View source for El Tatio

{{Short description|Geyser field located in the Andes Mountains, Chile}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
[[File:Géiseres del Tatio, Atacama, Chile, 2016-02-01, DD 01-02 HDR.JPG|thumb|El Tatio geyser field|alt=Bent steam plumes rising from a desolate landscape|upright=1.2]]
'''El Tatio''' is a geothermal field with many [[geyser]]s located in the [[Andes]] Mountains of [[Norte Grande|northern Chile]] at {{convert|4320|m}} above mean sea level. It is the third-largest geyser field in the world and the largest in the [[Southern Hemisphere]]. Various meanings have been proposed for the name "El Tatio", including "oven" or "grandfather". The geothermal field has many geysers, [[hot spring]]s, and associated [[Siliceous sinter|sinter deposits]].{{efn|Sinter is a form of [[silica]] that is formed by its precipitation from hot waters. Microbes can live in pores within the sinter.{{sfn|Renaut|Jones|2011|pp=808–813}}}} The water from these hot springs eventually forms the [[Salado River (Antofagasta, Chile)|Rio Salado]], a major tributary of the [[Loa River|Rio Loa]], significantly increasing the amount of [[arsenic]] in the river. The geothermal vents are sites of populations of [[extremophile]] microorganisms such as [[hyperthermophile]]s, and El Tatio has been studied as an analogue for the [[early Earth]] and possible past [[life on Mars]].

El Tatio lies at the western foot of a series of [[stratovolcano]]es which runs along the border between Chile and Bolivia. This series of volcanoes is part of the [[Andean Volcanic Belt#Central Volcanic Zone|Central Volcanic Zone]] (one of several volcanic belts in the Andes), and of the [[Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex]] (APVC)&nbsp;&ndash; a system of large [[caldera]]s and associated [[ignimbrite]]s which were the sources of [[Supervolcano|supereruptions]] between 10 million and 1 million years ago. Some of these calderas may be the source of heat for the El Tatio geothermal system. There are no recorded eruptions of the Tatio volcanoes in the historical period.

The field is a major [[tourism]] destination in northern Chile. It was prospected over the last century for [[Geothermal power in Chile|geothermal power]] production, but development efforts were discontinued after a major incident in 2009 in which a geothermal well blew out, creating a steam column. The blowout caused a political controversy about [[geothermal power]] development in Chile.

== Name and research history ==
The term "tatio" comes from the nearly-extinct [[Kunza language]]; known meanings of the word include 'to appear' and 'oven',{{sfn|Latorre|1997|p=191}} but it has also been translated as 'grandfather'{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=35}} (whose tears form the geysers{{sfn|Fonck|2024|p=87}}) or 'burnt'. The geyser field is also known as the Copacoya geysers;{{sfn|Rudolph|1927|p=571}} Copacoya is the name of a mountain in the area.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|pp=8, 9}}

The earliest mentions of geysers in the region are from the late 19th century,{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=33}} and they were already well known by 1952.{{sfn|Rudolph|1952|p=568}} The first geothermal prospecting of the field occurred in the 1920s{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|pp=126, 127}} and the field was mentioned in academic literature in 1943.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=6}} More systematic research took place in 1967–1982;{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|pp=126,127}} most research on this geothermal field was done in the context of geothermal prospecting.{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=664}}

== Geography and geomorphology ==
<mapframe latitude="-22.350" longitude="-68.027" zoom="4" width="400" height="300" align="right" text="Location of El Tatio in northern Chile close to the border between Chile and Bolivia.">{
  "type": "FeatureCollection",
  "features": [
    {
      "type": "Feature",
      "properties": {"title": "Geyser El Tatio",
        "marker-color": "#ff0000",
        "marker-size": "medium",
},
      "geometry": {
        "type": "Point",
        "coordinates": [
          -68.010278,
          -22.331389
        ]
      }
    }
  ]
}</mapframe>El Tatio lies in the municipality of [[Calama, Chile|Calama]],{{sfn|Sernageomin|2023|p=37}} [[Antofagasta Province]] of northern Chile close to the border between Chile and [[Bolivia]].{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=703}}{{efn|As established by the [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904)|Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904]], the border between Bolivia and Chile runs along the [[drainage divide]] on the Cordillera del Tatio.{{sfn|BorderBolivia|1904|p=222}}}} The field is located {{convert|89|-|80|km}} north of the town [[San Pedro de Atacama]] and {{convert|100|km}} east of the town of Calama;{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=127}}{{sfn|Intendencia|2018}} Chile Route B-245 connects El Tatio to San Pedro de Atacama.{{sfn|Diario|2017}} Towns close to El Tatio are [[Toconce]] to the north, [[Caspana]] to the west and [[Machuca]] to the south.{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=665}} A workers' camp for a [[sulfur]] [[mining|mine]] at Volcan Tatio was reported to exist in 1959.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=8}} The old [[Inca Empire|Inca]] trail from San Pedro de Atacama to [[Silala River|Siloli]] crossed the geyser field;{{sfn|Rudolph|1927|p=571}} the Inca also operated a mountain sanctuary on Volcan Tatio.{{sfn|Besom|2013|p=12}} There are several unpaved roads and all parts of the field are easily accessible by foot.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=36}}

[[File:El Tatio topography.png|thumb|Topography of the El Tatio region|alt=Map of the El Tatio region]]
El Tatio is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, a segment of the Andes between 14° and 28° southern latitude where the Andes are volcanically active. This volcanism manifests itself with about 10 silicic caldera complexes of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex and more than 50 recently active volcanoes; [[Lascar (volcano)|Lascar volcano]] erupted in 1993 and produced a tall [[eruption column]].{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=128}}

East of the field, [[Andesite|andesitic]] stratovolcanoes reach elevations of about {{convert|5000|m}}.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=128}} From north to south, the andesitic stratovolcanoes include the {{convert|5651|m|adj=on}}{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=6}}{{sfn|GVP}}{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}} or {{convert|5696|m|adj=mid}} high [[Cerro Deslinde]] which is the highest in the area,{{sfn|Jenny|Kammer|1996|p=52}} the {{convert|5560|m|adj=on}} high Cerro El Volcan, the {{convert|5280|-|5570|m|adj=on}} high Cordillera del Tatio and the {{convert|5314|m|adj=on}} high Volcan Tatio, which collectively form the El Tatio volcanic group.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=6}}{{sfn|GVP}}{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}}{{efn|The toponymy of the Cordillera del Tatio varies between maps.{{sfn|Jenny|Kammer|1996|p=52}}}} The Sierra de Tucle lies to the southwest of the field.{{sfn|Giggenbach|1978|p=979}}

Mountains southwest of El Tatio include the {{convert|4570|-|4690|m|adj=on}} high Alto Ojo del Cablor range, while {{convert|4812|m|adj=on}} high Cerro Copacoya is situated northwest of the geothermal field.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|pp=8, 9}} Volcanism with [[dacite|dacitic]] composition, older than the easterly stratovolcanoes, has occurred west of El Tatio;{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=6}} this volcanism was known as the "[[Rhyolite|liparitic]] [[Formation (geology)|formation]]" and it covers large areas in the region.{{efn|The "Liparitic formation" was later divided into a number of additional [[geological formation]]s.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|pp=95, 96}}}}{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=7}}

[[Firn]] and [[snow]] fields were reported in the middle 20th century on the El Tatio volcanic group, at elevations of {{convert|4900|-|5200|m}}.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=11}} The region is too dry to support [[glacier]]s today,{{sfn|Kull|Grosjean|2000|p=623}} but in the past higher moisture allowed their formation on mountains of this part of the Andes.{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|p=670}}{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|p=672}} Glacially eroded mountains and [[moraine]]s testify to their existence{{sfn|Hollingworth|Guest|1967|p=749}} in the form of large [[valley glacier]]s.{{sfn|Jenny|Kammer|1996|p=52}} A large moraine complex, including both terminal structures and well-developed lateral moraines, can be found north of the geyser field{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|p=687}} and reflects the past existence of a {{convert|10|km}} long glacier, the longest valley glacier in the region.{{sfn|Jenny|Kammer|1996|pp=52–53}} Two more moraine systems extend westward both northeast and southeast of El Tatio, and the terrain surrounding the geyser field is covered by sands that are interpreted as glacial outwash sands.{{sfn|Hollingworth|Guest|1967|pp=750, 751}} [[Surface exposure dating]] indicates that some moraines were emplaced at or before the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] and others in a time period 35,000 to 40,000 years before present.{{efn|Elsewhere in the Central Andes a glacier advance has been inferred about 40,000 years ago, at the same time as the [[Inca Huasi (ancient lake)|Inca Huasi]] lake stage in the [[Altiplano]].{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|p=689}}}}{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|p=688}} Smaller moraines at higher altitude may date to the [[Antarctic Cold Reversal]] or the [[Younger Dryas]] climate periods;{{sfn|Palacios|Stokes|Phillips|Clague|2020|p=33}} moraines related to the [[Lake Tauca]] stage are either absent or restricted to high elevation sites.{{sfn|Palacios|Stokes|Phillips|Clague|2020|p=27}}

[[File:03-tocopilla-calama (El Tatio).jpg|thumb|1910 map of the region|alt=1910 map]]
Drainage in the area is generally from east to west down the [[Cordillera Occidental (Central Andes)|Occidental Cordillera]],{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=704}} often in form of steeply incised valleys.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=8}} The [[Salado River (Antofagasta, Chile)|Rio Salado]] drains most of the hot spring water{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=704}}{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=37}} and has its headwaters in the field{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=664}} where it is joined by the [[Rio Tucle]]{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=704}}{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=37}} and the Vicuna stream.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2021|p=3}} Temperature measurements of the water flowing to the Rio Salado have yielded values of {{convert|17|-|32|C}},{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=11}} while the discharge of the Rio Salado amounts to {{val|0.25|-|0.5|ul=m3/s}}.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|2018|p=3}} The Rio Salado eventually joins the Rio Loa, a major source of freshwater for the region;{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=664}} thus, El Tatio plays an important role in the regional water supply.{{sfn|Pierce|Malin|Figueroa|2012|p=79}} In the early 20th century there were several [[hydraulic engineering]] projects at El Tatio, aiming either to use its waters or to mitigate its impact on downstream water quality.{{sfn|Pizarro|2001|p=407}}

=== Geothermal field ===
El Tatio is well known as a geothermal field in Chile,{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=703}} and is the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere with about 8% of all geysers in the world. Only the fields at [[Yellowstone National Park|Yellowstone]] in the [[United States]] and [[Valley of Geysers|Dolina Geizerov]] in [[Russia]]{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=38}} are larger.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=32}} They also have taller geysers than at El Tatio,{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=38}} where geyser fountains are on average only {{convert|75|cm}} high.{{sfn|Sernatur|2018}} Together with [[Sol de Mañana]], which is just east of El Tatio in Bolivia,{{sfn|Veloso|Tardani|Elizalde|Godoy|2020|p=1297}} it is also the highest-altitude geyser field in the world.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=127}}{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=32}}

[[File:ElTatio-CerroSoquete-2004.jpg|thumb|The Andes rise behind El Tatio|alt=The steam plumes of the field at the feet of mountains, with higher snow-covered mountains far away]]
The geothermal field covers an area of {{convert|30|km2}} at elevations of {{convert|4200|-|4600|m}}, and is characterized by [[fumarole]]s, hot springs, [[soffioni|steam vents]] and steaming soil. Stronger geothermal activity is located within three discrete areas covering a total of {{convert|10|km2}} surface, and includes boiling water fountains, hot springs, geysers, [[mudpot]]s, [[mud volcano]]es and [[sinter terrace]]s;{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=127}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}} further, chimneys of extinct geysers have been noted.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=10}} One of these three areas lies within a valley, the second on a flat surface and the third along the banks of the Rio Salado.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=33}} The first area offers a notable contrast between the snow-covered Andes, the coloured hills that surround the field and the white deposits left by the geothermal activity. Most geysers of El Tatio are found here and are particularly noticeable in cold weather. A similar landscape exists at the third (lower) area, with the presence of the Rio Salado river adding an additional element to the landscape.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|pp=39,40}}{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=55}} The second area is located between a creek and a hill and includes an artificial {{convert|15|x|30|m|adj=on}} pool for tourists.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=63}} Its vents often have higher discharges than others in the field.{{sfn|Hao|Mänd|Swaren|Myers|2021|p=3}}

About 110 documented geothermal manifestations have been documented at El Tatio, but the total has been estimated at 400.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=1}} The field once numbered 67 geysers and more than three hundred hot springs. Many vents are linked to [[fracture]]s that run northwest–southeast or southwest–northeast across the field.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}} Some geyser fountains in the past reached heights greater than {{convert|10|m}};{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=291}} usually, however, they do not exceed {{convert|1|m}}{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=32}} and their activity sometimes varies over time.{{sfn|Gong|Myers|Munoz-Saez|Homann|2019|p=2}} A few geysers have received names, such as Boiling Geyser, El Cobreloa, El Cobresal, El Jefe, Terrace Geyser, Tower Geyser and Vega Rinconada.{{sfn|Plenge|Engel|Omelon|Bennett|2016|p=221}}{{sfn|Phoenix|Bennett|Engel|Tyler|2006|p=17}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Namiki|Manga|2015|p=7490}} Minor eruptions of the geysers occur approximately every dozen minutes and major eruptions every few hours on average, and major eruptions take place after the conduit was "prepared" by multiple smaller ones.{{sfn|Eibl|Hainzl|Vesely|Walter|2020|pp=1–2}} The terrain surrounding a geyser tilts as it recharges and discharges.{{sfn|Eibl|Müller|Walter|Allahbakhshi|2021|p=13}} An additional geothermal system lies southeast of and at elevations above El Tatio and is characterized by steam-heated ponds fed by precipitation water,{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=664}} and [[Fumarole|solfataric]] activity has been reported on the stratovolcanoes farther east.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=7}}
[[File:Géiseres del Tatio, Atacama, Chile, 2016-02-01, DD 74-77 PAN.JPG|thumb|The sinter landscape formed at El Tatio|alt=A plain overgrown with yellow bush at the foot of mountains]]
Deposition of sinter from the waters of the geothermal field has given rise to spectacular landforms, including, but not limited to mounds, terraced pools, geyser cones and the dams that form their rims.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}} Small-scale features include cones, crusts, mollusc-shaped formations, [[waterfall]]-like surfaces{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=12}} and very small terraces.{{sfn|Barbieri|Cavalazzi|2018|pp=3–4}} These sinter deposits cover an area of about {{convert|30|km2}} and include both active and inactive deposits,{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=1}} both of which were emplaced on glacial sediments.{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=2}} High contents of [[Silicon dioxide|silica]] give the waters a blueish colour, organic compounds such as [[carotenoid]]s conversely often colour the sinter with orange-brown,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=140}} and greenish hues are owing to [[iron-oxidizing bacteria]].{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=13}} Sinter accumulation is so rapid that debris and [[microbe]]s can become entrapped and preserved in the sinter.{{sfn|Sánchez-García|Lezcano|Carrizo|Severino|2023|p=2}}

Individual vent types and deposits found at El Tatio include:
* Hot springs form pools with water temperatures of {{convert|60|-|80|C}}, which are often gently moving and surging and in the case of the warmer springs actively bubbling. These pools often contain ball-like rocks called [[Oncolite|oncoids]] and are surrounded by sinter rims, which have [[Sponge spicule|spicule]]-like textures.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=131}} These sinter rims often form dam-like structures around deeper vents which are filled with water.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=298}} Spherical grains develop in the hot springs as a consequence of hydrodynamic processes, and include biogenic material; during the growth of the sinter they often end up embedded in the material.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=132}}
* Water draining from the springs deposits sinter, which can form fairly thick deposits and large aprons when [[sheet flow]] occurs, known as "discharge deposits"; sometimes terraces are developed instead. As in springs, oncoids and spicules are observed in channels. Much of the water evaporates and its temperature drops from {{convert|30|-|35|C}} to less than {{convert|20|C}} away from the springs;{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=133}} the low air temperatures cause it to freeze occasionally, resulting in [[frost weathering]].{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=299}}
* Geysers and also water fountains discharge from up to {{convert|3|m|adj=on}} high cones{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=298}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=158}} with gently sloping surfaces, which sometimes support [[splash mound]]s.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=135}} The cones are made out of [[geyserite]].{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=136}} Other geysers and fountains instead discharge from within rim-bounded pools,{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=158}} and some geysers are in the bed of the Rio Salado river.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=33}} The activity of geysers is not stable over time; changes in water supply or in the properties of the conduit that supplies them can cause changes in their eruptive activity. Such changes can be triggered by [[rain]]fall events or [[earthquake]]s and at El Tatio geyser behaviour changes have been linked to the [[2014 Iquique earthquake]] and a 2013 precipitation event.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Namiki|Manga|2015|p=7502}} The water of geysers is {{convert|80|-|85|C}} hot.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=135}}
* Mud pools are often bubbling, with the hot mud fountaining.{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=11}} They are mainly found at the edges of the geothermal field and often produce highly acidic water; it converts rocks to [[clay]]s.{{sfn|Hao|Mänd|Swaren|Myers|2021|p=4}} Simmering pools of water have been recorded at El Tatio as well.{{sfn|Rudolph|1927|p=571}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="250">
File:Géiseres del Tatio, Atacama, Chile, 2016-02-01, DD 03-05 HDR.JPG|alt=The vent is a small cone surrounded by yellow rocks in an unvegetated landscape|A vent surrounded by yellow rocks
File:Géiseres del Tatio, Atacama, Chile, 2016-02-01, DD 24-26 HDR.JPG|alt=The vent is a small cone surrounded by steam in an unvegetated landscape|Geyser cone
File:Géiseres del Tatio, Atacama, Chile, 2016-02-01, DD 36-38 HDR.JPG|alt=The vent is a small steaming cone with a polished appearance in an unvegetated landscape|Geyser cone
File:Géiseres del Tatio, Atacama, Chile, 2016-02-01, DD 39-41 HDR.JPG|alt=The vent is a small steaming cone with a polished appearance in an unvegetated landscape|Geyser cone
</gallery>

== Geology ==
[[Subduction]] of the [[Nazca Plate]] beneath the [[South American Plate]] is responsible for the formation of the Andes. Volcanism does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; there are three volcanic zones called the [[Andean Volcanic Belt#Northern Volcanic Zone|Northern Volcanic Zone]], the Central Volcanic Zone and the [[Andean Volcanic Belt#Southern Volcanic Zone|Southern Volcanic Zone]], all separated by areas with no [[Holocene]]-age volcanism.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=128}}{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=94}}

El Tatio and a number of other geothermal fields such as Sol de Mañana are part of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex. The region was dominated by andesitic volcanism producing [[lava]] flows until the late [[Miocene]], then large-scale ignimbrite activity took place between 10 and 1 million years ago. This ignimbrite volcanism is part of the APVC proper and produced about {{convert|10000|km3}} of ignimbrites, covering a surface area of {{convert|50000|km2}}. The APVC activity continued into the Holocene with the emission of voluminous [[lava dome]]s and lava flows,{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=36}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=128}} and Tatio was one of the last volcanic centres in the APVC to erupt;{{sfn|Godoy|Taussi|González-Maurel|Renzulli|2019|p=2}} the present-day uplift of the [[Uturunku]] volcano in Bolivia may signal ongoing activity of the APVC.{{sfn|Salisbury|Jicha|Silva|Singer|2011|p=835}} The APVC is underpinned by a large [[magma chamber]] with the shape of a [[sill (geology)|sill]], the [[Altiplano-Puna Magma Body]]; a number of volcanoes and geothermal systems including El Tatio are geographically associated with the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body.{{sfn|Veloso|Tardani|Elizalde|Godoy|2020|p=1300}}

The [[Laguna Colorada (caldera)|Laguna Colorada]] caldera lies east of El Tatio.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=128}} The terrain at El Tatio is formed by [[Jurassic]]–[[Cretaceous]] sediments of marine and volcanic origin, [[Tertiary period|Tertiary]]–Holocene volcanic formations that were emplaced in various episodes, and recent sediments formed by glaciers, [[alluvium]], [[colluvium]] and material formed by the geothermal field, such as sinter.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|pp=128, 129}} Volcanic formations fill the Tatio graben, including the Miocene Rio Salado ignimbrite and related volcanics which reach thicknesses of {{convert|1900|m}} in some places, the Sifon ignimbrite, the [[Pliocene]] Puripicar ignimbrite and the [[Pleistocene]] Tatio ignimbrite;{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|p=2051}}{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=114}} the Puripicar ignimbrite crops out farther west.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=105}} Active volcanoes in the area include [[Putana (volcano)|Putana]] and [[Tocorpuri]].{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|p=2056}}

[[Hydrothermal circulation|Hydrothermal]] alteration of [[Country rock (geology)|country rock]] at El Tatio has yielded large deposits of alteration minerals such as [[illite]], [[nobleite]], [[Clay minerals|smectite]], [[teruggite]] and [[ulexite]].{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|p=2051}} The summit parts of several volcanoes of the El Tatio volcanic group have been bleached and discoloured by hydrothermal activity.{{sfn|Zeil|1959b|p=230}}

=== Hydrology ===
Most of the water that is discharged by the hot springs appears to originate as [[precipitation]], which enters the ground east and southeast of El Tatio. The source of heat of the complex appears to be the Laguna Colorada caldera,{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Namiki|Manga|2015|p=7491}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}} the El Tatio volcanic group,{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|2018|p=3}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}} the [[Cerro Guacha]] and [[Pastos Grandes]] calderas{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=665}}{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|pp=36, 37}} or the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=2}} The movement of the water in the ground is controlled by the permeability of the volcanic material and the Serrania de Tucle–Loma Lucero tectonic block west of El Tatio that acts as an obstacle.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=288}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}}{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=8}} As it moves through the ground, it acquires heat and minerals{{sfn|Giggenbach|1978|p=979}} and loses steam through evaporation. Unlike geothermal fields in wetter parts of the world, given the dry climate of the area, local precipitation has little influence on the hot springs hydrology at El Tatio.{{sfn|Giggenbach|1978|p=987}} Neither magmatic water nor water from local precipitation are mixed into this water.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=6}} The time the water takes to traverse the whole path from precipitation to the springs is considered to be either 15 years{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=703}} or more than 60,{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=2}} and three-quarters of the heat is transported by steam.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=2}}

The water travels through a number of [[aquifer]]s that correspond to permeable rock [[Geological formation|formations]], such as the Salado and Puripicar ignimbrites,{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=6}}{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=710}} the Tucle dacites{{sfn|Hao|Mänd|Swaren|Myers|2021|p=3}} as well as through [[fault (geology)|faults]] and [[fracture]]s in the rock.{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=665}} It steeply ascends under El Tatio{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=11}} and appears to be confined between northeast-trending fault systems{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=12}} such as the "Tatio fault".{{sfn|Müller|Walter|Zimmer|Gonzalez|2022|p=3}} Three separate geothermal reservoirs have been identified, which underlie the Cerros del Tatio and extend to the La Torta volcano; they are connected by, and partly formed in cavities formed by faults.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=20}} The Puripicar ignimbrite appears to be the main hydrothermal reservoir, with temperatures reaching {{convert|253|C}}.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Namiki|Manga|2015|p=7491}} The total heat output of El Tatio is about {{val|120|-|170|ul=MW}}.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|2018|p=14}} The hydrothermal system beneath El Tatio appears to extend to the neighbouring [[Tocorpuri|La Torta]] system.{{sfn|Aravena|Muñoz|Morata|Lahsen|2016|p=6}}

Depending on the season, the hot springs yield {{val|0.25|-|0.5|u=m3/s}} of water at temperatures reaching the local [[boiling point]]. The water is rich in minerals,{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}} especially [[sodium chloride]]{{sfn|Cortecci|Boschetti|Mussi|Lameli|2005|pp=547–571}} and silica.{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=2}} Other compounds and elements in order of increasing concentration are [[antimony]], [[rubidium]], [[strontium]], [[bromine]], [[magnesium]], [[caesium]], [[lithium]], arsenic, [[sulfate]], [[boron]], [[potassium]] and [[calcium]].{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}}{{sfn|Cortecci|Boschetti|Mussi|Lameli|2005|pp=547–571}} Inorganic carbon ([[carbonate]]) occurs at a low concentration.{{sfn|Hao|Mänd|Swaren|Myers|2021|p=4}}

Some of these minerals are toxic,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=140}} especially arsenic which pollutes a number of waters in the region.{{sfn|Landrum|Bennett|Engel|Alsina|2009|p=664}} Arsenic concentrations in waters at El Tatio can reach {{val|40|-|50|ul=mg/L}} – among the highest concentrations found in hot springs of the whole world –{{sfn|Wang|Li|Guo|Jiang|2018|p=4}}{{sfn|Tapia|Murray|Ormachea|Tirado|2019|p=315}} and {{val|11|u=g/kg}} in sediments.{{sfn|Wang|Li|Guo|Jiang|2018|p=11}} Producing about {{convert|500|t/year}},{{sfn|Ingebritsen|Evans|2019|p=9}} El Tatio is a principal source of arsenic in the Rio Loa system, and arsenic pollution in the region has been linked to health issues in the population.{{sfn|Alsina|Zanella|Hoel|Pizarro|2014|p=434}}

Composition of these hot springs is not uniform in El Tatio, with [[chloride]] content decreasing from the northern springs over the southwestern ones to the eastern springs, where sulfate is more frequent.{{sfn|Giggenbach|1978|p=979}} This sulfate enrichment appears to be driven by the steam-driven evaporation of the hot spring water,{{sfn|Giggenbach|1978|p=984}} with the sulfate forming when [[hydrogen sulfide]] is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen.{{sfn|Giggenbach|1978|p=985}} The decreasing chloride content on the other hand appears to be due to drainage coming from the east diluting the southern and western and especially eastern spring systems.{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=706}}

=== Fumaroles ===
Steam vents are particularly noticeable in the morning hours when the steam columns emanating from them are visible,{{sfn|Müller|Walter|Zimmer|Gonzalez|2022|p=4}}{{sfn|Intendencia|2018}}{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=10}} and temperatures of {{convert|48.3|-|91.6|C}} have been found.{{sfn|Martínez|Campano|Medina|Tassi|2006|p=73}} [[Carbon dioxide]] is the most important fumarole gas, followed by hydrogen sulfide.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=291}}{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}}{{sfn|Martínez|Campano|Medina|Tassi|2006|p=73}} The amount of water relative to these two gases is variable, probably due to condensation of water in the ground.{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|pp=706, 707}}

Additional components include [[argon]], [[helium]], [[hydrogen]], [[methane]], [[neon]], [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Characteristically for fumarole gases on convergent plate boundaries, much of this nitrogen is non-atmospheric. However, atmospheric air is also involved in generating the chemistry of the El Tatio fumarole gases.{{sfn|Martínez|Campano|Medina|Tassi|2006|p=74}}

=== Composition of spring deposits ===
[[Opal]] is the most important component of sinter associated with hot springs; [[halite]], [[sylvite]] and [[realgar]] are less common.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=133}} This dominance of opal is because usually conditions favour its [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] from water but not of other minerals,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=138}} and it occurs both in subaqueous environments and on surfaces that are only occasionally wetted. During the precipitation, the opal forms tiny spheres which can aggregate as well as glassy deposits.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=139}}

Halite and other [[evaporite]]s are more commonly encountered on the sinter surfaces outside of the hot springs,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=134}} and while opal dominates these environments too, [[sassolite]] and teruggite are found in addition to the aforementioned four minerals in the discharge deposits.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=135}}
[[Cahnite]] has also been identified in sinter deposits.{{sfn|Nicolau|Reich|Lynne|2014|p=72}} Volcanic minerals such as [[plagioclase]] and [[quartz]] are found within cavities of the sinter.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=135}} [[Sandstone]] formed by [[debris flow]]s and redeposited volcanic material is found embedded in sinter at some localities.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=16}} Finally, antimony, arsenic and calcium form sulfidic deposits in some springs.{{sfn|Cusicanqui|Mahon|Ellis|1975|p=707}}

Various [[facies]] have been identified in [[drill core]]s through the sinter, including arborescent, columnar, fenestral palisade, laminated (both inclined and planar), particulate, spicular and tufted structures. These structures contain varying amounts of [[microfossil]]s and formed at diverse temperatures and locations of individual sinter mounds.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=6}} Microorganisms and material like [[pollen]] is found integrated within the sinter deposits.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=158}} The rate at which sinter is deposited has been estimated at {{convert|1.3|-|3.4|kg/m2/year|pdr/ft2/year}}.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}}

== Climate and biology ==
The climate is dry with about {{convert|44|mm}} precipitation per year.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2021|p=3}} Most of it falls between December and March,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}} a precipitation pattern mediated by the [[Monsoon#Global monsoon|South American monsoon]]{{sfn|Nicolau|Reich|Lynne|2014|p=61}} and by the [[South Pacific High]] which is responsible for the dry climate.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=4}} The whole Central Andes were wetter in the past, resulting in the formation of lakes such as [[Lake Tauca]] in the [[Altiplano]].{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|p=670}} This, and a colder climate, resulted in the development of glaciers at El Tatio, which have left moraines.{{sfn|Ward|Thornton|Cesta|2017|pp=687,688}}

The region is additionally rather windy{{sfn|Nicolau|Reich|Lynne|2014|p=73}} with mean windspeeds of {{convert|3.7|-|7.5|m/s}},{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=2}} which influence the hot springs by enhancing evaporation{{sfn|Nicolau|Reich|Lynne|2014|p=73}} and imparting a directional growth to certain finger-like sinter deposits.{{sfn|Gong|Munoz-Saez|Wilmeth|Myers|2021|p=13}} The evaporation rates per month reach {{convert|131.9|mm}}{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=2}} and they facilitate the deposition of sinters.{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=3}} There is a diurnal cycle in wind and [[atmospheric humidity]], with no wind and high humidity during the night and wind with low humidity during the day.{{sfn|Gong|Munoz-Saez|Wilmeth|Myers|2021|p=5}} The atmospheric pressure at this elevation drops to about 0.58 [[atmosphere (unit)|atmospheres]], lowering the boiling point of water to about {{convert|86|C}}.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2022|p=312}}{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=2}}

Apart from precipitation, the area is characterized by extreme temperature variations between day and night{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}} which can reach {{convert|40|C-change}}{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=1}} and induce [[freeze-thaw cycle]]s.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=2}} The Chilean Dirección General del Agua operates a weather station at El Tatio; according to data from this station air temperatures average {{convert|3.6|C}} and precipitation {{convert|250|mm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|Lapides|Manga|2020|p=199}}{{sfn|Kull|Grosjean|2000|pp=623, 624}} El Tatio further features high [[ultraviolet]] (UV) [[Solar irradiance|insolation]],{{sfn|Phoenix|Bennett|Engel|Tyler|2006|p=17}} which can reach {{val|33|ul=W/m2}} [[UV-A]] and {{val|6|u=W/m2}} [[UV-B]]. The low atmospheric pressure and high UV irradiation has led scientists to treat El Tatio as an analogue for environments on [[Mars]].{{sfn|Wilmeth|Nabhan|Myers|Slagter|2020|p=2}}

The dry [[grassland]] vegetation of the region is classified as [[Central Andean dry puna]]{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=129}} and lies above the [[treeline]].{{sfn|Lapides|Manga|2020|p=199}} About 90 plant species have been identified at El Tatio and surroundings,{{sfn|Vega|2018|p=2}} such as the [[endemic]] ''[[Adesmia atacamensis]]'', ''[[Calceolaria stellariifolia]]'', ''[[Junellia tridactyla]]'' and ''[[Opuntia conoidea]]''.{{sfn|Vega|2018|pp=4–5}} [[Tussock (grass)|Tussock]] grasses like ''[[Anatherostipa]]'', ''[[Festuca]]'' and ''[[Stipa]]'' occur at {{convert|3900|-|4400|m}} elevation, while rosette and [[cushion plant]]s reach elevations of {{convert|4800|m}}; these include ''[[Azorella]]'', ''[[Chaetanthera]]'', ''[[Mulinum]]'', ''[[Senecio]]'', ''[[Lenzia (plant)|Lenzia]]'', ''[[Pycnophyllum]]'' and ''[[Valeriana]]''.{{sfn|Latorre|Betancourt|Arroyo|2006|p=452}} Bushland species include ''[[Lenzia chamaepitys]]'', ''[[Senecio puchii]]'' and ''[[Perezia atacamensis]]'',{{sfn|Vega|2018|p=6}} while ''[[Arenaria rivularis]]'', ''[[Oxychloe andina]]'' and ''[[Zameioscirpus atacamensis]]'' grow in [[wetland]]s.{{sfn|Vega|2018|p=7}} [[Riparian zone|Riparian]] vegetation occurs along the Rio Salado.{{sfn|Latorre|Betancourt|Arroyo|2006|p=452}} Among the animals in the region are [[chinchilla]]s and [[viscacha]]s and [[llama]]s, mainly the [[vicuña]].{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=35}}

<gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="250">
File:Vicuñas near el Tatio geysers - panoramio.jpg|alt=Two large animals between sparse bushes|[[Vicuña]]s at El Tatio
File:Yareta near el Tatio geysers - panoramio.jpg|alt=Green ball between orange rocks|A [[yareta]] growing between rocks
File:Bienes Nacionales entrega a comunidades atacameñas concesión de uso gratuito de Geysers del Tatio (15205193918).jpg|alt=Sparse yellow bush|Landscape of the El Tatio region
</gallery>

=== Spring biology ===
The geothermal field El Tatio is populated by various plants, microbes and animals.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=140}} The vents are an extreme environment, given the presence of arsenic, the large amount of UV radiation that El Tatio receives{{sfn|Pierce|Malin|Figueroa|2012|p=78}} and its high elevation.{{sfn|Gong|Myers|Munoz-Saez|Homann|2019|p=2}}

Hot springs have characteristic microbial communities associated with them that leave characteristic [[fossil]] traces in the spring deposits; environmental conditions on the early Earth resembled these of hot springs{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}} with potentially high UV radiation exposure, as the [[ozone layer]] did not yet exist{{sfn|Phoenix|Bennett|Engel|Tyler|2006|pp=15,16}} and life probably developed within such conditions.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=39}} In addition, microbial metabolism of arsenic influences its toxicity and the effects of arsenic pollution.{{sfn|Engel|Johnson|Porter|2013|p=745}}

==== Microorganisms ====
[[Biofilm]]s and microbial mats are omnipresent at El Tatio,{{sfn|Engel|Johnson|Porter|2013|p=746}} including ''[[Arthrospira]]'',{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2022|p=318}} ''[[Calothrix]]'',{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=131}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=158}} ''[[Fischerella]]'',{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2022|p=318}} ''[[Leptolyngbya]]'',{{sfn|Gong|Myers|Munoz-Saez|Homann|2019|p=7}} ''[[Lyngbya]]'' and ''[[Phormidium]]''{{efn|''Phormidium'' is not strictly speaking a [[genus]]; it is defined by the morphology of the bacterial colonies and their [[Petrifaction|silicified]] fossils. ''Phormidium'' mats are found in other geothermal areas around the world and additionally on wet soil.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=131}}}} [[cyanobacteria]], which form mats within the hot springs covering the solid surfaces, including oncoids and the sinter.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=131}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=158}} In other places, the aforementioned three genera form [[Stromatolite|stromatolithic]] structures{{sfn|Phoenix|Bennett|Engel|Tyler|2006|p=21}} or floating rafts of bubbly mats. The mats have tufted, layered and conical textures and their colours include orange and olive green;{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2021|p=8}} they give the channels and pools their colour.{{sfn|Müller|Walter|Zimmer|Gonzalez|2022|p=17}} Additional cyanobacteria genera reported from El Tatio are ''[[Chroococcidiopsis]]'',{{sfn|Phoenix|Bennett|Engel|Tyler|2006|p=20}} ''[[Chlorogloeocystis]]'', ''[[Chroogloeopsis]]'', ''[[Fischerella]]'', ''[[Synechococcus]]'' and ''[[Thermosynechococcus]]''.{{sfn|Mehetre|Deka|Carrie|Singh|2022|p=162}} Non-cyanobacteria bacteria have also been found in the mats and sinter;{{sfn|Gong|Myers|Munoz-Saez|Homann|2019|pp=13–14}} they include [[heterotroph]]ic bacteria such as ''[[Isosphaera pallida]]''.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2022|p=318}}

There is a thermal gradation of microorganisms, with the hottest waters supporting ''[[Chloroflexus aurantiacus|Chloroflexus]]'' green bacteria and [[hyperthermophile]]s, [[cyanobacteria]] at less than {{convert|70|-|73|C}} water temperature and diatoms at even lower temperatures.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|pp=141,142}} Microbial mats have been found at other hot springs in the world such as Yellowstone and [[Steamboat Springs (Nevada)|Steamboat Springs]], both in the United States, and [[New Zealand]], but they are thinner at El Tatio.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|pp=297, 298}}

These mats often have their organic material replaced with [[opal]] and thus end up forming much of the sinter, which has thus characteristic biogenic textures, such as filaments and [[Leaf#Morphology (large-scale features)|laminae]].{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=131}} Such biogenic textures have been observed on sinter deposits around the world and are usually microbial in origin,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=140}} at El Tatio they sometimes feature still living bacteria{{sfn|Gong|Myers|Munoz-Saez|Homann|2019|p=8}} which can get entombed and preserved within the sinter deposits.{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2021|p=18}} In the case of El Tatio, these biogenic textures are particularly well preserved in the sinter deposited by water flowing away from springs.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=134}} ''Chloroflexus'' is a [[Thermophile|thermophilic]] [[Chloroflexia|filamentous green bacterium]] found in hot waters at Yellowstone; filamentous structures within geyser cones at El Tatio may have been formed by this bacterium.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=136}} In splash cones ''[[Synechococcus]]''-like microbes are instead responsible for the structures, which resemble those of hot springs.{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=137}} Sinter absorbs much of UV radiation, protecting microorganisms that dwell within the sinter against this harmful radiation{{sfn|Phoenix|Bennett|Engel|Tyler|2006|p=26}} although it also absorbs light required for [[photosynthesis]].{{sfn|Wilmeth|Myers|Lalonde|Mänd|2021|p=18}}

[[Diatom]]s are also found in El Tatio waters, including ''[[Synedra]]'' species, which are often found attached to filamentous substrates,{{sfn|Fernandez-Turiel|Garcia-Valles|Gimeno-Torrente|Saavedra-Alonso|2005|p=132}} and [[algae]] are found in the waters.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=35}} Among bacteria identified in the somewhat colder flowing waters are [[Bacteroidota]] and [[Pseudomonadota]], with ''[[Thermus]]'' species in the hot waters.{{sfn|Myers|Engel|Omelon|Bennett|2012|pp=B431-0542}} Various [[archaea]]ns have been cultured from El Tatio waters, with hot springs producing [[Thermoproteota]] (formerly crenarchaea), [[desulfurococcales]], and [[methanobacteriales]].{{sfn|Plenge|Engel|Omelon|Bennett|2016|p=226}} One species, ''[[Methanogenium tatii]]'', has been discovered at El Tatio, and is a [[methanogen]] recovered from a warm pool. The species name is derived from the geothermal field{{sfn|Zabel|König|Winter|1984|pp=308–315}} and other methanogens may be active in El Tatio.{{sfn|Molina|Eissler|Cornejo|Galand|2018|pp=1422–1423}}

==== Macroorganisms ====
In the upper geyser basin, vegetation has been observed to grow within thermal areas, like a thermal [[marsh]].{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=54}} A [[wetland]], known as Vega Rinconada, with hydrothermal vents lies west of the upper geyser basin.{{sfn|Müller|Walter|Zimmer|Gonzalez|2022|p=3}} Animal species found at El Tatio include the snail ''[[Heleobia]]'',{{sfn|Collado|Valladares|Méndez|2013|p=11}} the frog ''[[Rhinella spinulosa]]'',{{sfn|Naya|Farfán|Sabat|Méndez|2005|p=166}} and [[water mite]]s.{{sfn|Smit|Pešić|2024|p=45}} The larvae of this frog at El Tatio live in water with approximately constant temperatures of {{convert|25|C}} and show atypical development patterns compared to frogs of the same species that developed in places with more variable water temperatures.{{sfn|Pastenes|Valdivieso|Di Genova|Travisany|2017|p=1966}} ''[[Liolaemus]]'' lizard species have been recovered from the geyser area.{{sfn|Langstroth Plotkin|2021|p=128}}

====Analogies to Mars====

The climate, environment{{sfn|Sánchez-García|Lezcano|Carrizo|Severino|2023|p=2}} and hydrothermal activity at El Tatio has been used as analogues for processes that took place on early [[Mars]].{{sfn|Foucher|Hickman-Lewis|Hutzler|Joy|2021|p=4}} Some microstructures found in the [[Columbia Hills (Mars)|Columbia Hills]]{{sfn|Williams|Craft|Millan|Johnson|2021|p=61}} at the [[Home Plate (Mars)|Home Plate]] landform{{sfn|Gong|Munoz-Saez|Wilmeth|Myers|2021|p=17}} are similar to these biogenic structures at El Tatio, but do not necessarily imply that the microstructures on Mars are biogenic.{{sfn|Farmer|Ruff|2016|p=13554}}{{sfn|Gong|Munoz-Saez|Wilmeth|Myers|2021|p=17}}

== Geological history ==
During the Pliocene–[[Quaternary]] the Cordillera Occidental was subject to [[extensional tectonics]]. A related fault system was active; it is linked to Sol de Mañana in Bolivia{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|pp=2050,2051}} and controls the position of several vents in El Tatio.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|2018|p=3}} The intersection between northwest–southeast trending, north-northwest-south-southeast-trending lineaments at El Tatio has been correlated with the occurrence of geothermal activity.{{sfn|Veloso|Tardani|Elizalde|Godoy|2020|pp=1302–1303}} The tectonics of the El Tatio area were originally interpreted as reflecting the existence of a [[graben]] before a compressive tectonic regime was identified.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=11}}

A series of ignimbrites was emplaced.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|pp=113, 114}} The first was the 10.5–9.3&nbsp;million year old{{efn|Originally it was considered to be 9.56 ± 0.48&nbsp;million years old,{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=113}} but later it was split into a 10.5 and a 9.3&nbsp;million year old ignimbrite.{{sfn|Lahsen|1982|p=293}}}} Rio Salado ignimbrite, which forms a {{convert|1800|m|adj=on}} thick layer; this might imply that the source of this ignimbrite was close to El Tatio. The Rio Salado ignimbrite elsewhere crops out as two flow units, with varying colours, and close to El Tatio it is crystalline and densely welded.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=113}} It was followed by the 8.3&nbsp;million year old voluminous Sifon ignimbrite, which reaches a thickness of about {{convert|300|m}} in the area.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|pp=113, 114}} The Pliocene Puripicar ignimbrite reaches a similar thickness,{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=117}} and it was later downwarped by faulting.{{sfn|Lahsen|1982|p=295}}

This strong ignimbrite volcanism is associated with activity of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex, which has produced large volume dacite ignimbrites and sizable calderas, starting from the middle [[Miocene]]. Among these, Cerro Guacha, [[La Pacana]], Pastos Grandes and [[Vilama (caldera)|Vilama]] produced supereruptions.{{sfn|Salisbury|Jicha|Silva|Singer|2011|p=822}}

The Tatio ignimbrite was emplaced 710,000 ± 10,000 years ago,{{sfn|Brown|Singer|Barquero-Molina|2021|p=7}} while the Tucle volcanics are dated to 800,000 ± 100,000 years ago.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=100}} The ignimbrite reaches a volume of {{convert|40|km3}} and crops out over a surface area of {{convert|830|km2}}.{{sfn|Salisbury|Jicha|Silva|Singer|2011|p=831}} The Tatio ignimbrite contains rhyolitic [[pumice]] and crystals, while the Tucle volcanics are andesitic and include both lava and [[tuff]]s.{{sfn|de Silva|1989|p=117}} The El Tatio ignimbrite ponded in the El Tatio area and may have originated at the Tocorpuri rhyolite dome, which is less than one million years old,{{sfn|Lahsen|1982|p=295}} in a vent now buried beneath the El Tatio volcanic group,{{sfn|Salisbury|Jicha|Silva|Singer|2011|p=834}} or at the Laguna Colorada caldera.{{sfn|de Silva|Gosnold|2007|p=323}}

The El Tatio volcanic group has likewise been dated to be less than one million years old,{{sfn|Lahsen|1982|p=290}} and its lavas overlie the older formations.{{sfn|Zeil|1959b|pp=224,225}} Volcan Tatio erupted [[mafic]]{{efn|A volcanic rock relatively rich in [[iron]] and [[magnesium]], relative to [[silicon]].{{sfn|Pinti|2011|p=938}}}} lavas probably during the Holocene;{{sfn|Zeil|1959|p=8}} later this volcano was reinterpreted to be of Pleistocene age.{{sfn|GVP}} Petrological data suggest that over time the erupted lavas of the El Tatio volcanic group have become more mafic, with older products being andesitic and later ones [[basalt]]ic-andesitic.{{sfn|Zeil|1959b|p=230}}

There is no recorded historical volcanism in the El Tatio area{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}} and volcanism has not directly affected it for about 27,000 years.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|Slagter|2020|p=7}} Based on the rates of sinter precipitation and the thickness of the sinter deposits, it has been estimated that the sinters at El Tatio started to form between 4,000 and 1,500 years ago; these age estimates were not based on direct dating of the deposits, however,{{sfn|Nicolau|Reich|Lynne|2014|p=73}} and older sinter deposits extend past the present-day geothermal field.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|Slagter|2020|p=1}} Later, [[radiocarbon dating]] of the sinter deposits found that their deposition began after the end of the last ice age,{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=4}} an observation endorsed by the presence of glacial deposits beneath the sinter{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Saltiel|Manga|Nguyen|2016|p=157}} and radiocarbon dating evidence that sinter deposition began after glaciers retreated.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|Slagter|2020|p=8}} Research published in 2020 suggests that the geothermal activity commenced in the southern part of the field about 27,000–20,000 years ago and spread northwards, reaching the western part of the field less than 4,900 years ago.{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|Slagter|2020|p=6}} Secular variations in the deposition rate have been found, with an increase noted in the last 2,000 years.{{sfn|Skok|Gong|Barra|Morata|2019|p=4}}

== Geothermal exploitation ==
[[File:Geyser of El-Tatio, technical use of the hot water.jpg|thumb|Technical equipment at El Tatio|alt=Machinery with plumbing]]
[[Geothermal energy]] comes from the internal heat of the Earth, where the heat flow is sufficiently high that it can be used for heating and for the generation of electrical power.{{sfn|Morata|2014|pp=73,74}} In Chile, various legal and economic hurdles have so far prevented substantial development of geothermal energy.{{sfn|Sanchez-Alfaro|Sielfeld|Campen|Dobson|2015|p=1400}}{{sfn|Vargas Payera|2018|pp=138–139}}

The earliest references to geothermal power at El Tatio go back to the beginning of the 20th century, when a private society "Comunidad de El Tatio" was founded by Italians in Antofagasta{{sfn|Morata|Ibarra|Vargas|2022|p=30}} and employed Italian engineers from [[Larderello]], who probed the field in 1921 and 1922.{{sfn|Morata|2014|p=78}} Technical and economic problems prevented further progress at that time.{{sfn|Sanchez-Alfaro|Sielfeld|Campen|Dobson|2015|p=1392}} Later feasibility studies in northern Chile identified El Tatio as a potential site for geothermal power generation, and large-scale prospecting took place in the 1960s and 1970s. Wells were drilled in 1973 and 1974, and it was estimated that if the geothermal resources were fully exploited, about {{val|100|-|400|u=megawatts}} of electric power could be produced,{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|p=2051}} but the [[1973 Chilean coup d'etat]] derailed further exploration efforts.{{sfn|Morata|Arancibia|2025|p=813}} Also in 1974 a desalination facility was built at El Tatio and could still be seen there in 2003;{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=33}} a thermal desalination process was developed at El Tatio that produced fresh water while also saving the remaining [[brine]] to extract valuable minerals.{{sfn|Barnea|1976|p=57}} The drilling substantially altered the behaviour of the hot springs; already in November 1995, reports indicated that a number of geysers had disappeared or become hot springs and fumaroles.{{sfn|Jones|Renaut|1997|p=291}}

El Tatio is remote, and this along with economic difficulties eventually led to the abandonment of the efforts at power generation;{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|p=2051}} a bidding process for exploration rights in 1978 to attract private companies to El Tatio was interrupted by government changes{{sfn|Sanchez-Alfaro|Sielfeld|Campen|Dobson|2015|p=1392}} and until 2000 geothermal development programs were paralyzed.{{sfn|Letelier|O'Sullivan|Reich|Veloso|2021|p=2}}

More recently in the 2000s several companies expressed interest in restarting geothermal power projects at El Tatio.{{sfn|Tassi|Martinez|Vaselli|Capaccioni|2005|p=2051}} A dispute over the gas supply from Argentina to Northern Chile in 2005 helped push the project forward,{{sfn|Electricidad2006}} and after an [[environmental impact review]] in 2007{{sfn|Gundermann|Göbel|Gundermann|Göbel|2018|pp=471–486}} the Chilean government in 2008 granted a concession to develop geothermal resources in the field, with the expected yield being about 100{{sfn|Pierce|Malin|Figueroa|2012|p=78}}{{sfn|Ciriaco|Zarrouk|Zakeri|2020|p=5}}-40 [[Watt#Megawatt|megawatt]].{{efn|According to the manager of the Chilean geothermal company, enough to power 130,000 homes and to save on 240,000 tons of [[carbon dioxide]] emission every year.{{sfn|Electricidad2008}}}} The first drilling permits were issued for the Quebrada de Zoquete area {{convert|4|km}} away from the main field.{{sfn|Electricidad2008}}

=== Controversy ===
[[File:60m artificial fumarole at el tatio geothermal field.jpg|thumb|Steam venting created by the geothermal well blowout|alt=A tall steam column]]
On 8 September 2009,{{sfn|La Tercera|2009}} an older well in El Tatio that was being reused blew out,{{sfn|Fonck|2021|p=3}} generating a {{convert|60|m|adj=on}} high steam fountain{{sfn|La Tercera|2009}} that was not plugged until 4 October.{{sfn|El Mercurio|2009}} The operator of the geothermal project restricted access to the blow-out vent and stated through the technical manager of the El Tatio geothermal project that the blowout was neither a threat to the springs nor to tourists visiting El Tatio, and the Empresa Nacional de Geotermia company that operates it denied any responsibility for the incident.{{sfn|Aguirre|2009}}

The project had earlier been opposed by the local [[Atacama people|Atacameño]] population, owing to concerns about environmental damage{{sfn|Electricidad2006}} and the religious importance of water{{sfn|Fonck|2021|p=2}} and El Tatio in the region.{{sfn|Sernageomin|2023|p=37}} Before the incident, an issue of the English-language newspaper ''[[The Economist]]'' had called attention to the adverse consequences of geothermal power extraction;{{sfn|Mercurio-Economist|2009}} the incident triggered a major controversy over geothermal power, with ramifications beyond Chile.{{sfn|Pierce|Malin|Figueroa|2012|p=78}} The controversy gained widespread national{{sfn|Morata|Ibarra|Vargas|2022|p=113}} and international attention,{{sfn|Babidge|Bolados|2018|p=5}} leading to the Chilean government shutting down geothermal exploration at El Tatio{{sfn|Morata|Arancibia|2025|p=816}} and drawing attention to the drawbacks{{sfn|Vargas-Payera|2024|p=6}} of geothermal power generation.{{sfn|Vargas-Payera|2024|p=5}} There were public [[demonstration (protest)|demonstrations]] against the project, such as the march of two women to the capital [[Santiago]] to defend the geothermal field.{{sfn|Bolados García|2014|pp=228–248}} The environmental authorities of Antofagasta subsequently suspended the El Tatio geothermal project, and the Geotérmica del Norte{{efn|A daughter firm of Empresa Nacional de Geotermia.{{sfn|El Mercurio|2009}}}} company responsible for the project received strong criticism and was targeted by legal action. Both the Ministers of Mining and Energy cautioned against stigmatizing geothermal energy, however,{{sfn|Electricidad|2009}} and some local authorities disagreed with the rejection.{{sfn|Bolados García|2014|pp=228–248}} The director of the [[National Geology and Mining Service]] (SERNAGEOMIN) stated that the company had no plans to handle such a situation.{{sfn|El Mercurio|2009}} The Geotérmica del Norte company was fined 100 {{ill|Unidad tributaria mensual|es|Unidad tributaria mensual|lt=UTM}}{{efn|The UTM continually adjusts fines according to inflation. In 2011, 100&nbsp;UTM was about [[United States dollar|US$]]4&nbsp;million.{{sfn|La Tercera|2011}}}} (a Chilean [[unit of account]] for fines and sanctions) for violating mitigation plans, a fine upheld in 2011 by the Court of Appeals in Santiago.{{sfn|La Tercera|2011}} Legal cases related to the Tatio field went as far as the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]].{{sfn|Frontaura|2020|p=19}}

Industry-community disputes have occurred before in northern Chile, typically tied to conflicts about the use of water,{{efn|The region is arid and economic growth driven by increased mining has increased the consumption of the scarce water resources in the region, driving conflict between various entities.{{sfn|Pierce|Malin|Figueroa|2012|p=76}}}} which was in large part privatized during the [[Augusto Pinochet|Pinochet]] era; during the Tatio controversy, power generation{{sfn|Bolados García|Babidge|2017|pp=201–216}} and relations between the Chilean government and native communities also gained prominence among the disputed issues.{{sfn|Frontaura|2020|p=18}} An important factor in the Tatio controversy is the role of the tourism industry, which viewed the geothermal project as a threat; this kind of industry-industry conflict was unusual.{{sfn|Bolados García|Babidge|2017|pp=201–216}} Geothermal projects in New Zealand and the United States have resulted in the extinction of geysers.{{sfn|Electricidad|2009b}} While the incident ultimately did not result in lasting changes to the El Tatio geysers, the widespread media attention did create adverse publicity and social opposition - in particular among indigenous leaders in the region - against geothermal energy in Chile.{{sfn|Vargas Payera|2018|pp=138–139}}{{sfn|Vargas-Payera|2024|p=8}}

== Tourism ==
El Tatio is a tourism destination, with substantial numbers of travelers both from Chile and other countries. This tourism is an important economic resource for the region,{{sfn|Pierce|Malin|Figueroa|2012|p=78}}{{sfn|Munoz-Saez|Manga|Hurwitz|2018|p=2}} and the site is administered by the local Atacameño population{{sfn|Electricidad2006}} as part of a wider trend of cooperations between native communities and heritage sites in the region.{{sfn|Parra|Moulaert|2016|p=252}} About 100,000 tourists visit El Tatio every year.{{sfn|Sernatur|2018}} In 2009, there were more than 400 daily visitors of the geysers, about 90 percent of all tourism of San Pedro de Atacama{{sfn|Electricidad|2009b}} from where El Tatio can be reached.{{sfn|Diario|2017}} Aside from viewing the geysers, [[Public bathing|bathing]] in the hot water, watching the natural scenery{{sfn|Gobernacíon Provincia de El Loa|2018}} and visiting surrounding [[Atacameño]] villages with their [[adobe]] buildings are other activities possible at El Tatio.{{sfn|Gobernacíon Provincia de El Loa|2021}} Environmental impacts such as pollution and vandalism of geothermal landforms have been documented.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=35}}

[[File:Medidads de seguridad en los Geisers del Tatio 03.JPG|thumb|Safety warning sign|alt=A warning sign on a rock, telling to stay away from the vents and to be responsible]]
El Tatio displays some typical hazards of geothermal areas.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=74}} Exposure to the hot gases and water can result in burn injuries, and both sudden eruptions of geysers and fountains and fragile ground above vents and above boiling water, concealed beneath thin covers of solid ground, increase the risk to unwary travelers.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=75}} The site lies at high altitude, frequently leading to [[altitude sickness]], and the cold dry climate creates further danger.{{sfn|Glennon|Pfaff|2003|p=76}} The Chilean government recommends that tourists take warm clothing, [[sunscreen]] and [[mineral water]].{{sfn|Intendencia|2018}}

The indigenous communities of Toconce and Caspana administer the geysers.{{sfn|Valdivielso|Vázquez-Suñé|Herrera|Custodio|2022|p=12}}{{sfn|Morata|Ibarra|Vargas|2022|p=105}} In 2002, El Tatio was declared part of a "zone of touristic interest"; a classification which implies that local institutions ought to develop an action plan to induce the development of tourism.{{sfn|Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism|2017}} In 2009, [[José Antonio Gómez Urrutia]], then-[[Senate of Chile|senator of Chile]] for the Antofagasta region proposed that El Tatio be declared a natural sanctuary (a type of protected area); the corresponding parliamentary motion was approved in the same year.{{sfn|Aylwin|Cuadra|2011|p=47}} In 2010, the El Tatio area was declared to be a protected area, with a surface area of {{convert|20000|ha|km2|order=flip}}. It was not clear at that time what the exact status would be, with the regional Secretary of Agriculture proposing that it should become a national park.{{sfn|Mercurio|2010}} In 2022, the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] listed it among its 100 heritage sites.{{sfn|IUGS|2022|p=177}}{{clear}}

== See also ==
* [[List of hot springs]]
* [[Linzor]], a volcano farther north
* [[Cerro del León]], another volcano farther north
* [[Apacheta-Aguilucho volcanic complex]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite news|last1=Aguirre|first1=Ivo Butt|title=Aseguran que erogación no es peligro para turistas ni Géiseres del Tatio|url=http://www.mercuriocalama.cl/prontus4_nots/site/artic/20090924/pags/20090924000736.html|access-date=30 November 2017|work=El Mercurio Calama|date=24 September 2009|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035950/http://www.mercuriocalama.cl/prontus4_nots/site/artic/20090924/pags/20090924000736.html|archive-date=1 December 2017}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Alsina|first1=Marco A.|last2=Zanella|first2=Luciana|last3=Hoel|first3=Cathleen|last4=Pizarro|first4=Gonzalo E.|last5=Gaillard|first5=Jean-François|last6=Pasten|first6=Pablo A.|title=Arsenic speciation in sinter mineralization from a hydrothermal channel of El Tatio geothermal field, Chile|journal=Journal of Hydrology|date=10 October 2014|volume=518|issue=Part C|page=434|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.04.012|bibcode=2014JHyd..518..434A|hdl=10533/130287|hdl-access=free|issn=0022-1694}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Aravena|first1=Diego|last2=Muñoz|first2=Mauricio|last3=Morata|first3=Diego|last4=Lahsen|first4=Alfredo|last5=Parada|first5=Miguel Ángel|last6=Dobson|first6=Patrick|title=Assessment of high enthalpy geothermal resources and promising areas of Chile|journal=Geothermics|date=1 January 2016|volume=59|issue=Part A|page=6|doi=10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.09.001|bibcode=2016Geoth..59....1A |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9s55q609|doi-access=free|issn=0375-6505}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Aylwin|first1=José|url=https://observatorio.cl/1287-2/|title=Los desafíos de la conservación en los territorios indígenas en Chile|last2=Cuadra|first2=Ximena|date=2011|publisher=IDRC = CRDI|language=Spanish|oclc=1010633639|page=47}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Babidge|first1=Sally|last2=Bolados|first2=Paola|title=Neoextractivism and Indigenous Water Ritual in Salar de Atacama, Chile|journal=Latin American Perspectives|date=1 September 2018|volume=45|issue=5|page=5|doi=10.1177/0094582X18782673|s2cid=150125110|language=en|issn=0094-582X}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Barbieri|first1=Roberto|last2=Cavalazzi|first2=Barbara|title=Microterracettes in Sabkha Oum Dba (Western Sahara, Morocco): Physical and Biological Interactions in the Formation of a Surface Micromorphology|journal=Astrobiology|date=10 August 2018|volume=18|issue=10|pages=3–4|doi=10.1089/ast.2017.1646|pmid=30095990|issn=1531-1074|bibcode=2018AsBio..18.1351B|s2cid=51957529}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Barnea|first1=Joseph|title=Multipurpose Exploration and Development of Geothermal Resources|journal=Natural Resources Forum|date=1 October 1976|volume=1|issue=1|page=57|doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.1971.tb00044.x|bibcode=1976NRF.....1...55B |language=en|issn=1477-8947}}
* {{cite book|last1=Besom|first1=Thomas|title=Inka Human Sacrifice and Mountain Worship: Strategies for Empire Unification|date=2013|publisher=UNM Press|isbn=978-0-8263-5308-5|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6e24xXk7U4C&dq=%22tatio%22+-%22el+tatio%22+-%22tatio%22+-%22dielectric%22+andes&pg=PP2|language=en}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bolados García|first1=Paola|title=Los conflictos etnoambientales de "Pampa Colorada" y "El Tatio" en El Salar de Atacama, norte De Chile: procesos étnicos en un contexto minero y turístico transnacional|journal=Estudios Atacameños|date=2014|issue=48|pages=228–248|doi=10.4067/S0718-10432014000200015|url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-10432014000200015&script=sci_arttext|language=es|issn=0718-1043|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bolados García|first1=Paola|last2=Babidge|first2=Sally|title=Ritualidad y extractivismo: La limpia de canales y las disputas por el agua en el Salar de Atacama-Norte de Chile|journal=Estudios Atacameños|date=2017|issue=54|pages=201–216|url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-10432017000100009&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt|language=es|issn=0718-1043}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Laurie |last2=Singer |first2=Brad S. |last3=Barquero-Molina |first3=Miriam |title=Paleomagnetism and 40Ar/39Ar chronology of ignimbrites and lava flows, Central Volcanic Zone, Northern Chile |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=1 March 2021 |volume=106 |article-number=103037 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2020.103037 |bibcode=2021JSAES.10603037B |s2cid=229462247 |language=en |issn=0895-9811|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ciriaco |first1=Anthony E. |last2=Zarrouk |first2=Sadiq J. |last3=Zakeri |first3=Golbon |title=Geothermal resource and reserve assessment methodology: Overview, analysis and future directions |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=1 March 2020 |volume=119 |page=5 |article-number=109515 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2019.109515 |bibcode=2020RSERv.11909515C |s2cid=209809323 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032119307233 |language=en |issn=1364-0321}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Collado|first1=Gonzalo A.|last2=Valladares|first2=Moisés A.|last3=Méndez|first3=Marco A.|title=Hidden diversity in spring snails from the Andean Altiplano, the second highest plateau on Earth, and the Atacama Desert, the driest place in the world|journal=Zoological Studies|date=5 December 2013|volume=52|page=11|article-number=50 |doi=10.1186/1810-522X-52-50|issn=1810-522X|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cortecci|first1=Gianni|last2=Boschetti|first2=Tiziano|last3=Mussi|first3=Mario|last4=Lameli|first4=Christian Herrera|last5=Mucchino|first5=Claudio|last6=Barbieri|first6=Maurizio|title=New chemical and original isotopic data on waters from El Tatio geothermal field, northern Chile|journal=Geochemical Journal|date=2005|volume=39|issue=6|pages=547–571|doi=10.2343/geochemj.39.547|bibcode=2005GeocJ..39..547C|issn=1880-5973|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/geochemj/39/6/39_6_547/_article |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite web|last1=Cusicanqui|first1=Hernan|last2=Mahon|first2=William A. J.|last3=Ellis|first3=A. J.|title=The Geochemistry of the El Tatio Geothermal Field, Northern Chile|url=https://www.geothermal-library.org/index.php?mode=pubs&action=view&record=1005103|website=geothermal-library.org|publisher=[[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]|access-date=28 November 2017|language=en|format=PDF|date=1975}}
* {{cite journal|last1=de Silva|first1=S. L.|title=Geochronology and stratigraphy of the ignimbrites from the 21°30'S to 23°30'S portion of the Central Andes of northern Chile|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=1 May 1989|volume=37|issue=2|pages=93–131|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(89)90065-6|bibcode=1989JVGR...37...93D|issn=0377-0273}}
* {{cite journal|last1=de Silva|first1=Shanaka L.|last2=Gosnold|first2=William D.|title=Episodic construction of batholiths: Insights from the spatiotemporal development of an ignimbrite flare-up|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=1 November 2007|volume=167|issue=1|page=323|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.07.015|bibcode=2007JVGR..167..320D|issn=0377-0273}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eibl |first1=Eva P. S. |last2=Hainzl |first2=Sebastian |last3=Vesely |first3=Nele I. K. |last4=Walter |first4=Thomas R. |last5=Jousset |first5=Philippe |last6=Hersir |first6=Gylfi Páll |last7=Dahm |first7=Torsten |title=Eruption Interval Monitoring at Strokkur Geyser, Iceland |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=16 January 2020 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1029/2019GL085266|bibcode=2020GeoRL..4785266E |doi-access=free|issn=1944-8007 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eibl |first1=Eva P. S. |last2=Müller |first2=Daniel |last3=Walter |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Allahbakhshi |first4=Masoud |last5=Jousset |first5=Philippe |last6=Hersir |first6=Gylfi Páll |last7=Dahm |first7=Torsten |title=Eruptive Cycle and Bubble Trap of Strokkur Geyser, Iceland |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=2021 |volume=126 |issue=4 |article-number=e2020JB020769 |doi=10.1029/2020JB020769 |bibcode=2021JGRB..12620769E |s2cid=233737995 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020JB020769 |language=en |issn=2169-9356}}
* {{cite news|title=Se ejecutará proyecto de conservación de la Ruta a los Géiseres del Tatio|url=http://www.diarioantofagasta.cl/regional/78247/se-ejecutara-proyecto-conservacion-la-ruta-b-245-san-pedro-atacama/|access-date=1 November 2018|work=El Diario de Antofagasta|date=20 July 2017|language=es|ref={{harvid|Diario|2017}}}}
* {{cite news|title=Gobierno anuncia que El Tatio será declarada zona protegida|url=http://www.mercuriocalama.cl/prontus4_nots/site/artic/20101007/pags/20101007050720.html|work=El Mercurio Calama|date=7 October 2010|language=es|ref={{harvid|Mercurio|2010}}|archive-date=4 December 2017|access-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204061143/http://www.mercuriocalama.cl/prontus4_nots/site/artic/20101007/pags/20101007050720.html}}
* {{cite news|title=Conmoción mundial por Géiseres del Tatio|url=http://www.mercuriocalama.cl/prontus4_nots/site/artic/20090427/pags/20090427000717.html|work=El Mercurio Calama|date=27 April 2009|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204061309/http://www.mercuriocalama.cl/prontus4_nots/site/artic/20090427/pags/20090427000717.html|archive-date=4 December 2017|ref={{harvid|Mercurio-Economist|2009}}}}
* {{cite news|title=Avanza proyecto de energía geotérmica en zona de El Tatio|url=http://www.revistaei.cl/2008/08/20/avanza-proyecto-de-energia-geotermica-en-zona-de-el-tatio/|access-date=3 December 2017|via=Electricidad: La Revista Energetica de Chile|date=20 August 2008|language=es|work=El Mercurio de Antofagasta|ref={{harvid|Electricidad2008}}}}
* {{cite news|title=Cinco concesiones posee firma ligada a incidente en "El Tatio"|url=http://www.mercurioantofagasta.cl/prontus4_noticias/site/artic/20091011/pags/20091011010600.html|access-date=30 November 2017|work=El Mercurio de Antofagasta|date=11 October 2009|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032331/http://www.mercurioantofagasta.cl/prontus4_noticias/site/artic/20091011/pags/20091011010600.html|archive-date=1 December 2017|ref={{harvid|El Mercurio|2009}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Engel|first1=Annette Summers|author-link=Annette Summers Engel|last2=Johnson|first2=Lindsey R.|last3=Porter|first3=Megan L.|title=Arsenite oxidase gene diversity among Chloroflexi and Proteobacteria from El Tatio Geyser Field, Chile|journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology|date=1 March 2013|volume=83|issue=3|pages=745–756|doi=10.1111/1574-6941.12030|pmid=23066664|bibcode=2013FEMME..83..745E |language=en|issn=1574-6941|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Farmer|first1=Jack D.|last2=Ruff|first2=Steven W.|title=Silica deposits on Mars with features resembling hot spring biosignatures at El Tatio in Chile|journal=Nature Communications|date=17 November 2016|volume=7|article-number=13554|doi=10.1038/ncomms13554|pmid=27853166|pmc=5473637|language=En|bibcode=2016NatCo...713554R|issn=2041-1723}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fernandez-Turiel|first1=J. L.|last2=Garcia-Valles|first2=M.|last3=Gimeno-Torrente|first3=D.|last4=Saavedra-Alonso|first4=J.|last5=Martinez-Manent|first5=S.|title=The hot spring and geyser sinters of El Tatio, Northern Chile|journal=Sedimentary Geology|date=15 October 2005|volume=180|issue=3|pages=125–147|doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005SedG..180..125F|issn=0037-0738}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fonck |first1=Martín |title=Subterranean (In)visibilities: Traces, Underground Water, and Thermal Flows in the El Tatio Geyser Field, Atacama, Chile |journal=Arcadia |date=29 July 2021 |doi=10.5282/rcc/9316 |url=https://arcadia.ub.uni-muenchen.de/arcadia/article/view/334 |language=en |issn=2199-3408}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fonck |first=Martín |url=https://www.transcript-verlag.de/978-3-8376-7263-3 |title=Subterranean Explorations: The Unfinished Promise of Geothermal Energy in the Chilean Andes |date=13 June 2024 |publisher=transcript Verlag |isbn=978-3-8376-7263-3 |edition=1 |series=UmweltEthnologie |volume=9 |location=Bielefeld, Germany |language=en |doi=10.14361/9783839472637}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Foucher |first1=F. |last2=Hickman-Lewis |first2=K. |last3=Hutzler |first3=A. |last4=Joy |first4=K. H. |author4-link=Katherine Joy  |last5=Folco |first5=L. |last6=Bridges |first6=J. C. |last7=Wozniakiewicz |first7=P. |last8=Martínez-Frías |first8=J. |last9=Debaille |first9=V. |last10=Zolensky |first10=M. |last11=Yano |first11=H. |last12=Bost |first12=N. |last13=Ferrière |first13=L. |last14=Lee |first14=M. |last15=Michalski |first15=J. |last16=Schroeven-Deceuninck |first16=H. |last17=Kminek |first17=G. |last18=Viso |first18=M. |last19=Russell |first19=S. |last20=Smith |first20=C. |last21=Zipfel |first21=J. |last22=Westall |first22=F. |title=Definition and use of functional analogues in planetary exploration |journal=Planetary and Space Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=197 |article-number=105162 |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2021.105162 |bibcode=2021P&SS..19705162F |s2cid=234156286 |language=en |issn=0032-0633|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Frontaura |first1=Carlos |title=Chile en el sistema interamericano de derechos humanos: la libertad religiosa |journal=Revista Latinoamericana de Derecho y Religión |date=31 December 2020 |volume=6 |issue=2 |doi=10.7764/RLDR.10.132 |url=http://pensamientoeducativo.uc.cl/index.php/RLDR/article/view/26955 |language=es |issn=0719-7160|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Giggenbach|first1=Werner F.|title=The isotopic composition of waters from the El Tatio geothermal field, Northern Chile|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|date=1 July 1978|volume=42|issue=7|pages=979–988|doi=10.1016/0016-7037(78)90287-9|bibcode=1978GeCoA..42..979G|issn=0016-7037}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Glennon|first1=Alan|last2=Pfaff|first2=R.M.|title=The extraordinary thermal activity of the El Tatio Geysers, Antofagasta Province, Chile|journal=GOSA Transactions|date=2003|volume=8|pages=31–78|url=https://alanglennon.com/elTatioGlennonPfaff.pdf|access-date=29 November 2017}}
* {{Cite gvp|vn=355840|name=Volcan Tatio|access-date=30 November 2017|ref={{harvid|GVP}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Información turística|url=http://www.gobernacionloa.gob.cl/info_turismo/|website=Gobernacíon Provincia de El Loa|publisher=Ministerio del Interior y Seguridad Pública|access-date=1 November 2018|language=es|ref={{harvid|Gobernacíon Provincia de El Loa|2018}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Godoy|first1=Benigno|last2=Taussi|first2=Marco|last3=González-Maurel|first3=Osvaldo|last4=Renzulli|first4=Alberto|last5=Hernández-Prat|first5=Loreto|last6=le Roux|first6=Petrus|last7=Morata|first7=Diego|last8=Menzies|first8=Andrew|title=Linking the mafic volcanism with the magmatic stages during the last 1 Ma in the main volcanic arc of the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex (Central Andes)|journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences|date=1 November 2019|volume=95|page=2|article-number=102295 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2019.102295|bibcode=2019JSAES..9502295G|s2cid=200018486|issn=0895-9811}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Gong|first1=Jian|last2=Myers|first2=Kimberly D.|last3=Munoz-Saez|first3=Carolina|last4=Homann|first4=Martin|last5=Rouillard|first5=Joti|last6=Wirth|first6=Richard|last7=Schreiber|first7=Anja|last8=van Zuilen|first8=Mark A.|title=Formation and Preservation of Microbial Palisade Fabric in Silica Deposits from El Tatio, Chile|journal=Astrobiology|date=30 October 2019|volume=20|issue=4|pages=500–524|doi=10.1089/ast.2019.2025|pmid=31663774|pmc=7133459|issn=1531-1074|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Gong |first1=Jian |last2=Munoz-Saez |first2=Carolina |last3=Wilmeth |first3=Dylan T. |last4=Myers |first4=Kimberly D. |last5=Homann |first5=Martin |last6=Arp |first6=Gernot |last7=Skok |first7=John R. |last8=Zuilen |first8=Mark A. van |title=Morphogenesis of digitate structures in hot spring silica sinters of the El Tatio geothermal field, Chile |journal=Geobiology |year=2021 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=137–155 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12471 |pmid=34590770 |pmc=9292339 |s2cid=238228215 |language=en |issn=1472-4669}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Gundermann|first1=Hans|title=Comunidades Indígenas, Empresas del Litio y Sus Relaciones en el Salar de Atacama|last2=Göbel|first2=Barbara|last3=Gundermann|first3=Hans|last4=Göbel|first4=Barbara|journal=Chungará (Arica)|date=September 2018|volume=50|issue=3|pages=471–486|doi=10.4067/S0717-73562018005001602|issn=0717-7356|doi-access=free|language=es}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hao |first1=Weiduo |last2=Mänd |first2=Kaarel |last3=Swaren |first3=Logan |last4=Myers |first4=Kimberly D. |last5=Lalonde |first5=Stefan |last6=Wilmeth |first6=Dylan T. |last7=Van Zuilen |first7=Mark |last8=Wilson |first8=Siobhan A. |last9=Alessi |first9=Daniel S. |last10=Konhauser |first10=Kurt O. |title=Trace Elemental Partitioning on Clays Derived From Hydrothermal Muds of the El Tatio Geyser Field, Chile |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=May 2021 |volume=126 |issue=5 |doi=10.1029/2020jb021422 |bibcode=2021JGRB..12621422H |s2cid=236622209 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2020JB021422 |issn=2169-9313}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hollingworth|first1=S. E.|last2=Guest|first2=J. E.|title=Pleistocene Glaciation in the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile|journal=Journal of Glaciology|date=1967|volume=6|issue=47|pages=749–751|doi=10.1017/S0022143000019985|issn=0022-1430|bibcode=1967JGlac...6..749H|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite web |title=II Region de Antofagasta |url=https://www.sernatur.cl/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/II-REGION-DE-ANTOFAGASTA.pdf |website=Servicio Nacional de Turismo |access-date=29 September 2021 |page=11 |publisher=[[Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism (Chile)]] |language=es |date=September 2018|ref={{harvid|Sernatur|2018}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Información turística|url=http://www.intendenciaantofagasta.gob.cl/info_turismo/|website=Intendencia, Región de Antofagasta|publisher=Ministerio del Interior y Seguridad Pública|access-date=1 November 2018|language=es|ref={{harvid|Intendencia|2018}}}}
* {{cite web |title=Información turística |url=http://www.gobernacionloa.gob.cl/info_turismo/ |publisher=Gobernación Provincia de El Loa |access-date=29 September 2021 |language=es|ref={{harvid|Gobernacíon Provincia de El Loa|2021}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morata |first1=Diego |last2=Ibarra |first2=Cecilia |last3=Vargas |first3=Sofía |title=Geotermia en Chile: un siglo de historia para un desarrollo sustentable |date=2022 |doi=10.34720/nxq1-kp56|language=es|isbn=978-956-410-638-0}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Ingebritsen|first1=S. E.|last2=Evans|first2=W. C.|title=Potential for increased hydrothermal arsenic flux during volcanic unrest: Implications for California water supply|journal=Applied Geochemistry|date=1 September 2019|volume=108|page=9|article-number=104384 |doi=10.1016/j.apgeochem.2019.104384|issn=0883-2927|bibcode=2019ApGC..10804384I|s2cid=199097342}}
* {{cite book|title=THE FIRST IUGS GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE SITES|publisher=International Union of Geological Sciences|date=October 2022|isbn=978-1-7923-9975-6|ref={{harvid|IUGS|2022}}|url=https://iugs-geoheritage.org/videos-pdfs/iugs_first_100_book_v2.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jenny|first1=Bettina|last2=Kammer|first2=Klaus|title=Climate Change in den trockenen Anden|trans-title=Climate change in the arid Andes|date=1996|publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Institutes der Universität Bern|isbn=3-906151-03-4|language=de}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Brian|last2=Renaut|first2=Robin W.|title=Formation of silica oncoids around geysers and hot springs at El Tatio, northern Chile|journal=Sedimentology|date=1 April 1997|volume=44|issue=2|pages=287–304|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3091.1997.tb01525.x|language=en|issn=1365-3091|bibcode=1997Sedim..44..287J|s2cid=128690473}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kull|first1=Christoph|last2=Grosjean|first2=Martin|title=Late Pleistocene climate conditions in the north Chilean Andes drawn from a climate–glacier model|journal=Journal of Glaciology|date=2000|volume=46|issue=155|pages=622–632|doi=10.3189/172756500781832611|issn=0022-1430|bibcode=2000JGlac..46..622K|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Lahsen|first1=Alfredo|title=Upper Cenozoic volcanism and tectonism in the Andes of northern Chile|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|date=1 November 1982|volume=18|issue=3|pages=285–302|doi=10.1016/0012-8252(82)90041-1|bibcode=1982ESRv...18..285L|issn=0012-8252}}
* {{cite news|title=Tokman y El Tatio: "Empresa no ha estado a la altura"|url=http://www.revistaei.cl/2009/10/02/tokman-y-el-tatio-empresa-no-ha-estado-a-la-altura/|access-date=30 November 2017|work=[[La Nación]]|via=Electricidad|date=2 October 2009|language=es|ref={{harvid|Electricidad|2009}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Landrum|first1=J. T.|last2=Bennett|first2=P. C.|last3=Engel|first3=A. S.|last4=Alsina|first4=M. A.|last5=Pastén|first5=P. A.|last6=Milliken|first6=K.|title=Partitioning geochemistry of arsenic and antimony, El Tatio Geyser Field, Chile|journal=Applied Geochemistry|date=1 April 2009|volume=24|issue=4|pages=664–676|doi=10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.12.024|bibcode=2009ApGC...24..664L|hdl=10533/142624|hdl-access=free|issn=0883-2927}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Langstroth Plotkin |first1=Roberto |title=The identities of Liolaemus signifer (Duméril & Bibron 1837), L. pantherinus Pellegrin 1909, L. schmidti (Marx 1960), and L. erroneus (Núñez & Yáñez 1984 "1983-1984") (Squamata: Liolaemidae) |journal=Cuadernos de Herpetología |date=2021 |volume=35 |issue=3 |url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/116371 |language=en |issn=1852-5768}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lapides |first1=Dana Ariel |last2=Manga |first2=Michael |title=Large wood as a confounding factor in interpreting the width of spring-fed streams |journal=Earth Surface Dynamics |date=19 March 2020 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=199 |doi=10.5194/esurf-8-195-2020 |bibcode=2020ESuD....8..195L |url=https://esurf.copernicus.org/articles/8/195/2020/esurf-8-195-2020.html |language=en |issn=2196-6311|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Latorre|first1=Guillermo|title=Tendencias generales en la toponimia del Norte Grande de Chile|journal=Revista Onomázein|date=1997|volume=2|page=191|url=https://repositorio.uc.cl/bitstream/handle/11534/7767/000178006.pdf|access-date=1 December 2017|language=es}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Latorre|first1=Claudio|last2=Betancourt|first2=Julio L.|last3=Arroyo|first3=Mary T. K.|title=Late Quaternary vegetation and climate history of a perennial river canyon in the Río Salado basin (22°S) of Northern Chile|journal=Quaternary Research|date=1 May 2006|volume=65|issue=3|page=452|doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2006.02.002|bibcode=2006QuRes..65..450L|hdl=10533/178091|s2cid=129119233|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite news|title=Geotérmica del Norte solicita concesión de explotación en El Tatio|url=http://www.revistaei.cl/2006/07/11/chile-geotermica-del-norte-solicita-concesion-de-explotacion-en-el-tatio/|access-date=3 December 2017|via=Electricidad: La Revista Energetica de Chile|date=11 July 2006|language=es|work=[[La Tercera]]|ref={{harvid|Electricidad2006}}}}
* {{cite news|title=El Tatio: firma responde por fuga de vapor|url=http://www.latercera.com/noticia/el-tatio-firma-responde-por-fuga-de-vapor/|access-date=30 November 2017|work=[[La Tercera]]|date=15 October 2009|language=es|ref={{harvid|La Tercera|2009}}}}
* {{cite news|title=Alertan que geotermia pone en peligro géiseres del Tatío, tal como ocurrió en Nueva Zelandia|url=http://www.revistaei.cl/2009/09/28/alertan-que-geotermia-pone-en-peligro-geiseres-del-tatio-tal-como-ocurrio-en-nueva-zelandia/|access-date=3 December 2017|work=Electricidad: La Revista Energetica de Chile|date=28 September 2009|language=es|agency=La Tercera|ref={{harvid|Electricidad|2009b}}}}
* {{cite news|title=Justicia ratifica multa a proyecto geotérmico en el Tatio por incumplimiento en planes de mitigación|url=http://www.latercera.com/noticia/justicia-ratifica-multa-a-proyecto-geotermico-en-el-tatio-por-incumplimiento-en-planes-de-mitigacion/|work=[[La Tercera]]|date=4 November 2013|language=es|ref={{harvid|La Tercera|2011}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Letelier|first1=Juvenal A.|last2=O'Sullivan|first2=John|last3=Reich|first3=Martin|last4=Veloso|first4=Eugenio|last5=Sánchez-Alfaro|first5=Pablo|last6=Aravena|first6=Diego|last7=Muñoz|first7=Mauricio|last8=Morata|first8=Diego|title=Reservoir architecture model and heat transfer modes in the El Tatio-La Torta geothermal system, Central Andes of northern Chile|journal=Geothermics|date=1 January 2021|volume=89|article-number=101940|doi=10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101940|bibcode=2021Geoth..8901940L |s2cid=224845019|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0375650520302327|language=en|issn=0375-6505}}
* {{cite conference|last1=Martínez|first1=C.|last2=Campano|first2=P.|last3=Medina|first3=E.|last4=Tassi|first4=F.|title=Geoquimica de gases del campo geotermal El Tatio (Norte de Chile)|url=https://catalogobiblioteca.sernageomin.cl/Archivos/11769v2pp73_76.pdf|website=Biblioteca Sernageomin|conference=11th Chilean Geological Congress|access-date=30 November 2017|location=[[Antofagasta]]|language=es|date=August 2006}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mehetre |first1=Gajanan T. |last2=Deka |first2=Purbajyoti |last3=Carrie |first3=William |last4=Singh |first4=Bhim Pratap |title=Chapter6 - Thermophilic and thermotolerant cyanobacteria: Environmental and biotechnological perspectives |journal=Cyanobacterial Lifestyle and Its Applications in Biotechnology |date=1 January 2022 |pages=159–178 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323906340000147 |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-90634-0.00014-7 |isbn=978-0-323-90634-0 |s2cid=243596221 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Molina|first1=Verónica|last2=Eissler|first2=Yoanna|last3=Cornejo|first3=Marcela|last4=Galand|first4=Pierre E.|last5=Dorador|first5=Cristina|last6=Hengst|first6=Martha|last7=Fernandez|first7=Camila|last8=Francois|first8=Jean Pierre|title=Distribution of greenhouse gases in hyper-arid and arid areas of northern Chile and the contribution of the high altitude wetland microbiome (Salar de Huasco, Chile)|journal=Antonie van Leeuwenhoek|date=1 August 2018|volume=111|issue=8|pages=1422–1423|doi=10.1007/s10482-018-1078-9|pmid=29626330|s2cid=4649515|language=en|issn=1572-9699}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Morata|first1=Diego|title=¿Chile: un país geotérmico en un futuro inmediato?|journal=Anales de la Universidad de Chile|date=5 June 2014|issue=5|pages=71–86|doi=10.5354/0717-8883.2014.31635|url=https://revistas.uchile.cl/index.php/ANUC/article/view/31635|language=es|issn=0717-8883|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Morata |first1=Diego |chapter=26 - Geothermal Power Plants at High Altitude: The Chilean Experience |date=1 January 2025 |title=Geothermal Power Generation|edition=2 |editor-last=DiPippo |editor-first=Ronald |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780443247507000063 |access-date=9 January 2025 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy |publisher=Elsevier Science Ltd |isbn=978-0-443-24750-7 |last2=Arancibia |first2=Gloria |editor2-last=Gutiérrez-Negrín |editor2-first=Luis C. A. |editor3-last=Chiasson |editor3-first=Andrew}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Daniel |last2=Walter |first2=Thomas R. |last3=Zimmer |first3=Martin |last4=Gonzalez |first4=Gabriel |title=Distribution, structural and hydrological control of the hot springs and geysers of El Tatio, Chile, revealed by optical and thermal infrared drone surveying |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |date=October 2022 |volume=432 |article-number=107696 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107696|bibcode=2022JVGR..43207696M |s2cid=253033476 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Munoz-Saez|first1=Carolina|last2=Namiki|first2=Atsuko|last3=Manga|first3=Michael|title=Geyser eruption intervals and interactions: Examples from El Tatio, Atacama, Chile|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|date=1 November 2015|volume=120|issue=11|article-number=2015JB012364|doi=10.1002/2015JB012364|language=en|issn=2169-9356|bibcode=2015JGRB..120.7490M|osti=1480695|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Munoz-Saez|first1=Carolina|last2=Manga|first2=Michael|last3=Hurwitz|first3=Shaul|title=Hydrothermal discharge from the El Tatio basin, Atacama, Chile|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=361|pages=25–35|date=July 2018|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.07.007|language=en|issn=0377-0273|url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt69k593t7/qt69k593t7.pdf?t=pgfjm6|bibcode=2018JVGR..361...25M|s2cid=133695058}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Munoz-Saez|first1=Carolina|last2=Manga|first2=Michael|last3=Hurwitz|first3=Shaul|last4=Slagter|first4=Silvina|last5=Churchill|first5=Dakota M.|last6=Reich|first6=Martin|last7=Damby|first7=David|last8=Morata|first8=Diego|title=Radiocarbon Dating of Silica Sinter and Postglacial Hydrothermal Activity in the El Tatio Geyser Field|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|date=2020|volume=47|issue=11|article-number=e2020GL087908|doi=10.1029/2020GL087908|bibcode=2020GeoRL..4787908M|language=en|issn=1944-8007|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Munoz-Saez|first1=Carolina|last2=Saltiel|first2=Seth|last3=Manga|first3=Michael|last4=Nguyen|first4=Chinh|last5=Gonnermann|first5=Helge|title=Physical and hydraulic properties of modern sinter deposits: El Tatio, Atacama|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=1 October 2016|volume=325|issue=Supplement C|pages=156–168|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.06.026|bibcode=2016JVGR..325..156M|doi-access=free|issn=0377-0273}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Myers|first1=K. D.|last2=Engel|first2=A. S.|last3=Omelon|first3=C. R.|last4=Bennett|first4=P.|title=Physicochemical and Biological Zonation of High Temperature Silica and Arsenic-Rich Streams at El Tatio Geyser Field, Chile|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|date=1 December 2012|volume=43|pages=B43I–0542|bibcode=2012AGUFM.B43I0542M}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Naya|first1=Daniel E.|last2=Farfán|first2=Gonzalo|last3=Sabat|first3=Pablo|last4=Méndez|first4=Marco A.|last5=Bozinovic|first5=Francisco|title=Digestive morphology and enzyme activity in the Andean toad Bufo spinulosus: hard-wired or flexible physiology?|journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology|date=1 February 2005|volume=140|issue=2|page=166|doi=10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.11.006|pmid=15748855|hdl=10533/176303|hdl-access=free|issn=1095-6433}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Nicolau|first1=Constanza|last2=Reich|first2=Martin|last3=Lynne|first3=Bridget|title=Physico-chemical and environmental controls on siliceous sinter formation at the high-altitude El Tatio geothermal field, Chile|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=1 August 2014|volume=282|issue=Supplement C|pages=60–76|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.06.012|bibcode=2014JVGR..282...60N|issn=0377-0273}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Palacios|first1=David|last2=Stokes|first2=Chris R.|last3=Phillips|first3=Fred M.|last4=Clague|first4=John J.|last5=Alcalá-Reygosa|first5=Jesus|last6=Andrés|first6=Nuria|last7=Angel|first7=Isandra|last8=Blard|first8=Pierre-Henri|last9=Briner|first9=Jason P.|last10=Hall|first10=Brenda L.|last11=Dahms|first11=Dennis|last12=Hein|first12=Andrew S.|last13=Jomelli|first13=Vincent|last14=Mark|first14=Bryan G.|last15=Martini|first15=Mateo A.|last16=Moreno|first16=Patricio|last17=Riedel|first17=Jon|last18=Sagredo|first18=Esteban|last19=Stansell|first19=Nathan D.|last20=Vázquez-Selem|first20=Lorenzo|last21=Vuille|first21=Mathias|last22=Ward|first22=Dylan J.|title=The deglaciation of the Americas during the Last Glacial Termination|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|date=1 April 2020|volume=203|article-number=103113|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103113|bibcode=2020ESRv..20303113P|s2cid=213225803|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001282521930652X|language=en|issn=0012-8252}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Parra |first1=Constanza |last2=Moulaert |first2=Frank |title=The Governance of the Nature-Culture Nexus: Lessons Learned from the San Pedro de Atacama Case Study |journal=Nature and Culture |date=2016 |volume=11 |issue=3 |page=252 |issn=1558-6073|doi=10.3167/nc.2016.110302|jstor=26430624 |bibcode=2016NatCu..11..239P }}
* {{cite web |title=Consulta Ciudadana ZOIT Atacama la Grande |url=http://www.participacionciudadana.economia.gob.cl/consultas-ciudadanas-virtuales/consulta-ciudadana-zoit-atacama-la-grande |website=Participación Ciudadana |publisher=[[Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism (Chile)]] |access-date=29 September 2021 |language=es |date=November 2017|ref={{harvid|Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism|2017}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pastenes|first1=Luis|last2=Valdivieso|first2=Camilo|last3=Di Genova|first3=Alex|last4=Travisany|first4=Dante|last5=Hart|first5=Andrew|last6=Montecino|first6=Martín|last7=Orellana|first7=Ariel|last8=Gonzalez|first8=Mauricio|last9=Gutiérrez|first9=Rodrigo A.|last10=Allende|first10=Miguel L.|last11=Maass|first11=Alejandro|last12=Méndez|first12=Marco A.|title=Global gene expression analysis provides insight into local adaptation to geothermal streams in tadpoles of the Andean toad Rhinella spinulosa|journal=Scientific Reports|date=16 May 2017|volume=7|issue=1|page=1966|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-01982-z|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5434060|pmid=28512324|bibcode=2017NatSR...7.1966P}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Phoenix|first1=V. R.|last2=Bennett|first2=P. C.|last3=Engel|first3=A. S.|last4=Tyler|first4=S. W.|last5=Ferris|first5=F. G.|title=Chilean high-altitude hot-spring sinters: a model system for UV screening mechanisms by early Precambrian cyanobacteria|journal=Geobiology|date=1 March 2006|volume=4|issue=1|pages=15–28|doi=10.1111/j.1472-4669.2006.00063.x|bibcode=2006Gbio....4...15P |s2cid=129008808|language=en|issn=1472-4669}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pierce|first1=Suzanne A.|last2=Malin|first2=Reed A.|last3=Figueroa|first3=Eugenio|author3-link=Eugenio Figueroa|title=Sustained Dialogue for Ground Water and Energy Resources in Chile|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education]]|date=2012|volume=149|issue=1|pages=76–86|doi=10.1111/j.1936-704X.2012.03129.x|bibcode=2012JCWRE.149...76P |language=en|issn=1936-704X|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|last=Pinti|first=Daniele|title=Mafic and Felsic |date=2011|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Astrobiology|page=938|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_1893|isbn=978-3-642-11271-3|editor-first1=Muriel |editor-last1=Gargaud|editor-first2= Ricardo|editor-last2= Amils|editor-first3= José |editor-last3=Cernicharo Quintanilla|editor-first4= Henderson James (Jim) II|editor-last4= Cleaves|editor-first5= William M.|editor-last5= Irvine|editor-first6= Daniele L. |editor-last6=Pinti|editor-first7= Michel|editor-last7= Viso}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pizarro |first1=José Antonio González |title=La salinidad de las aguas continentales y los proyectos hidráulicos en la región de Antofagasta a fines del siglo XIX y primeras décadas del siglo XX |journal=Revista de Derecho Administrativo Económico |date=2001 |issue=6 |page=407 |doi=10.7764/redae.6.15 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |url=http://revistadelaconstruccion.uc.cl/index.php/REDAE/article/view/7672 |language=es |issn=0719-5591}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Plenge|first1=Megan F.|last2=Engel|first2=Annette S.|last3=Omelon|first3=Christopher R.|last4=Bennett|first4=Philip C.|title=Thermophilic Archaeal Diversity and Methanogenesis from El Tatio Geyser Field, Chile|journal=Geomicrobiology Journal|date=16 March 2016|volume=34|issue=3|pages=220–230|doi=10.1080/01490451.2016.1168496|s2cid=87029026|issn=0149-0451}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Renaut|first1=Robin W.|chapter=Sinter|date=2011|chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4020-9212-1_189|title=Encyclopedia of Geobiology|pages=808–813|editor-last=Reitner|editor-first=Joachim|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9212-1_189|isbn=978-1-4020-9211-4|access-date=30 September 2021|last2=Jones|first2=Brian|series=Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series |editor2-last=Thiel|editor2-first=Volker}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Rudolph|first1=William E.|title=The Rio Loa of Northern Chile|journal=Geographical Review|date=1927|volume=17|issue=4|page=571|doi=10.2307/207998|jstor=207998|bibcode=1927GeoRv..17..553R }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Rudolph|first1=William E.|title=Sulphur in Chile|journal=Geographical Review|date=1952|volume=42|issue=4|page=568|doi=10.2307/211839|jstor=211839|bibcode=1952GeoRv..42..562R }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Salisbury|first1=Morgan J.|last2=Jicha|first2=Brian R.|last3=Silva|first3=Shanaka L. de|last4=Singer|first4=Brad S.|last5=Jiménez|first5=Néstor C.|last6=Ort|first6=Michael H.|title=40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province|journal=GSA Bulletin|date=1 May 2011|volume=123|issue=5–6|pages=821–840|doi=10.1130/B30280.1|issn=0016-7606|bibcode=2011GSAB..123..821S}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Sanchez-Alfaro|first1=Pablo|last2=Sielfeld|first2=Gerd|last3=Campen|first3=Bart Van|last4=Dobson|first4=Patrick|last5=Fuentes|first5=Víctor|last6=Reed|first6=Andy|last7=Palma-Behnke|first7=Rodrigo|last8=Morata|first8=Diego|title=Geothermal barriers, policies and economics in Chile – Lessons for the Andes|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|date=1 November 2015|volume=51|issue=Supplement C|pages=1390–1401|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.001|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015RSERv..51.1390S |issn=1364-0321}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sánchez-García |first1=Laura |last2=Lezcano |first2=María Ángeles |last3=Carrizo |first3=Daniel |last4=Severino |first4=Rita |last5=García-Villadangos |first5=Miriam |last6=Cady |first6=Sherry L. |last7=Warren-Rhodes |first7=Kim |last8=Cabrol |first8=Nathalie A. |last9=Parro |first9=Víctor |title=Assessing siliceous sinter matrices for long-term preservation of lipid biomarkers in opaline sinter deposits analogous to Mars in El Tatio (Chile) |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=April 2023 |volume=870 |article-number=161765 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161765 |pmid=36702265 |bibcode= |s2cid=256212394 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723003807 |language=en}}
* {{cite book|isbn=978-956-8309-19-0|language=es|url=https://bibliotecadigital.ciren.cl/bitstreams/18d9f61f-2e73-495a-812d-2ddda7740951/download|author=Sernageomin|year=2023|title=Geositios de Chile: una mirada a sus maravillas geológicas|page=144|location=Santiago|publisher=Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Skok|first1=J. R.|last2=Gong|first2=Jian|last3=Barra|first3=Fernando|last4=Morata|first4=Diego|last5=Southon|first5=John|last6=Munoz-Saez|first6=Carolina|last7=Reich|first7=Martin|last8=Slagter|first8=Silvina|s2cid=135152894|title=Environmental controls on silica sinter formation revealed by radiocarbon dating|journal=Geology|volume=47|issue=4|pages=330–334|language=en|doi=10.1130/G45859.1|year=2019|bibcode=2019Geo....47..330S|issn=1943-2682}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Smit |first1=Harry |last2=Pešić |first2=Vladimir |title=Water mites of a high-altitude thermal spring in the Chilean Andes (Acari: Hydrachnidia), with the description of a new Thermacarus species (Acari: Hydrachnidia: Thermacaridae) |journal=Ecologica Montenegrina |date=13 October 2024 |volume=74 |pages=45–51 |doi=10.37828/em.2024.74.7 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/em/article/view/86286 |language=en |issn=2336-9744}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Tapia|first1=J.|last2=Murray|first2=J.|last3=Ormachea|first3=M.|last4=Tirado|first4=N.|last5=Nordstrom|first5=D. K.|title=Origin, distribution, and geochemistry of arsenic in the Altiplano-Puna plateau of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Perú|journal=Science of the Total Environment|date=15 August 2019|volume=678|page=315|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.084|pmid=31075598|issn=0048-9697|bibcode=2019ScTEn.678..309T|s2cid=146106267}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Tassi|first1=F.|last2=Martinez|first2=C.|last3=Vaselli|first3=O.|last4=Capaccioni|first4=B.|last5=Viramonte|first5=J.|title=Light hydrocarbons as redox and temperature indicators in the geothermal field of El Tatio (northern Chile)|journal=Applied Geochemistry|date=1 November 2005|volume=20|issue=11|pages=2049–2062|doi=10.1016/j.apgeochem.2005.07.013|bibcode=2005ApGC...20.2049T|issn=0883-2927}}
* {{cite web|title=Tratado de Paz y Amistad entre Chile y Bolivia|url=https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0053572.pdf|website=Memoria Chilena|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Chile)]]|access-date=30 November 2017|language=es|ref={{harvid|BorderBolivia|1904}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Valdivielso |first1=Sonia |last2=Vázquez-Suñé |first2=Enric |last3=Herrera |first3=Christian |last4=Custodio |first4=Emilio |title=Characterization of precipitation and recharge in the peripheral aquifer of the Salar de Atacama |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=1 February 2022 |volume=806 |issue=Pt 1 |article-number=150271 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150271 |pmid=34560455 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.80650271V |s2cid=237627617 |language=en |issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Vargas Payera|first1=Sofía|title=Understanding social acceptance of geothermal energy: Case study for Araucanía region, Chile|journal=Geothermics|date=1 March 2018|volume=72|issue=Supplement C|pages=138–139|doi=10.1016/j.geothermics.2017.10.014|bibcode=2018Geoth..72..138V |issn=0375-6505}}
* {{Cite report|last=Vega|first=Jorge|date=20 March 2018|title=Flora y vegetación. Geisers del Tatio|url=https://bibliotecadigital.ciren.cl/items/ec0f50e9-34ec-4979-92ec-88cbbc926c4d|language=es|access-date=5 August 2021}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Veloso|first1=Eugenio E.|last2=Tardani|first2=Daniele|last3=Elizalde|first3=Daniel|last4=Godoy|first4=Benigno E.|last5=Sánchez-Alfaro|first5=Pablo A.|last6=Aron|first6=Felipe|last7=Reich|first7=Martin|last8=Morata|first8=Diego|title=A review of the geodynamic constraints on the development and evolution of geothermal systems in the Central Andean Volcanic Zone (18–28°Lat.S)|journal=International Geology Review|date=2 July 2020|volume=62|issue=10|pages=1294–1318|doi=10.1080/00206814.2019.1644678 |bibcode=2020IGRv...62.1294V|s2cid=199856109|issn=0020-6814}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vargas-Payera |first1=Sofía |title=Heat in the news: Geothermal energy in Chilean newspaper coverage |journal=Renewable Energy |date=December 2024 |volume=237 |article-number=121509 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2024.121509|bibcode=2024REne..23721509V }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Yanxin|last2=Li|first2=Ping|last3=Guo|first3=Qinghai|last4=Jiang|first4=Zhou|last5=Liu|first5=Mingliang|title=Environmental biogeochemistry of high arsenic geothermal fluids|journal=Applied Geochemistry|volume=97|pages=81–92|date=August 2018|doi=10.1016/j.apgeochem.2018.07.015|language=en|issn=0883-2927|bibcode=2018ApGC...97...81W|s2cid=134102831}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=D.|last2=Thornton|first2=R.|last3=Cesta|first3=J.|title=Across the Arid Diagonal: deglaciation of the western Andean Cordillera in southwest Bolivia and northern Chile|journal=Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica|date=15 September 2017|volume=43|issue=2|pages=667–696|doi=10.18172/cig.3209|language=es|issn=1697-9540|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017CuaIG..43..667W }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Amy J. |last2=Craft |first2=Kathleen L. |last3=Millan |first3=Maëva |last4=Johnson |first4=Sarah Stewart |last5=Knudson |first5=Christine A. |last6=Juarez Rivera |first6=Marisol |last7=McAdam |first7=Amy C. |last8=Tobler |first8=Dominique |last9=Skok |first9=John Roma |title=Fatty Acid Preservation in Modern and Relict Hot-Spring Deposits in Iceland, with Implications for Organics Detection on Mars |journal=Astrobiology |date=1 January 2021 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=60–82 |doi=10.1089/ast.2019.2115 |pmid=33121252 |bibcode=2021AsBio..21...60W |s2cid=226203148 |url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ast.2019.2115 |issn=1531-1074}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Dylan T. |last2=Nabhan |first2=Sami |last3=Myers |first3=Kimberly D. |last4=Slagter |first4=Silvina |last5=Lalonde |first5=Stefan V. |last6=Sansjofre |first6=Pierre |last7=Homann |first7=Martin |last8=Konhauser |first8=Kurt O. |last9=Munoz-Saez |first9=Carolina |last10=van Zuilen |first10=Mark A. |title=Depositional evolution of an extinct sinter mound from source to outflow, El Tatio, Chile |journal=Sedimentary Geology |date=August 2020 |volume=406 |article-number=105726 |doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2020.105726 |bibcode=2020SedG..40605726W |s2cid=225514498 |language=en |issn=0037-0738|url=https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00641/75332/ |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Dylan T. |last2=Myers |first2=Kimberly D. |last3=Lalonde |first3=Stefan V. |last4=Mänd |first4=Kaarel |last5=Konhauser |first5=Kurt O. |last6=Grandin |first6=Prisca |last7=Zuilen |first7=Mark A. van |title=Evaporative silicification in floating microbial mats: patterns of oxygen production and preservation potential in silica-undersaturated streams, El Tatio, Chile |journal=Geobiology |year=2021 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=310–330 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12476 |pmid=34676677 |pmc=9298402 |bibcode=2022Gbio...20..310W |s2cid=239458219 |language=en |issn=1472-4669}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Dylan T. |last2=Myers |first2=Kimberly D. |last3=Lalonde |first3=Stefan V. |last4=Mänd |first4=Kaarel |last5=Konhauser |first5=Kurt O. |last6=Grandin |first6=Prisca |last7=Zuilen |first7=Mark A. |title=Evaporative silicification in floating microbial mats: patterns of oxygen production and preservation potential in silica-undersaturated streams, El Tatio, Chile |journal=Geobiology |date=March 2022 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=310–330 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12476 |pmid=34676677 |pmc=9298402 |bibcode=2022Gbio...20..310W |language=en |issn=1472-4677}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Zabel|first1=H.P.|last2=König|first2=H.|last3=Winter|first3=J.|title=Isolation and characterization of a new coccoid methanogen, Methanogenium tatii spec. nov. from a solfataric field on Mount Tatio|journal=Archives of Microbiology|date=1 April 1984|volume=137|issue=4|pages=308–315|doi=10.1007/BF00410727|bibcode=1984ArMic.137..308Z |s2cid=44727366|language=en|issn=0302-8933}}
* {{cite book|last1=Zeil|first1=Werner|title=Das Fumarolen- und Geysir-Feld westlich der Vulkangruppe des Tatio (Provinz Antofagasta, Chile). Vorgelegt von Albert Maucher am 4. Juli 1958|date=1959|publisher=Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften|url=http://publikationen.badw.de/de/meta/003071425|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929100500/http://publikationen.badw.de/de/003071425/pdf/CC%20BY|archive-date=29 September 2021|access-date=29 November 2017|language=de|format=PDF}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Zeil|first1=Werner|title=Junger Vulkanismus in der Hochkordillere der Provinz Antofagasta (Chile)|journal=Geologische Rundschau|date=1959b|volume=48|issue=1|pages=218–232|doi=10.1007/BF01801827|language=de|issn=0016-7835|bibcode=1959GeoRu..48..218Z|s2cid=128937768}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|El Tatio}}
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=22+19+53+S+68+00+47+W&ie=UTF8&t=k&om=1 Google Maps location]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070522004811/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/travel/tatio.htm El Tatio Geyser Field]
* [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm World Geyser Fields]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090924002839/http://www.ganderats.com/fugatatio/ Page denouncing damage done by prospecting (in Spanish)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110708144431/http://www.chilexplora.com/ver_local.php?id=1427&ver=panorama&idPanorama=2105 Virtual Tour on 360° of El Tatio] Chilexplora.com
* [http://www.achegeo.cl/norte.pdf Technical details of one proposed geothermal power project]
* [https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/21770 On the 2009 incident and implications]
{{coord|22|19|53|S|68|0|37|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Geysers of Chile|Tatio]]
[[Category:Atacama Desert]]
[[Category:Geography of Antofagasta Region]]
[[Category:Landforms of Antofagasta Region]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Antofagasta Region]]
[[Category:First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites]]