00tomb/page/93 |title=Hubble Time |date=2000 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=9780595142477 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hubbletime00tomb/page/93 93] |quote=John terribly depressed, and asked Edwin about his belief. Edwin said, "The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I can't understand it, so I just trust myself to it, and forget about it." It was not his nature to speculate. Theories, in his opinion, were an appropriate cocktail conversation. He was essentially an observer, and as he said in The Realm of the Nebulae: "Not until the empirical resources are exhausted, need we pass on to the dreamy realms of speculation." Edwin never exhausted those empirical resources. "I am an observer, not a theoretical man," he attested, and a lightly spoken word in a lecture or in a letter showed that observation was his choice.}}</ref>

===Health issues and death===
Hubble had a heart attack in July 1949 while on vacation in [[Colorado]]. He was cared for by his wife and continued on a modified diet and work schedule. He died of [[Thrombus|cerebral thrombosis]] (a blood clot in his brain) on September 28, 1953, in [[San Marino, California|San Marino]], California. No funeral was held for him, and his wife never revealed his burial site.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bryson |first=Bill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQ1iRQd52kgC&q=A+short+history+of+nearly+everything+Hubble+died&pg=PT238 |title=Short History of Nearly Everything: Special Illustrated Edition |date=2010 |publisher=Random House Digital, Incorporated |isbn=9780307885166}}</ref><ref name="PK">{{cite book |author=Kupperberg |first=Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/hubblebigbang0000kupp |title=Hubble and the Big Bang |date=2005 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=9781404203075 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hubblebigbang0000kupp/page/45 45]–6 |quote=World of Physics Hubble. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Heilbron |first=J. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPrqOr7P0QwC&q=Hubble+physics+astronomy+Noble&pg=PT181 |title=The Oxford guide to the history of physics and astronomy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=9780195171983 |volume=10 |pages=156–157}}</ref>

Hubble's papers comprising the bulk of his correspondence, photographs, notebooks, observing logbooks, and other materials, are held by the [[Huntington Library]] in San Marino, California. They were donated by his wife Grace Burke Hubble upon her death in 1980.<ref>{{cite web |title=Edwin Powell Hubble Papers: Finding Aid |url=https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7b69n8rd |website=oac.cdlib.org |access-date=October 24, 2023}}</ref>

==Controversies==
===Accusations concerning Lemaître's priority===
In 2011, the journal [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] reported claims that Hubble might have played a role in the [[redaction]] of key parts of the 1931 English translation of [[Georges Lemaître|Lemaître's]] 1927 paper, which formulated what was later called Hubble's law and also gave observational evidence. Historians quoted in the article were skeptical that the redactions were part of a campaign to ensure Hubble retained priority. However, the observational astronomer [[Sidney van den Bergh]] published a paper<ref name="Bergh">{{cite journal |last1=Bergh |first1=Sidney van den |title=The Curious Case of Lemaitre's Equation No. 24 |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |arxiv=1106.1195 |date=June 6, 2011|volume=105 |issue=4 |page=151 |bibcode=2011JRASC.105..151V }}</ref> suggesting that while the omissions may have been made by a translator, they may still have been deliberate.

In November 2011, the astronomer [[Mario Livio]] reported in ''Nature'' that a letter he found in the Lemaître archive demonstrated that the redaction had been made by Lemaître himself, who apparently saw no point in publishing scientific content which had already been reported in 1929 by Hubble.<ref name="nature.com"/> However, the fact remains that Lemaître published the law<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Georges |first1=Lemaître |title=Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques |journal=Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles |date=1927 |volume=47 |issue=A47 |pages=49–59 |bibcode=1927ASSB...47...49L }}</ref> in French, two years prior to Hubble.

===Campaign to obtain a Nobel Prize===
<!-- This heading refers to Hubble not receiving the prize -->
During Hubble's life the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] did not cover astronomy. Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered part of physics, instead of being a separate science. He did this largely so that astronomers—including himself—could be recognized by the [[Nobel Committee]] for their contributions to [[astrophysics]]. This campaign was unsuccessful in Hubble's lifetime, but shortly after his death, the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomical work would be eligible for the physics prize.<ref name="Gale E. Christianson 1996">{{cite book |author=Christianson |first=Gale E. |title=Edwin Hubble: mariner of the nebulae |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |page=362 |quote=Grace heard that Enrico Fermi and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, both members of the Nobel Committee, had joined their colleagues in unanimously voting Hubble the prize in physics, a rumor later confirmed by the astronomers Geoffrey and Margaret Burbidge after speaking with "Chandra.}}</ref> However, the Nobel prize is not awarded posthumously.

==Honors==
=== Awards ===
*[[Newcomb Cleveland Prize]] in 1924;<ref>{{cite web|title=Newcomb Cleveland Prize Recipients|url=http://www.aaas.org/page/newcomb-cleveland-prize-recipients|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]]|access-date=June 19, 2015}}</ref>
*[[Bruce Medal]] in 1938;<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.astrosociety.org/about-us/awards/past-recipients-of-the-catherine-wolfe-bruce-gold-medal-2/ | title=Past Recipients of the Catherine Wolfe Bruce Gold Medal | publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific | access-date=November 21, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904155621/https://www.astrosociety.org/about-us/awards/past-recipients-of-the-catherine-wolfe-bruce-gold-medal-2/ | archive-date=September 4, 2017 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[Franklin Medal]] in 1939;<ref name="Laureates Search">{{cite web |url=https://www.fi.edu/laureates-search |title=Laureates Search |website=The Franklin Institute Awards |publisher=[[Franklin Institute]] |access-date=May 8, 2015 }}</ref>
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] in 1940;<ref name="gold_medallists">{{cite web | url=http://www.ras.org.uk/images/stories/awards/winners/previous_winner_lists/2017/Gold_medallists.pdf | title=Gold Medal Winners | publisher=RAS | year=2014 | access-date=January 9, 2015 }}</ref>
*Legion of Merit for outstanding contribution to [[ballistics]] research in 1946.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cudnik |first=Brian |title=Faint Objects and How to Observe Them |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Verlag |isbn=978-1-4419-6756-5 |page=39}}</ref>

=== Honors ===
* Elected member of the United States [[National Academy of Sciences]] in 1927;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edwin Hubble |url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001092.html |access-date=July 19, 2023 |website=www.nasonline.org}}</ref>
* Elected member of the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1929.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Edwin+P.+Hubble&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=July 19, 2023 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>

=== Namesakes ===
* [[Asteroid]] [[2069 Hubble]];
* The crater [[Hubble (crater)|Hubble]] on the [[Moon]];
* Orbiting [[Hubble Space Telescope]];
* Edwin P. Hubble Planetarium, located in the Edward R. Murrow High School, [[Brooklyn]], New York;<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ermurrowhs.org/planetarium.html | title=PLANETARIUM | publisher=Edward R. Murrow High School | access-date=November 21, 2017 | archive-date=December 1, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201031432/http://www.ermurrowhs.org/planetarium.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Edwin Hubble Highway, the stretch of [[Interstate 44]] passing through his birthplace of [[Marshfield, Missouri|Marshfield]], Missouri;<ref name="Heim2007">{{cite book|last=Heim|first=Michael|title=Exploring Missouri Highways: Trip Trivia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI7DRUZCWOQC&pg=PA62|access-date=November 21, 2017|year=2007|publisher=Exploring America's Highway|isbn=9780974435862|page=62}}</ref>
* Hubble Middle School, a public school in [[Wheaton, Illinois|Wheaton]], Illinois, where he lived from 11 years old and up.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cusd200.org/domain/645|access-date=September 17, 2018|title=School Information / School Information|archive-date=September 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918054226/https://www.cusd200.org/domain/645|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Postage stamp===
On March 6, 2008, the [[United States Postal Service]] released a 41-cent stamp honoring Hubble on a sheet titled "American Scientists" designed by artist [[Victor Stabin]].<ref name=PK/> His citation reads:<ref>{{cite web|title=Hubble of the Century Sees Galaxies|url=https://socialbilitty.com/2014/04/hubble-of-the-century-sees-galaxies/|date=April 19, 2014|publisher=[[Socialbilitty]]|access-date=July 21, 2017|archive-date=October 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004085043/https://socialbilitty.com/2014/04/hubble-of-the-century-sees-galaxies/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Often called a "pioneer of the distant stars", astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) played a pivotal role in deciphering the vast and complex nature of the universe. His meticulous studies of spiral nebulae proved the existence of galaxies other than our own Milky Way. Had he not died suddenly in 1953, Hubble would have won that year's Nobel Prize in Physics.}}

(The assertion that he would have won the Nobel Prize in 1953 is likely false, although he was nominated for the prize that year.<ref>{{cite arXiv
 |eprint=1705.10125
 |title=Verification of the anecdote about Edwin Hubble and the Nobel Prize
 |last=Tsumura
 |first=Kohji
 |date=May 29, 2017
|class=physics.hist-ph
}}</ref>)

The other scientists on the "American Scientists" sheet include [[Gerty Cori]], biochemist; [[Linus Pauling]], chemist, and [[John Bardeen]], physicist.

=== Other notable appearances ===
* 1934 delivered the [[Halley Lectures|Halley Lecture]]<ref>Hubble, Edwin Powell. "Red-shifts in the Spectra of Nebulae." Oxford (1934). https://www.worldcat.org/title/9863838.</ref> at [[University of Oxford]];
* [[Hall of Famous Missourians]] 2003;<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.house.mo.gov/famous.aspx?fm=31 | title=Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) | work=Hall of Famous Missourians | publisher=Missouri House of Representatives | access-date=November 21, 2017}}</ref>
* 2008 "American Scientists" US stamp series, $0.41;<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.usstampgallery.com/view.php?id=6ff5d68e00cfc4b29b59410be5bde956a0be57e6&Edwin_Hubble | title=Edwin Hubble | publisher=U.S. Stamp Gallery | access-date=November 21, 2017}}</ref>
* 2017 [[Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hoopshall.com/hall-of-fame/edwin-hubble/?back=HallofFame | title=Edwin Hubble | publisher=Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame | access-date=November 21, 2017}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
In the 1980 documentary ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage]]'' by astronomer [[Carl Sagan]], Hubble's life and work are portrayed on screen in episode 10, "The Edge of Forever".

The play ''Creation's Birthday'', written by Cornell physicist Hasan Padamsee, tells Hubble's life story.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/breaking/2011/11/01/on-stage-hubble%25e2%2580%2599s-contentious-life-and-science |title=On stage: Hubble's contentious life and science |journal=Symmetry |date=November 1, 2011 |access-date=September 15, 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Columns-list|
* [[Astronomy]]
** [[Distance measure]]s
** [[Cosmic distance ladder]]
** [[K correction]]
* [[Galaxy|Galaxies]]
** [[Hubble sequence]]
** [[Galaxy morphological classification]]
** [[Gérard de Vaucouleurs]]
** [[Spiral galaxy]]
** [[Whirlpool Galaxy]]
** [[William Wilson Morgan]]
* [[Expansion of the universe]]
** [[Big Bang]]
** [[General relativity]]
** [[Hubble's law]]
** [[Albert Einstein]]
* [[Hubble Space Telescope]]
* [[Edwin Hubble House]], residence and [[National Historic Landmark]] in San Marino, California
* [[Great Debate (astronomy)|The Great Debate]] of April 26, 1920
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Bartusiak, Marcia. ''The Day We Found the Universe''. New York: Pantheon, 2009.
* Christianson, Gale; ''Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae'' Farrar Straus & Giroux (T) (New York, August 1995.)
* Hubble E. P., ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' (Oxford, 1937.)
* {{cite book |last=Hubble |first=Edwin Powell |author-link=Edwin Hubble |title=The realm of the nebulae |orig-year=1936 |year=1982 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Connecticut |isbn=9780300025002 |oclc=611263346 |series=Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman memorial lectures, 25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kgiXdDGLpFUC}} [https://archive.org/details/TheRealmOfTheNebulae Alt URL]
* {{cite journal |last=Hubble |first=Edwin |date=1929 |title=A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae |journal=[[PNAS]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=168–173 |doi=10.1073/pnas.15.3.168 |pmid=16577160 |pmc=522427 |bibcode=1929PNAS...15..168H|doi-access=free }}
* Mayall, N. U., [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/d_1996/hubble_nas.html Edwin Powell Hubble] Biographical Memoirs NAS 41.
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0793-84 |last1=Osterbrock |first1=Donald E. |last2=Gwinn |first2=Joel A. |last3=Brashear |first3=Ronald S. |title=Edwin Hubble and the Expanding Universe |journal=Scientific American |date=July 1993 |volume=269 |pages=84–89 |issue=1 |bibcode=1993SciAm.269a..84O}}
* Harry Nussbaumer and [[Lydia Bieri]], ''Discovering the expanding universe''. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Edwin Hubble}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070319180642/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990615,00.html ''Time'' profile]
* [http://www.astro.louisville.edu/education/hubble_in_louisville/nahs/ Astronomy at the University of Louisville]&nbsp;– Photographs of Edwin Hubble at [[New Albany High School (Indiana)|New Albany High School]]
* [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/1996/sandage_hubble.html Edwin Hubble bio]&nbsp;– Written by [[Allan Sandage]]
* {{MacTutor|id=Hubble}}
* [http://www.aps.org/publications/capitolhillquarterly/200802/physicshistory.cfm American Physical Society's Hubble Bio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705040421/http://www.aps.org/publications/capitolhillquarterly/200802/physicshistory.cfm |date=July 5, 2008 }}
* [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/history/the_man_behind_the_name.html Edwin Powell Hubble&nbsp;– The man who discovered the cosmos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531034703/http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/history/the_man_behind_the_name.html |date=May 31, 2009 }}
* [http://nimble.nimblebrain.net/hubblepaper.html Edwin Hubble – The problem of the expanding universe, 1942]

{{Scientists whose names are used in physical constants}}
{{Hubble Space Telescope}}
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