View source for Electrical injury

{{Short description|Physiological reaction or injury caused by electric current}}
{{Redirect|Electric shock|other uses|Electric Shock (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name            = Electrical injury
| synonyms        = Electrical shock
| image           = Lightning injury.jpg
| caption         = [[Lightning injury]] caused by a nearby [[lightning strike]]. The slight branching redness (sometimes called a [[Lichtenberg figure]]) travelling up the leg was caused by the effects of current.
| pronounce       = 
| field           = [[Emergency medicine]]
| symptoms        = 
| complications   = [[Burn]]s, [[rhabdomyolysis]], [[cardiac arrest]], [[bone fractures]]<ref name=Stat2020/>
| onset           = 
| duration        = 
| types           = 
| causes          = 
| risks           = 
| diagnosis       = 
| differential    = 
| prevention      = 
| treatment       = 
| medication      = 
| prognosis       = 
| frequency       = >30,000 per year (USA)<ref name=Stat2020/>
| deaths          = ~1,000 per year (USA)<ref name=Stat2020/>
}}
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->

An '''electrical injury''' ('''electric injury''') or '''electrical shock''' ('''electric shock''') is damage sustained to the [[skin]] or internal organs on direct contact with an [[electric current]].<ref name="Medlineplus">{{cite web |title=Electrical injury: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000053.htm |website=medlineplus.gov |access-date=2 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Boon">{{cite book| last1=Boon| first1=Elizabeth| last2=Parr| first2=Rebecca| last3=20,000Dayananda| first3=Samarawickrama| title=Oxford Handbook of Dental Nursing| publisher=Oxford University Press| date=2012| pages=132| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx9FAgAAQBAJ&q=%22electric+shock&pg=PA132| isbn=978-0191629860| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306102959/https://books.google.com/books?id=dx9FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA132&dq=%22electric+shock| archive-date=2017-03-06}}</ref>

The injury depends on the [[Current density|density of the current]], tissue resistance and duration of contact.<ref>{{harvnb|Reilly|1998|p=1}}</ref> Very small currents may be imperceptible or only produce a light tingling sensation. However, a shock caused by low and otherwise harmless current could startle an individual and cause injury due to jerking away or falling. A strong electric shock can often cause painful [[Spasm|muscle spasms]] severe enough to [[Joint dislocation|dislocate joints]] or even to [[Bone fracture|break bones]]. The loss of muscle control is the reason that a person may be unable to release themselves from the electrical source; if this happens at a height as on a [[Overhead power line|power line]] they can be thrown off.<ref name="HSE">{{cite web |title=Electrical injuries – Electrical safety |url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/electricity/injuries.htm |website=www.hse.gov.uk |access-date=2 October 2023}}</ref><ref>Leslie Alexander Geddes, Rebecca A. Roeder ,''Handbook of Electrical Hazards and Accidents'' Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, 2006 {{ISBN|0913875449}},  page 29</ref> Larger currents can result in tissue damage and may trigger [[ventricular fibrillation]] or [[cardiac arrest]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gentges|first1=Joshua|last2=Schieche|first2=Christoph|date=November 2018|title=Electrical injuries in the emergency department: an evidence-based review|journal=Emergency Medicine Practice|volume=20|issue=11|pages=1–20|issn=1559-3908|pmid=30358379}}</ref> If death results from an electric shock the [[cause of death]] is generally referred to as [[electrocution]].

<!-- Cause and mechanism -->
Electric injury occurs upon contact of a body part with [[electricity]] that causes a sufficient current to pass through the person's tissues. Contact with energized [[electrical wiring|wiring]] or devices is the most common cause. In cases of exposure to high [[voltage]]s, such as on a [[power transmission tower]], direct contact may not be necessary as the voltage may [[Electric arc|"jump" the air gap]] to the electrical device.<ref name="HSE2">{{cite web |title=Introduction to electrical safety – HSE |url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/electricity/precautions.htm |website=www.hse.gov.uk |access-date=2 October 2023}}</ref>

<!-- Diagnosis -->
Following an electrical injury from household current, if a person has no symptoms, no underlying heart problems, and is not pregnant, further testing is not required.<ref name=Mer2020/> Otherwise an [[electrocardiogram]], blood work to check the heart, and urine testing for signs of muscle breakdown may be performed.<ref name=Mer2020>{{cite web |title=Electrical Injuries – Injuries; Poisoning |url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/injuries-poisoning/electrical-and-lightning-injuries/electrical-injuries |website=Merck Manuals Professional Edition |access-date=9 May 2020}}</ref>

<!-- Treatment and epidemiology -->
Management may involve [[resuscitation]], pain medications, wound management, and [[Electrocardiography|heart rhythm monitoring]].<ref name=Mer2020/> Electrical injuries affect more than 30,000 people a year in the [[United States]] and result in about 1,000 deaths.<ref name=Stat2020>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zemaitis MR, Foris LA, Lopez RA, Huecker MR |title=Electrical Injuries |journal=StatPearls [Internet] |date=January 2020 |pmid=28846317}}</ref>

{{TOC limit}}

==Signs and symptoms==

===Burns===
[[File:Verbrennung Grad 2b.jpg|thumb|Second-degree burn after a [[high tension line]] accident]]
Heating due to [[electrical resistance|resistance]] can cause extensive and deep [[burn]]s. When applied to the hand, electricity can cause involuntary muscle contraction, preventing the victim from untensing their hand muscles and releasing the wire, increasing the risk for serious burns.<ref name="Wesner et al 2013" /> Voltage levels of 500 to 1000 volts tend to cause internal burns due to the large energy (which is proportional to the duration multiplied by the square of the voltage divided by resistance or the square of the current multiplied by the resistance) available from the source. Damage due to current is through tissue heating and/or electroporation injury. For most cases of high-energy electrical trauma, the Joule heating in the deeper tissues along the extremity will reach damaging temperatures in a few seconds.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=8245107|year=1993|last1=Lee|first1=R. C.|title=Transient and stable ionic permeabilization of isolated skeletal muscle cells after electrical shock|journal=The Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation|volume=14|issue=5|pages=528–40|last2=Canaday|first2=D. J.|last3=Hammer|first3=S. M.|doi=10.1097/00004630-199309000-00007}}</ref>

===Ventricular fibrillation===
A domestic power supply voltage (110 or 230&nbsp;V), 50 or 60&nbsp;Hz [[alternating current]] (AC) through the chest for a duration longer than one second may induce [[ventricular fibrillation]] at currents as low as 30 milliamperes (mA).<ref name=ucsb/><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Waldmann V, Narayanan K, Combes N, Jost D, Jouven X, Marijon E |title=Electrical cardiac injuries: current concepts and management |journal=European Heart Journal |volume=39 |issue=16 |date=April 2018 |pages=1459–1465 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehx142 |pmid=28444167 |doi-access=free}}</ref> With [[direct current]] (DC), 90 to 130&nbsp;mA are required at the same duration.<ref name=whitaker/> If the current has a direct pathway to the heart (e.g., via a [[Catheter|cardiac catheter]] or other kind of [[electrode]]), a much lower current of less than 1&nbsp;mA (AC or DC) can cause fibrillation. If not immediately treated by [[defibrillation]], ventricular fibrillation is usually lethal, causing [[cardiac arrest]], because all of the [[Cardiac muscle|heart muscle fibres]] move independently instead of in the [[Cardiac action potential|coordinated action]] needed for successful [[cardiac cycle]] to pump blood and maintain circulation.
Short single DC pulses induce [[Ventricular fibrillation|VF]] dependent on the amount of charge (in [[coulomb|mC]]) transferred to the body, which makes the amplitude of the electrical stimulus independent of the exact amount of current flowing through the body for very short pulse durations. DC shocks of short duration are usually better tolerated by the heart even at high currents and rarely induce ventricular fibrillation compared to lower currents with longer duration with both DC or AC. The amount of current can easily reach very high values as [[amperage]] is only of second order importance to fibrillation risk in the case of ultra short contact times with direct currents. But even if the charge itself is harmless, the amount of energy being discharged still can lead to thermal and chemical hazards if its value is high enough. 
One example of high current electric shock which may be usually harmless is an [[electrostatic discharge]] as experienced in everyday life on door handles, car doors etc. These currents can reach values up to 60 A without harmful effects on the heart as the duration is in the order of only several [[Nanosecond|ns]]. Another example for dangerous electrostatic discharges even without flowing directly through the body are lightning strikes and high voltage arcs.

==== Mechanism ====
Mechanism of cardiac arrhythmias induced by electricity is not fully understood, but various biopsies have shown [[Ectopic pacemaker|arrhythmogenic foci]] in patchy [[Cardiac fibrosis|myocardial fibrosis]] which contained increased amount of [[Sodium channel|Na+]] and [[Potassium channel|K+]] [[Membrane transport|pumps]], possibly associated with transient and localized changes in [[Sodium–potassium pump|sodium-potassium transport]] as well as their concentrations, resulting in changes in [[membrane potential]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wiggers |first1=Carl J. |last2=Bell |first2=James R. |last3=Paine |first3=Margaret |date=2003-07-08 |title=Studies of Ventricular Fibrillation Caused by Electric Shock |journal=Annals of Noninvasive Electrocardiology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=252–261 |doi=10.1046/j.1542-474X.2003.08316.x |issn=1082-720X |pmc=6932455 |pmid=14510663}}</ref>

===Neurological effects===
Electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause [[neuropathy]] in some cases at the site where the current entered the body.<ref name="Wesner et al 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Wesner |first1=Marni |last2=Hickie |first2=John |title = Long-term sequelae of electrical injury|journal=Can Fam Physician |date=2013 |volume=59 |issue=9 |pages=935–939 |pmid=24029506|pmc=3771718 }}</ref> The neurologic symptoms of electrical injury may occur immediately, which traditionally have a higher likelihood for healing, though they may also be delayed by days to years.<ref name="Wesner et al 2013" /> The delayed neurologic consequences of electrical injury have a worse [[prognosis]].<ref name="Wesner et al 2013" />

When the path of electric current proceeds through the head, it appears that, with sufficient current applied, loss of consciousness almost always occurs swiftly. This is borne out by research from the field of [[animal husbandry]], where [[electric stunning]] has been extensively studied.<ref>[http://www.grandin.com/humane/elec.stun.html Electric Stunning of Pigs and Sheep] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306103752/http://www.grandin.com/humane/elec.stun.html |date=2016-03-06 }}</ref>

If ventricular fibrillation occurs (as above), the blood supply to the brain is diminished, which may cause [[cerebral hypoxia]] (and its associated neurologic consequences).

===Mental health===
There are a variety of psychiatric effects that may occur as a result of electrical injuries. Behavioral changes can occur as well, even if the path of electric current did not proceed through the head.<ref name="Wesner et al 2013" /> Symptoms may include:<ref name="Wesner et al 2013" />
*[[Depression (mood)|Depression]], including feelings of low self-esteem and guilt
*[[Anxiety]] spectrum disorders, including [[posttraumatic stress disorder]] and fear of electricity
*Moodiness, including a lower threshold for frustration and "losing one's temper"
*Memory loss, decreased attention span, and difficulty learning

===Arc-flash hazards===
{{main|Arc flash}}
[[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|OSHA]] found that up to 80&nbsp;percent of its electrical injuries involve thermal burns due to arcing faults.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://standards.ieee.org/announcements/pr_FINArc.html|title=Industry Backs IEEE-NFPA Arc Flash Testing Program with Initial Donations of $1.25 Million|publisher=IEEE|date=14 July 2006|access-date=2008-01-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302213538/http://standards.ieee.org/announcements/pr_FINArc.html|archive-date=2 March 2008}}</ref> The [[arc flash]] in an electrical fault produces the same type of light [[radiation]] from which electric welders protect themselves using face shields with dark glass, heavy leather gloves, and full-coverage clothing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arcflash.com.au/arc_flash_protection.php|title=Arc_flash_protection.php – Arc Flash|website=www.arcflash.com.au}}</ref> The heat produced may cause severe burns, especially on unprotected flesh. The arc blast produced by vaporizing metallic components can break bones and damage internal organs. The degree of hazard present at a particular location can be determined by a detailed analysis of the electrical system, and appropriate protection worn if the electrical work must be performed with the electricity on.

==Pathophysiology==
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type ([[alternating current|AC]] or [[direct current|DC]]) as well as [[frequency]] for AC. A person can sense electric current as low as 1{{spaces}}[[ampere|mA]] ([[Root mean square#Average electrical power|rms]]) for 60{{spaces}}Hz AC and as low as 5{{spaces}}mA for DC. At around 10{{spaces}}mA, AC current passing through the arm of a {{convert|68|kg|adj=on}} human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object.<ref>John Cadick et al. (ed.) ''Electrical Safety Handbook Third Edition'', McGraw Hill, 2005 {{ISBN|0-07-145772-0}}  page 1-4</ref> This is known as the "let go threshold" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.

The current may, if it is high enough, cause tissue damage or [[fibrillation]] which can cause cardiac arrest; {{nowrap|more than 30 mA}}<ref name=ucsb>[http://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~phys13CH/electrical_safety.pdf ucsb.edu – Electrical Safety Information – Physics Department, UCSB] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023060415/http://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~phys13CH/electrical_safety.pdf |date=2013-10-23 }}, 2012-01-09</ref> of AC (rms, 60&nbsp;Hz) or {{nowrap|300–500 mA}} of DC at high voltage can cause fibrillation.<ref name=whitaker>Clifford D. Ferris, ''Electric Shock'', chapter 22.1 in Jerry C. Whitaker (ed.) ''The Electronics Handbook'', CRC Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-8493-1889-0}}, pp. 2317–2324</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/JackHsu.shtml |title=Electric Current Needed to Kill a Human |work=The Physics Factbook |author=Jack Hsu |date=2000 |access-date=January 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023060224/http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/JackHsu.shtml |archive-date=2013-10-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> A sustained electric shock from AC at 120 [[volt|V]], 60&nbsp;Hz is an especially dangerous source of [[ventricular fibrillation]] because it usually exceeds the let-go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that the currents take.<ref name=whitaker/> If the [[voltage]] is less than 200&nbsp;V, then the human skin, more precisely the [[stratum corneum]], is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a [[macroshock]]—the passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above 450–600&nbsp;V, then [[dielectric breakdown]] of the skin occurs.<ref>{{harvnb|Reilly|1998|p=30}}</ref> The protection offered by the skin is lowered by [[perspiration]], and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above the let-go threshold for a sustained period of time.<ref name=whitaker/>

If an electrical circuit is established by electrodes introduced in the body, bypassing the skin, then the potential for lethality is much higher if a circuit through the heart is established. This is known as a [[microshock]]. Currents of only 10&nbsp;[[micro-|μ]]A can be sufficient to cause fibrillation in this case with a probability of 0.2%.<ref name="Leitgeb2010">{{cite book|author=Norbert Leitgeb|title=Safety of Electromedical Devices: Law – Risks – Opportunities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FpSH-VM5TYkC&pg=PA122|date=6 May 2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-211-99683-6|page=122|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401235716/https://books.google.com/books?id=FpSH-VM5TYkC&pg=PA122|archive-date=1 April 2017}}</ref>

===Body resistance===
{| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"
|-
! Voltage || 5% || 50% || 95%
|-
| 25&nbsp;[[Voltage|V]]|| 1,750&nbsp;[[Ohm|Ω]]|| 3,250&nbsp;Ω || 6,100&nbsp;Ω
|-
| 100&nbsp;V || 1,200&nbsp;Ω || 1,875&nbsp;Ω || 3,200&nbsp;Ω
|-
| 220&nbsp;V || 1,000&nbsp;Ω || 1,350&nbsp;Ω || 2,125&nbsp;Ω
|-
| 1000&nbsp;V || 700&nbsp;Ω || 1,050&nbsp;Ω || 1,500&nbsp;Ω
|}
The voltage necessary for electrocution depends on the current through the body and the duration of the current. [[Ohm's law]] states that the current drawn depends on the resistance of the body. The resistance of [[human skin]] varies from person to person and fluctuates between different times of day. The [[NIOSH]] states "Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by the human body may be as high as 100,000 ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body's resistance to 1,000&nbsp;ohms," adding that "high-voltage electrical energy quickly breaks down human skin, reducing the human body's resistance to 500&nbsp;ohms".<ref name=niosh>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-131/pdfs/98-131.pdf|access-date=2008-08-16|title=Publication No. 98-131: Worker Deaths by Electrocution|publisher=[[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011191854/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-131/pdfs/98-131.pdf|archive-date=2008-10-11}}</ref>

The [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] gives the following values for the total body impedance of a hand to hand circuit for dry skin, large contact areas, 50&nbsp;Hz AC currents (the columns contain the distribution of the impedance in the population [[percentile]]; for example at 100&nbsp;V 50% of the population had an impedance of 1875Ω or less):<ref>{{harvnb|Reilly|1998|p=43}}</ref>

===Skin===

The voltage-current characteristic of human skin is non-linear and depends on many factors such as intensity, duration, history, and frequency of the electrical stimulus. Sweat gland activity, temperature, and individual variation also influence the voltage-current characteristic of skin. In addition to non-linearity, skin impedance exhibits asymmetric and time varying properties. These properties can be modeled with reasonable accuracy.<ref name=Lochner>{{cite web|url=http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/28072/dissertation.pdf?sequence=1|title=The Voltage Current Characteristic of the Human Skin|publisher=[[University of Pretoria]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017084822/http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/28072/dissertation.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2015-10-17}}</ref> Resistance measurements made at low voltage using a standard [[ohmmeter]] do not accurately represent the impedance of human skin over a significant range of conditions.

For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.

Between 10 volts and about 30 volts, skin exhibits non-linear but symmetric electrical characteristics. Above 20 volts, electrical characteristics are both non-linear and symmetric. Skin conductance can increase by several orders of magnitude in milliseconds. This should not be confused with [[dielectric breakdown]], which occurs at hundreds of volts. For these reasons, current flow cannot be accurately calculated by simply applying [[Ohm's law]] using a fixed resistance model.

===Point of entry===
* [[Macroshock]]: Current across intact skin and through the body. Current from arm to arm, or between an arm and a foot, is likely to traverse the heart, therefore it is much more dangerous than current between a leg and the ground. This type of shock by definition must pass into the body through the skin.
* [[Microshock]]: Very small current source with a pathway directly connected to the heart tissue. The shock is required to be administered from inside the skin, directly to the heart i.e. a pacemaker lead, or a guide wire, conductive catheter etc. connected to a source of current. This is a largely theoretical hazard as modern devices used in these situations include protections against such currents.

=== Lethality ===
{{original research|section|date=December 2010}}

==== Electrocution ====
The earliest usage of the term "electrocution" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was an 1889 newspaper reference to the method of execution then being considered.<ref name=":0">{{Cite OED|electrocution|id=60282}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, in 1892, the term was used in ''Science'' to refer generically to death or injury caused by electricity.<ref name=":0" />

==== Factors in lethality of electric shock ====
[[File:IEC_TS_60479-1_electric_shock_graph.svg|thumb|300px|Log-log graph of the effect of alternating current ''I'' of duration ''T'' passing from left hand to feet as defined in [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] 60479–1.<ref>Weineng Wang, Zhiqiang Wang, Xiao Peng, [http://papersub.ivypub.org/Global/DownloadService.aspx?PARAMS=Sm91cm5hbElEXjM3OF5JRF4xNDAzOQ_0_0 ''Effects of the Earth Current Frequency and Distortion on Residual Current Devices''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108110449/http://papersub.ivypub.org/Global/DownloadService.aspx?PARAMS=Sm91cm5hbElEXjM3OF5JRF4xNDAzOQ_0_0 |date=2014-11-08 }}, Scientific Journal of Control Engineering, Dec 2013, Vol 3 Issue 6 pp 417–422</ref>
<br />AC-1: imperceptible
<br />AC-2: perceptible but no muscle reaction
<br />AC-3: muscle contraction with reversible effects
<br />AC-4: possible irreversible effects
<br />AC-4.1: up to 5% probability of ventricular fibrillation
<br />AC-4.2: 5–50% probability of fibrillation
<br />AC-4.3: over 50% probability of fibrillation]]

The lethality of an electric shock is dependent on several variables:

* Current: The higher the current, the more likely it is lethal. Since current is proportional to voltage when resistance is fixed ([[ohm's law]]), high voltage is an indirect risk for producing higher currents.
* Duration: The longer the shock duration, the more likely it is lethal&mdash;safety switches may limit time of current flow. Short high-current pulses, as from capacitors, are usually less dangerous than longer-lasting low-current shocks.
* Pathway: If current flows through vital organs, like the heart muscle, it is more likely to be lethal.
* [[High voltage]] (over about 600 volts). In addition to greater current flow, high voltage may cause dielectric breakdown at the skin, thus lowering skin resistance and allowing further increased current flow.
* [[Implant (medicine)|Medical implants]]: [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker]]s or [[implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]s (ICD) are sensitive to very small currents.<ref name="Blandford2016">{{cite book|author=Claire M. Blandford|title=Passing the Primary FRCA SOE: A Practical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rfnUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117|date=21 April 2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-54580-9|pages=117–|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102234454/https://books.google.com/books?id=rfnUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117|archive-date=2 January 2018}}</ref>
* Pre-existing medical condition<ref name="PakhomovMiklavcic2010">{{cite book|author1=Andrei G. Pakhomov|author2=Damijan Miklavcic|author3=Marko S. Markov|title=Advanced Electroporation Techniques in Biology and Medicine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTHNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA498|date=2 June 2010|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-1907-4|pages=498–|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102234454/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTHNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA498|archive-date=2 January 2018}}</ref>
* Age, body mass, and health status<ref name="Madden2017">{{cite book|author=John M Madden|title=Electrical Safety and the Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCslDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|date=20 January 2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-20851-8|page=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102234454/https://books.google.com/books?id=jCslDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|archive-date=2 January 2018}}</ref>
* Sex: Women are more vulnerable to electric shock than men.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IEC 60479-1:2018 {{!}} IEC Webstore |url=https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/62980#:~:text=IEC%2060479-1:2018 |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=webstore.iec.ch}}</ref>

Other issues affecting lethality are [[frequency]], which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms. Very high frequency electric current causes tissue burning, but does not stimulate the nerves strongly enough to cause cardiac arrest (see [[electrosurgery]]). Also important is the pathway: if the current passes through the chest or head, there is an increased chance of death. Another factor is that cardiac tissue has a [[chronaxie]] (response time) of about 3 milliseconds, so electricity at frequencies of higher than about 333&nbsp;Hz requires more current to cause fibrillation than is required at lower frequencies.

The comparison between the dangers of [[alternating current]] at typical power transmission frequencies (i.e., 50 or 60&nbsp;Hz), and [[direct current]] has been a subject of debate ever since the [[war of the currents]] in the 1880s.

It is sometimes suggested that human lethality is most common with [[alternating current]] at 100–250&nbsp;volts; however, death has occurred below this range, with supplies as low as 42 volts.<ref name="OSU Physics - The Fatal Current">{{cite web|title=The Fatal Current|url=https://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~p616/safety/fatal_current.html|website=OSU Physics|publisher=Ohio State University|access-date=4 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103133438/https://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~p616/safety/fatal_current.html|archive-date=3 January 2018}}</ref> Assuming a steady current flow (as opposed to a shock from a capacitor or from [[static electricity]]), shocks above 2,700&nbsp;volts are often fatal, with those above 11,000&nbsp;volts being usually fatal, though exceptional cases have been noted. According to the [[Guinness Book of World Records]], seventeen-year-old Brian Latasa survived a 230,000&nbsp;volt shock on the tower of an ultra-high voltage line in [[Griffith Park]], Los Angeles on November 9, 1967.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19780428&id=qAtPAAAAIBAJ&pg=3583,2551486|publisher=Toledo Blade|date=1978-04-28|title=According to Guinness (comic)}}</ref> A news report of the event stated that he was "jolted through the air, and landed across the line", and though rescued by firemen, he sustained burns over 40% of his body and was completely paralyzed except for his eyelids.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1356&dat=19671124&id=JIdPAAAAIBAJ&pg=3519,5256084|publisher=Ocala Star-Banner|date=1967-11-24|title=Firemen risk death to save teenager}}</ref> The shock with the highest voltage reported survived was that of Harry F. McGrew, who came in contact with a 340,000 volt transmission line in Huntington Canyon, Utah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.115614/2015.115614.Guinness-World-Records_djvu.txt|title = Guinness World Records}}</ref>

The severity and lethality of electric shocks generally depend on the duration and the amount of current passing through the human body. Frequency plays a role with AC and pulse DC. For example, a high frequency current has a higher ventricular fibrillation threshold than lower frequency. Also, shorter single pulses have higher thresholds than short pulses. Below 10 ms are usually believed to have a primarily charge dependent threshold and shock amplitude. Research shows that for very short electric pulse durations below 100 μs the threshold curve converges into a constant charge criterion independent of peak current or RMS values. Even though the for both muscle and nerve stimulation including the heart and the brain.{{clarify|date=April 2024}} Heating is primarily determined by the amount of energy and is not related to stimulation. These definitions have been included into the IEC standard 60479-2 in opposite to IEC 60479-1 which addresses longer pulse durations above 10 ms for both DC and AC, which use a current over time duration curve based classification. 
These principles are used to determine the risks from capacitors, electric weapons, electric fences and other short pulsed low- and high-voltage electrical applications outside the medical field.

==Prevention in points ==
Prevention of electrical injuries is one of the fundamental objectives of national [[electrical code]]s for permanently-installed electrical systems in buildings. Shock danger may be reduced by use of an [[extra-low voltage]] electrical system that is unlikely to expose a human to dangerous levels of current. Special isolated power systems may be used in applications such as [[operating theatre]]s, where electrical equipment must be used in proximity to a person unusually vulnerable to electrical shock. For electrical equipment used outdoors or in wet areas, an [[Earth-leakage circuit breaker]] known as a [[residual-current device]] or ''ground fault circuit interrupter'',  may provide protection from electrical current leakage.

Electrical devices have non-conductive [[insulation (electrical)|insulation]] preventing contact with energized wires or parts, or may have conductive metal enclosures connected to earth [[ground (electricity)|ground]] so that users will not be exposed to dangerous voltage. [[Double insulated]] devices have a separate insulation system, distinct from the insulation required for the function of the device, and intended for protection of the user from electrical shock.

People and animals can be protected by installing electrical equipment out of reach of passers-by, such as on electrical [[transmission tower]]s, or by installation in an [[electrical room]] only accessible to authorized persons.  [[Stray voltage|Stray current leakage]] or electrical fault current may be diverted by [[electrical bonding|bonding]] all conductive  equipment enclosures together and to the earth. [[Earth potential rise|Current passing through the earth]] may also provide a hazard of electrical shock, so a ground grid may be installed around installations such as [[electrical substation]]s. [[Lightning rod|Lightning protection systems]] are primarily installed to reduce property damage by lightning strikes, but may not entirely prevent electrical shock hazards. Persons outdoors during a lightning storm may be advised to take [[Lightning strike#Personal safety|precautions]] to avoid electrical shock.

Where installation, or maintenance of electrical equipment is required, [[Interlock (engineering)|interlock]] devices may be used to ensure that all electrical sources are removed from the equipment before accessing normally energized parts. Administrative procedures such as [[lockout–tagout]] are used to protect workers from accidentally re-energizing equipment under repair. Where accidental contact with energized components is still possible, or where adjustment of an energized system is absolutely necessary, workers may be trained to use insulated  or non-conductive tools, and [[personal protective equipment]] such as gloves, face shields, non-conductive boots, or cover-up mats. With proper training and equipment, [[Live-line working|live-line maintenance]] is routinely safely carried out on electrical [[transmission line]]s energized at hundreds of thousands of [[volt]]s.

== Epidemiology ==
There were 550 reported electrocution deaths in the US in 1993, 2.1 deaths per million inhabitants. At that time, the incidence of electrocutions was decreasing.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url = http://www.ilo.org/encyclopedia/?doc&nd=857100207&nh=0 | title = Electricity: Physiological Effects | access-date = 2006-09-04 | author = Folliot, Dominigue | year = 1998 | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Fourth Edition |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070228084602/http://www.ilo.org/encyclopedia/?doc&nd=857100207&nh=0 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-02-28}}</ref> Electrocutions in the workplace make up the majority of these fatalities. From 1980&ndash;1992, an average of 411 workers were killed each year by electrocution.<ref name=niosh /> Workplace deaths caused by exposure to electricity in the U.S. increased by nearly 24% between 2015 and 2019, from 134 to 166. However, workplace electrical injuries dropped 23% between 2015 and 2019 from 2,480 to 1,900.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ESFI Occupational Injury and Fatality Statistics|url=https://www.esfi.org/workplace-injury-and-fatality-statistics|access-date=2021-03-23|website=www.esfi.org}}</ref> In 2019, the top 5 states with the most workplace electrical fatalities were: (1) [[Texas]] (608); (2) [[California]] (451); (3) [[Florida]] (306); (4) [[New York (state)|New York]] (273); and (5) [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] (207).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Summary, 2019|url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi.nr0.htm|access-date=2021-03-23|website=www.bls.gov|language=en}}</ref>

A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia<ref>[http://www.ncis.org.au National Coroners Information System, NCIS] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221192843/http://ncis.org.au/ |date=2012-02-21 }}</ref> has revealed 321 closed case fatalities (and at least 39 case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person died from electrocution between July 2000 and October 2011.<ref>[http://www.ncis.org.au/web_pages/Feb%202012%20FACT-SHEET%20-%20Electrocution%20related%20deaths.pdf Electrocution Related Deaths – National Coroners Information System (NCIS) Fact-Sheet, January 2012] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317093225/http://www.ncis.org.au/web_pages/Feb%202012%20FACT-SHEET%20-%20Electrocution%20related%20deaths.pdf |date=March 17, 2012 }}</ref>

In Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway the number of electric deaths per million inhabitants was 0.6, 0.3, 0.3 and 0.2, respectively, in the years 2007–2011.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tukes.fi/Tiedostot/sahko_ja_hissit/Diplomityo_Kinnunen_2013.pdf | title = Electrical accident hazards in the Nordic countries | access-date = 2013-06-10 | author = Kinnunen, Minna | year = 2013 | page = 19 | work = Master's thesis, Tampere University of Technology | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140327012550/http://tukes.fi/Tiedostot/sahko_ja_hissit/Diplomityo_Kinnunen_2013.pdf | archive-date = 2014-03-27 }}</ref>

In Nigeria, analysis of [[Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission]] data found 126 recorded electrocution deaths and 68 serious injuries in 2020 and the first half of 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=NERC: 126 Nigerians Killed, 68 Injured in Electricity-related Accidents in 18 Months – THISDAYLIVE |url=https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/12/20/nerc-126-nigerians-killed-68-injured-in-electricity-related-accidents-in-18-months |website=www.thisdaylive.com |language=en}}</ref>

People who survive electrical trauma may develop a host of injuries including loss of consciousness, seizures, aphasia, visual disturbances, headaches, tinnitus, paresis, and memory disturbances.<ref name=pmid8010642>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb30450.x|pmid=8010642|title=Neuropsychiatric Aspects of Electrical Injury|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=720|issue=1|pages=219–23|year=1994|last1=Pliskin|first1=N. H.|last2=Meyer|first2=G. J.|last3=Dolske|first3=M. C.|last4=Heilbronner|first4=R. L.|last5=Kelley|first5=K. M.|last6=Lee|first6=R. C.|bibcode=1994NYASA.720..219P|s2cid=14913272}}</ref> Even without visible burns, electric shock survivors may be faced with long-term muscular pain and discomfort, exhaustion, headache, problems with peripheral nerve conduction and sensation, inadequate balance and coordination, among other symptoms. Electrical injury can lead to problems with neurocognitive function, affecting speed of mental processing, attention, concentration, and memory. The high frequency of psychological problems is well established and may be multifactorial.<ref name=pmid8010642/> As with any traumatic and life-threatening experience, electrical injury may result in post traumatic psychiatric disorders.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/BCR.0b013e31827e5062|pmid=23412330|title=Impact of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression on Neuropsychological Functioning in Electrical Injury Survivors|journal=Journal of Burn Care & Research|volume=34|issue=6|pages=659–65|year=2013|last1=Grigorovich|first1=Alisa|last2=Gomez|first2=Manuel|last3=Leach|first3=Larry|last4=Fish|first4=Joel|s2cid=3698828}}</ref> There exist several non-profit research institutes that coordinate rehabilitation strategies for electrical injury survivors by connecting them with clinicians that specialize in diagnosis and treatment of various traumas that arise as a result of electrical injury.<ref>http://www.cetri.org {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223121712/http://www.cetri.org/ |date=2010-12-23 }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2015}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunnybrook.ca/content/?page=sjr-patvis-prog-electrical |title=St. Johns Rehab – Electrical Injury Program – Sunnybrook Hospital |access-date=2013-10-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215625/http://sunnybrook.ca/content/?page=sjr-patvis-prog-electrical |archive-date=2013-10-04 }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2015}}

== Deliberate uses ==

===Medical uses===
Electric shock is also used as a medical therapy, under carefully controlled conditions:

* [[Electroconvulsive therapy]] or ECT, a psychiatric therapy for [[mental disorder]]s
* As a surgical tool for cutting or coagulation in [[electrosurgery]]. An electrosurgical unit (ESU) uses high currents (e.g. 10 amperes) at high frequency (e.g. 500&nbsp;kHz) with various schemes of amplitude modulation to cut or coagulate
* As a treatment for fibrillation or irregular heart rhythms: see [[Defibrillation]] and [[Cardioversion]]
* As a method of [[pain relief]]: see [[Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (TENS)
* As a treatment for [[hyperhidrosis|excessive sweating]] with a process called [[iontophoresis]]
* [[Electrodiagnosis]], for example [[nerve conduction study|nerve conduction studies]] and [[electromyography]]
* [[Electroporation]] for gene delivery

===Entertainment===
[[Image:Musée Mécanique 160.JPG|thumb|upright|Electrifying machine at [[Musée Mécanique]] that actually works with vibration<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arcade-museum.com/game_detail.php?game_id=10550|title=Addams Family Generator – Arcade by H. Betti Industries, Inc.|website=www.arcade-museum.com}}</ref>]]

Mild electric shocks are also used for entertainment, especially as a [[practical joke]] for example in such devices as a shocking pen or a [[shocking gum]]. However devices such as a [[joy buzzer]] and most other machines in [[amusement park]]s today only use vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.

===Policing and personal defense===
[[Electroshock weapon]]s are [[Less-lethal weapon|incapacitant]] [[weapon]]s used for subduing a person by administering electric shock to disrupt superficial [[muscle]] functions. One type is a conductive energy device (CED), an electroshock gun popularly known by the brand name "[[Taser]]", which fires projectiles that administer the shock through a thin, flexible wire. Although they are illegal for personal use in many jurisdictions, Tasers have been marketed to the general public.<ref>International Association of Chiefs of Police, ''[http://www.theiacp.org/research/CuttingEdge/EMDT9Steps.pdf Electro Muscular Disruption Technology: A Nine-Step Strategy for Effective Deployment] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210211811/http://www.theiacp.org/research/CuttingEdge/EMDT9Steps.pdf |date=December 10, 2013 }}'', 2005</ref> Other electroshock weapons such as stun guns, stun batons ("cattle prods"), and [[electroshock belt]]s administer an electric shock by direct contact.

[[Electric fence]]s are barriers that use electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from uncomfortable, to painful or even lethal. Most electric fencing is used today for [[agricultural fencing]] and other forms of animal control purposes, though it is frequently used to enhance security of restricted areas, and there exist places where lethal voltages are used.

=== Torture ===<!-- [[Electric shock torture]] redirects here -->
Electric shocks are used as a method of [[torture]], for example in the [[Tucker Telephone]]. since the received voltage and current can be controlled with precision and used to cause pain and fear while avoiding visible damage to the victim's body.

Electrical torture has been used in war and by repressive regimes since the 1930s.<ref>[http://academic.reed.edu/poli_sci/faculty/rejali/rejali/articles/electric.html Technological Invention and Diffusion of Torture Equipment The Strange Case of Electric Torture Instruments in the Early 20th Century] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305072316/http://academic.reed.edu/poli_sci/faculty/rejali/rejali/articles/electric.html |date=March 5, 2010 }}</ref> During the [[Algerian War]] electrical torture was used by French military forces.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Arens|first1=Marianne|last2=Thull|first2=Françoise|title=Torture in the Algerian war (1954–62) The Algerian war 1954–62|url=http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2001/04/alg-a09.html|website=World Socialist Web Site|publisher=[[International Committee of the Fourth International]] (ICFI)|access-date=2 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025060200/http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2001/04/alg-a09.html|archive-date=2017-10-25|date=April 9, 2001}}</ref> [[Amnesty International]] published a statement that Russian military forces in [[Chechnya]] tortured local women with electric shocks by attaching wires onto their breasts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR46/014/2006 |title=Russian Federation Preliminary briefing to the UN Committee against Torture |access-date=February 24, 2012 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516061641/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR46/014/2006 |archive-date=May 16, 2009 }}</ref>

The use of electric shocks to torture political prisoners of the [[Military dictatorship in Brazil|Brazilian military dictatorship]] (1964 - 1985) is detailed in the final report of the [[National Truth Commission]], published December 10, 2014.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Salomão |first1=Lucas |title=Comissão relata modalidades de tortura usadas contra presos políticos |url=https://g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2014/12/comissao-relata-modalidades-de-tortura-usadas-contra-presos-politicos.html |website=G1 |access-date=22 July 2024 |language=pt |date=10 December 2014 }}</ref>

The {{Lang-for|es|parrilla|grill}} is a method of [[torture]] whereby the victim is strapped to a metal frame and subjected to electric shock.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/chileevidenceoft0000amne|title=Chile: Evidence of Torture|date=1983|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]|pages=3, 6|isbn=9780862100537|language=en|oclc=1148222200}}</ref> It has been used in a number of contexts in South America. The ''parrilla'' was commonly used at [[Villa Grimaldi]], a prison complex maintained by [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional]], a part of the [[Augusto Pinochet|Pinochet]] regime.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gomez-Barris|first=Macarena|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LsJNDwAAQBAJ|title=Where Memory Dwells: Culture and State Violence in Chile|date=2009|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-25583-8|pages=46–47|language=en}}</ref> In the 1970s, during the [[Dirty War]], the parrilla was used in Argentina.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feitlowitz|first=Marguerite|url=https://archive.org/details/lexiconofterrora00feit|title=A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture|date=1999|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York|pages=49, 57|isbn=9780195134162|language=en|oclc=1035915088}}</ref> [[Francisco Tenório Júnior]] (known as Tenorinho), a Brazilian piano player, was subjected to the parrilla during the [[military dictatorship in Brazil]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McSherry|first=J. Patrice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSDg6xa4z2YC|title=Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America|date=2012-07-10|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-6870-9|pages=188|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Islamic State]] has used electric shocks to torture and kill captives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/isis-executes-22-persons-electrocution-central-mosul/ |title=ISIS executes 22 persons by electrocution in central Mosul |date=27 October 2016 |publisher=Iraqi News |access-date=2024-03-04 |archive-date=2016-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030075305/http://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/isis-executes-22-persons-electrocution-central-mosul/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/isis-electrocutes-30-civilians-death-central-mosul/ |title=ISIS electrocutes 30 civilians to death in central Mosul - Iraqi News |access-date=2024-03-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110044037/http://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/isis-electrocutes-30-civilians-death-central-mosul/ |archive-date=2016-11-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/inside-isis-death-prison-metal-11387192 |title=Inside ISIS death prison with metal electrocution beds, secret tunnels and agonising final messages scrawled on walls |date=22 October 2017 |publisher=Daily Mirror |access-date=2024-03-04 }}</ref>

Advocates for the [[mental illness|mentally ill]] and some [[psychiatrist]]s such as [[Thomas Szasz]] have asserted that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is torture when used without a ''bona fide'' medical benefit against recalcitrant or non-responsive patients.<ref name="JRC-history2">{{cite web|last=Israel|first=Matthew|title=History and Basic Principles of JRC|url=http://www.judgerc.org/history.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118082229/http://www.judgerc.org/history.html|archive-date=2008-01-18|access-date=2007-12-22}}</ref><ref name="MJ20072">{{cite news|last=Gonnerman|first=Jennifer|date=20 August 2007|title=School of Shock|publisher=[[Mother Jones Magazine]]|url=https://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2007/09/school_of_shock.html|url-status=live|access-date=2007-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222132030/https://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2007/09/school_of_shock.html|archive-date=22 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Wen|first=P|date=2008-01-17|title=Showdown over shock therapy|publisher=[[The Boston Globe]]|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/01/17/showdown_over_shock_therapy/|url-status=live|access-date=2008-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313093523/http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/01/17/showdown_over_shock_therapy/|archive-date=2010-03-13}}</ref>

The [[Judge Rotenberg Educational Center|Judge Rotenberg Center]] in [[Canton, Massachusetts|Canton]], [[Massachusetts]] has been condemned for torture by the [[United Nations special rapporteur|United Nations special rapporteur on torture]] for its use of electric shocks as punishment as part of its [[behavior modification]] program.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UN Calls Shock Treatment at Mass. School 'Torture'|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/shock-therapy-massachussetts-school/story?id=11047334|access-date=2020-08-04|website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Fortin|first=Jacey|date=2020-03-06|title=F.D.A. Bans School Electric Shock Devices|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/us/electric-shock-fda-ban.html|access-date=2020-08-04|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Japanese [[serial killer]] [[Futoshi Matsunaga]] used electric shocks to control his victims.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-09-27|title=Serial killer's death sentence upheld|publisher=Asahi Shimbun|url=http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200709270058.html|access-date=2008-03-21|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515124846/http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200709270058.html|archive-date=2016-05-15}}</ref>

===Capital punishment===
{{Main|Electric chair}}
[[File:Singchair.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Electric chair]] in [[Sing Sing]]]]
Electric shock delivered by an [[electric chair]] is sometimes used as an official means of [[capital punishment]] in the United States, although its use has become rare from the 1990s onward due to the adoption of [[lethal injection]]. Although some original proponents of the electric chair considered it to be a more humane execution method than [[hanging]], [[Execution by shooting|shooting]], [[Gas chamber|poison gassing]], etc., it has now generally been replaced by lethal injections in states that practice capital punishment. Modern reporting has claimed that it sometimes takes several shocks to be lethal, and that the condemned person may actually catch fire before death.

Other than in parts of the United States, only the [[Philippines]] reportedly has used this method, from 1926 to 1976. It was intermittently replaced by the [[Execution by firing squad|firing squad]], until the death penalty was abolished in that country. Electrocution remains legal in 9 states (primary method in [[South Carolina]], optional in [[Alabama]] and Florida, optional if sentenced before a certain date in [[Arkansas]], [[Kentucky]] and [[Tennessee]], can only be used if other methods are found to be unconstitutional in [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]] and [[Oklahoma]]) of the United States.{{when|date=March 2024}}<ref>[http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/state/ Death Penalty Information Center] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523143211/http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/state/ |date=May 23, 2015 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Electrical burn]]
*[[Electromagnetism]]
*[[Graduated electronic decelerator]]
*[[Lichtenberg figure]]
*[[Lightning injury]]
*[[Milgram experiment]]{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Cited sources===
* {{cite book| last = Reilly| first = J. Patrick| year = 1998| title = Applied Bioelectricity: From Electrical Stimulation to Electropathology| publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]| edition = 2nd| isbn = 978-0-387-98407-0| oclc = 38067651| lccn=97048860}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
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* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-131/ National Institute for Occupation Safety & Health: Worker Deaths by Electrocution], a [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] study
* [http://www.apseee.com/effect-of-electric-shock-currents-on-humans/ Effect of Electric Shock Currents on Humans]
* [https://electricknowhow.com/electrical-injuries-effects-and-causes/ Electrical injury and its effects]
{{Consequences of external causes}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Electric Shock}}
[[Category:Corporal punishments]]
[[Category:Electrical safety]]
[[Category:Medical emergencies]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[Category:Torture]]
[[Category:Injuries|Electrical injuries]]
[[Category:Causes of death]]
[[Category:Occupational safety and health]]
[[Category:Effects of external causes]]