View source for Ellora Caves

{{short description|Ancient cave temples in Maharashtra, India}}
{{redirect|Ellora}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Ellora Caves
| type = Monolithic caves
| coordinates = {{coord|20.0268|75.1771|display=inline,title}}
| locmapin = India#Maharashtra
| map_relief = yes
| location = [[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra]], India
| area = Indian
| built = 
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_date = [[List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription#1983 (12th session)|1983]] <small>(12th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small>
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243 243]
| designation1_criteria = i, iii, vi
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_free1name = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/?search=&search_by_country=&type=&media=&region=&order=region UNESCO Region]
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Southern Asia|Asia-Pacific]]
}}
The '''Ellora Caves''' are a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in [[Aurangabad]], [[India]]. It is one of the largest rock-cut  cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from AD 600–1000, including [[Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], and [[Jainism|Jain]] caves.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=1–2}}<ref name= unescoellora>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243 |title=Ellora Caves |publisher= UNESCO World Heritage Centre | website= whc.unesco.org |date= 6 March 2008 |access-date=12 August 2010| quote= These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km, were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from AD 600 to 1000.... a unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to Hinduism....}}</ref> The complex is a leading example of [[Indian rock-cut architecture]], and several are not strictly "caves" in that they have no roof.  Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the [[Kailasa temple, Ellora|Kailash temple]], a chariot-shaped monument dedicated to the god [[Shiva]]. The Kailash temple excavation also features sculptures depicting various Hindu deities as well as relief panels summarizing the two major [[Hindu Epics|Hindu epics]].

There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the [[basalt]] cliffs in the Charanandri Hills, 34 of which are open to public.<ref name= "asiintro" /> These consist of 17 Hindu (caves 13–29), 12 Buddhist (caves 1–12) and 5 Jain (caves 30–34) caves,<ref name="Owen2012p10">{{cite book| author= Lisa Owen |title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC |year=2012|publisher=Brill Academic |isbn= 978-9004206298| pages=1–10}}</ref><ref name="Brockman2011p155"/> each group representing deities and mythologies prevalent in the 1st millennium CE, as well as monasteries of each respective religion.<ref name="Owen2012p10"/> They were built close to one another and illustrate the religious harmony that existed in ancient India.<ref name=unescoellora/><ref>{{cite book| publisher= [[Time Life]] | series= Lost Civilizations| title= Ancient India: Land Of Mystery |year= 1994}}</ref> All of the Ellora monuments were built during the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty]] (r. 753-982 AD), which constructed part of the Hindu and Buddhist caves, and the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava dynasty]] (c. 1187–1317), which constructed a number of the Jain caves. Funding for the construction of the monuments was provided by royals, traders and the wealthy of the region.<ref name=asiintro/><ref name=Madan>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/178 178]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India| via= archive.org| access-date= }}</ref>

Although the caves served as temples and a rest stop for pilgrims,<ref name="Brockman2011p155">{{cite book|author=Norbert C. Brockman|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, 2nd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNZ15Oow8XcC |year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-655-3|pages=155–156}}</ref> the site's location on an ancient South Asian trade route also made it an important commercial centre in the Deccan region.{{Sfn|Pandit|2013}} It is {{cvt|29|km|mi}} northwest of Aurangabad and about {{cvt|300|km}} east-northeast of [[Mumbai]]. Today, the Ellora Caves, along with the nearby [[Ajanta Caves]], are a major tourist attraction in the [[Marathwada]] region of [[Maharashtra]] and a protected monument under the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maharashtra.asp|title= Ellora Caves|access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref>

==Etymology==
Ellora, also called Verul or Elura, is the short form of the ancient name '''Elloorpuram'''.<ref>World Heritage Series Ellora, [[Archaeological Survey of India]], Government of India, p. 6. {{ISBN|81-87780-43-6}}. Printed by GoodEarth Publications, Eicher GoodEarth Limited @ Thomson Press, New Delhi</ref> The older form of the name has been found in ancient references such as the Baroda inscription of 812 AD which mentions "the greatness of this edifice" and that "this great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura, the edifice in the inscription being the Kailasa temple.<ref name=asiintro/> In the Indian tradition, each cave is named and has a suffix ''Guha'' (Sanskrit), ''Lena'' or ''Leni'' (Marathi), meaning cave.<ref name=asiintro/>{{Sfn|Pia Brancaccio|2013|p=2}}

It is also thought to be derived from Ilvalapuram, named after the asura [[Ilvala]] who ruled this region who was vanquished by Sage [[Agastya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=PrabhupadaBooks.com Srila Prabhupada's Original Books |url=https://prabhupadabooks.com/ |website= prabhupadabooks.com |access-date=2022-07-18}}</ref>

==Location==
[[File:ElloraWik.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ellora Caves, general map (the rock is depicted as dark green)]]
The Ellora caves are situated in state of Maharashtra about {{cvt|29|km}} northwest of the city of Aurangabad, {{cvt|300|km}} east-northeast of [[Mumbai]], {{cvt|235|km}} from [[Pune]] and about {{cvt|100|km}} west of the [[Ajanta Caves]], {{cvt|2.3|km}} from [[Grishneshwar Temple]] (India).

Ellora occupies a relatively flat rocky region of the [[Western Ghats]], where ancient volcanic activity had created multilayered [[basalt]] formations, known as the [[Deccan Traps]]. The volcanic activity that formed the west-facing cliff that houses the Ellora caves occurred during the [[Cretaceous]] period. The resulting vertical face made access to many layers of rock formations easier, enabling architects to pick basalt with finer grains for more detailed sculpting.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ellora.ind.in/geology-of-ellora |title=Geology of Ellora |publisher= | website= ellora.ind.in |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209150020/http://ellora.ind.in/geology-of-ellora |archive-date=9 December 2010 |access-date= 2025-06-17}}</ref>

==Chronology==
The construction at Ellora has been studied since British colonial rule.  However, the overlapping styles between the Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves has made it difficult to establish agreement concerning the chronology of their construction.<ref name="Spink1967">{{cite book|author=Walter M. Spink| title= Ajanta to Ellora| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwsNAQAAIAAJ|year=1967|publisher=Marg Publications|pages=3–4, 35–40 | oclc= 648366740}}</ref> The disputes generally concern: one, whether the Buddhist or Hindu caves were carved first and, two, the relative dating of caves within a particular tradition. The broad consensus that has emerged is based on comparing the carving styles at Ellora to other cave temples in the Deccan region that have been dated, textual records of various dynasties, and epigraphical evidence found at various archaeological sites near Ellora and elsewhere in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=5–7}}{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=109–110}} Geri Hockfield Malandra and other scholars{{who|date=November 2017}} have stated that the Ellora caves had three important building periods: an early Hindu period (~550 to 600 CE), a Buddhist phase (~600 to 730 CE) and a later Hindu and Jain phase (~730 to 950 CE).{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=5–7}}{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=7–9}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=Geri Malandra|title=The Mandala at Ellora / Ellora in the Mandala|journal =Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |year=1996 |volume=19 | number = 2 |page=193}}</ref><ref name="Ray366">{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |last2=Kulshreshtha |first2=Salila |last3=Suvrathan |first3=Uthara |title=The Routledge Handbook of Hindu Temples: Materiality, Social History and Practice |date=13 October 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-78581-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H5eSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT470 366] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5eSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT470 |language=en |quote=Excavation of rock-cut caves at Ellora began in the late 6th century with a few Shaiva monuments and continued until the 10th with renewed activity in the 13th and 14th centuries. In the 9th century excavations focused on both Hindu and Jain caves. The 12 Buddhist caves are dated from 600 to 730 CE, while the Jain caves were the last to be carved in the 9th and 10th centuries. Lisa Owen emphasizes the fact that the caves to the three different religious affiliations were not carved in separate phases, but the work often crossed religious boundaries and was carried out simultaneously. It is also not often appreciated that the earliest caves at Ellora were affiliated to Hinduism and were carved into a large outcrop of basalt strategically located at the center of the site near the Vale Ganga waterfall.}}</ref>

The earliest caves may have been built during the [[Traikutakas]] and [[Vakataka]] dynasties, the latter being known for sponsoring the Ajanta caves. However, it is considered likely that some of the earliest caves, such as Cave 29 (Hindu), were built by the [[Shiva]]-inspired [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri]] dynasty, while the Buddhist caves were built by the [[Chalukya]] dynasty.{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=5–7}} The later Hindu caves and early Jain caves were built by the [[Rashtrakuta]] dynasty, while the last Jain caves were built by the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava]] dynasty, which had also sponsored other Jain cave temples.{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|pp=21, 24}}{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=200–202}}<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/other/019pho000000040u00120000.html|title=Close view of base of pillars in the upper floor of the Jain Cave XXXIII (Jaganatha Sabha), Ellora| website= bl.uk| publisher= [[British Library]] |access-date=2 September 2013|archive-date=25 April 2012| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120425160916/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/other/019pho000000040u00120000.html|url-status= dead}}</ref>

==The Hindu monuments: Caves 13–29==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Parvati at Ellora Caves.jpg
| total_width=335
| caption1 = 
| image2 = 1 Dancing Shiva, Cave 21 at Ellora.jpg
| caption2 = 
| footer = Parvati and Dancing Shiva (right) in an Ellora cave
}}
The Hindu caves were constructed during the Kalachuri period, from the mid-6th century to the end of the 8th century in two phases. Nine cave temples were excavated early in the 6th century,{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=7}}{{Sfn|Walter M. Spink|1967b}} followed by a further four caves (caves 17–29). Work first started
, in order, on Caves 28, 27 and 19 then Caves 29 and 21, which were excavated concurrently with Caves 20 and 26. Caves 17 and 28 were the last ones to be started.<ref name=d3>{{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2003|page=33}}</ref>{{Sfn|Walter M. Spink|1967a}}

The later caves, 14, 15 and 16, were constructed during the [[Rashtrakuta]] period, some being dated to between the 8th to 10th centuries.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=8–9}} Work first began in Caves 14 and 15 with Cave 16, the "world's largest single monolith", that is located in the Kailash temple in Maharashtra, India, being the last of the three to be constructed.<ref name=d3/> These caves were completed in the 8th century with the support of king [[Krishna I]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar|title=Masterpieces of Rashtrakuta Art: The Kailasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dUMNAQAAIAAJ|year=1983|publisher=Stosius|isbn=978-0865902336|page=3}}</ref>{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=28–35}}

===Early Hindu temples: Dhumar Lena, Cave 29===
Construction in the early Hindu caves commenced before any of the Buddhist or Jain caves.<ref name="Ray366"/> These early caves were generally dedicated to the Hindu god [[Shiva]], although the iconography suggests that the artisans gave other gods and goddesses of Hinduism prominent and equal reverence. A common feature of these cave temples was a rock-cut linga-yoni within the core of the shrine with each being surrounded by a space for circumambulation (''parikrama'').

Cave 29, also called ''Dhumar Lena'', is one of earliest excavations in Ellora and among the largest.{{Sfn|Dhavalikar|2003|pp=81–84}} Early Hindu temple building in the cave centred around the "Vale Ganga", a natural waterfall that was integrated into the monument.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=7–8}}{{Sfn|Walter M. Spink|1967a}} The waterfall is visible from a rock carved balcony to the south and has been described as "falling over great Shiva's brow", particularly during monsoon season.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=7–8}} The carvings in this cave are larger than life size but, according to author Dhavalikar, they are "corpulent, stumpy with disproportionate limbs" compared to those found in other Ellora caves.{{Sfn|Dhavalikar|2003|pp=83–84}}

===Rameshwar temple, Cave 21===
[[File:Goddess Ganga at Cave 21 entrance, Ellora.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Goddess Ganga at the entrance of Cave 21]]
Cave 21, also called ''Rameshwar Lena'', is another early excavation{{Sfn|Dhavalikar|2003|pp=73–79, 84}}{{Sfn|P. R. Srinivasan|2007|p=23}} whose construction has been credited to the  local dynasty of the [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati]]. The cave was completed prior to the ascension of [[Rashtrakuta Empire|Rashtrakuta dynasty]] which went on to expand the caves at Ellora.<ref name=asiintro/>

Although the cave features similar works to those in other Ellora caves, it also has a number of unique pieces, such as those depicting the story of goddess [[Parvati]]'s pursuit of [[Shiva]]. Carvings depicting Parvati and Shiva at leisure, [[Parvati|Parvati's]] wedding to Shiva, [[Shiva]] dancing and [[Kartikeya]] (Skanda) have been found in other caves.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|pp=86–87, 134–135}} The cave also features a large display of the [[Matrikas|Sapta Matrika]], the seven mother goddesses of the [[Shaktism|Shakti]] tradition of Hinduism, flanked on either side by [[Ganesha]] and Shiva.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|pp=86–87, 134–135}} Inside the temple are other goddesses important to [[Shakti|Shakti tradition]], for example, the [[Durga]]. The entrance to Cave 21 is flanked by large sculptures of the goddesses [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] and [[Yamuna in Hinduism|Yamuna]] representing the two major Himalayan rivers and their significance to the Indian culture.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|p=124}}

The cave is laid out symmetrically according to the mandapa square principle and has embedded geometric patterns repeated throughout the cave.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|pp=145–147}} The Shiva linga at the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is equidistant from the major statues of goddesses [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] and [[Yamuna (goddess)|Yamuna]], with all three set in an equilateral triangle.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|p=126}} According to Carmel Berkson, this layout likely symbolizes the [[Brahman]]–[[Prakriti]] relationship, the interdependence of the masculine and the feminine energies, that is central to [[Hindu theology]].{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|p=124}}

===The Kailasha temple: Cave 16===
{{Main|Kailasa temple, Ellora}}
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=340
| image1 = Ellora, Aurangabad, Maharashtra.jpg | alt1=top view |width1=1200 |height1=885
| image2 = Ellora. Kylas, lithograph by James Fergusson and Thomas Dibdin, 1839.jpg | alt2=Fergusson painting |width2=976 |height2=691
| footer = Kailash temple at Ellora. Right: James Fergusson's 19th-century drawing of the temple
}}Cave 16, known as the Kailas(h)a temple, is a particularly notable cave temple in India as a result of its size, architecture and having been entirely carved out of a single rock.<ref name="UNESCO_SecII_2003">{{cite web |url= https://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/apa/cycle01/section2/243.pdf |title=Section II: Periodic Report on the State of Conservation of Ellora Caves, India| year= 2003 |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=6 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name=lochtefeld331>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA331 |year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |page=331 | via= Google Books}}</ref>

The Kailasha temple, inspired by [[Mount Kailash|Mount Kailasha]], is dedicated to [[Shiva]].<ref name=higham105>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA105 |year=2014|publisher=Infobase|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1 |page=105 }}</ref> It is modeled along similar lines to other [[Hindu temple]]s with a gateway, an assembly hall, a multi-storey main temple surrounded by numerous shrines laid out according to the square principle,<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Tadgell|title=The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DaTbCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75384-8|pages=114–117, see figure 1.55a for the three-storey sectional detail}}</ref> an integrated space for circumambulation, a ''[[Garbhagriha|garbha-griha]]'' (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides the [[Lingam|linga]]-[[yoni]], and a spire-shaped like Mount Kailash – all carved from one rock.<ref name=lochtefeld331/><ref name=goetz84/> Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganga]], [[Yamuna in Hinduism|Yamuna]], [[Saraswati]], the ten [[avatar]]s of [[Vishnu]], Vedic divinities including [[Indra]], [[Agni]], [[Vayu]], [[Surya]] and [[Ushas|Usha]], as well as non-Vedic deities like [[Ganesha]], [[Ardhanarishvara]] (half Shiva, half Parvati), [[Harihara]] (half Shiva, half Vishnu), [[Annapurna (goddess)|Annapurna]] and [[Durga]].<ref name="UNESCO_SecII_2003"/><ref name=lochtefeld331/>{{Sfn| Dhavalikar|2003|pp=37–38}} The basement level of the temple features numerous [[Shaivism|Shaiva]], [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] and [[Shaktism|Shakti]] works; a notable set of carvings include the twelve episodes from the childhood of [[Krishna]], an important element of Vaishnavism.<ref>John Stratton Hawley (1981), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111118 Scenes from the Childhood of Kṛṣṇa on the Kailāsanātha Temple, Ellora], Archives of Asian Art, University of Hawaii Press, Vol. 34 (1981), pp. 74–90</ref>

{{multiple image
 | align = left
 | direction = vertical
 | image1 = Ellora cave16 001.jpg | width1 = 225 | caption1 = [[Kailasa temple, Ellora|Kailasanatha temple]], carved out of a single rock, was built by Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna I]] (r. 756–773 CE){{sfn|Lisa Owen|2012|p=135}} | alt1 = 
 | image2 = Ellora Cave 16 si0300.jpg | width2 = 225 | caption2 = The ''[[Ramayana]]'' panel
 | alt2 = 
}}
The structure is a freestanding, multi-level temple complex covering an area twice the size of the [[Parthenon]] in [[Athens]].<ref name=lonelyplanet>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetindi00sari|url-access=registration|title=India| isbn=978-1-74104-308-2| page=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetindi00sari/page/810 810]|author=Sarina Singh |year=2007 |publisher=Lonely Planet| display-authors= 3| location= Footscray, Vic. |author2=Joe Bindloss |author3=James Bainbridge |author4=Lindsay Brown |author5=Mark Elliott |author6=Stuart Butler| via= archive.org}}</ref> It is estimated that the artists removed {{cvt|3,000,000|cuft}} of stone, weighing approximately {{cvt|200,000|tonne}},<ref name=higham105/> to excavate the temple.<ref name=lochtefeld331/>

The construction of the temple has been attributed to the [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] king [[Krishna I]] (r. 756–773 CE),{{sfn|Owen|2012|pp=135–136}} but elements of [[Pallava dynasty#Pallava architecture|Pallava]] architecture have also been noted.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA120 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |page=120 }}</ref> The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 meters by 46 meters at the base, and 30 meters high (280 × 160 × 106 feet).<ref name=goetz84>{{cite journal | last=Goetz | first=H. | title=The Kailasa of Ellora and the Chronology of Rashtrakuta Art | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=15 | issue=1/2 | year=1952 | pages=84–107 | doi=10.2307/3248615 | jstor=3248615 }}</ref> The entrance features a low [[gopuram]]. The central shrine housing the [[lingam]] features a flat-roofed [[mandapa]] supported by 16 pillars, and a [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] [[shikhara]]. An image of Shiva's mount [[Nandi bull|Nandi]] (the sacred bull) stands on a porch in front of the temple.<ref name="UNESCO_SecII_2003"/> Two of the walls in the main temple house rows of carvings depicting the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', along the north side, and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', on the south side.{{Sfn| Dhavalikar|2003|p=56}}

The Kailasha temple is considered a highly notable example of temple construction from 1st millennium Indian history,{{Sfn|Susan L. Huntington| John C.. Huntington |2014|p=338}}<ref name="dhavalikar1982p33">M. K. Dhavalikar (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931407 "Kailasa – The Stylistic Development and Chronology"], ''Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute'', Vol. 41, pp. 33–45</ref><ref name=higham105/> and was called, by Carmel Berkson, "a wonder of the world" among rock-cut monuments.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|p=30}}

===The Dashavatara: Cave 15===
[[File:The Dashavatara, Ellora cave no. 15.jpg|thumb|180px|Vishnu at the Dashavatara Ellora temple]]
The ''Dashavatara temple'', or Cave 15, is another significant excavation that was completed sometime after Cave 14 (Ravan ki Khai, Hindu). Cave 15 has cells and a layout plan that are similar to Buddhist Caves 11 and 12, which suggests this cave was intended to be a Buddhist cave; however, the presence of non-Buddhist features, such as a ''Nrtya Mandapa'' (an [[Indian classical dance]] pavilion) at its entrance, indicated otherwise. According to James Harle, Hindu images have been found in Buddhist Cave 11, while many Hindu deities have been incorporated in Buddhist caves of the region. This overlap in disparate designs between Buddhist and Hindu caves may be due to the sites being worked on by the same architects and workers, or perhaps a planned Buddhist cave was adapted into a Hindu monument.<ref>{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url= https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/131 131–134]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=135}}

According to Geri Malandra, all the Buddhist caves at Ellora were an intrusion in a place that was already an established Brahmanical [[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]] (Hindu pilgrimage site), and not the other way around. Furthermore, given that both the Hindu and Buddhist caves were predominantly anonymous, with no donative inscriptions having been discovered for the Buddhist Ellora caves other than those of Hindu dynasties that built them, the original intent and nature of these cave temples is speculative.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Geri Malandra|title=The Mandala at Ellora / Ellora in the Mandala |journal =Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |year=1996 |volume=19 | number = 2 |pages=192–194}}</ref>

[[File:Das Avatara, by Thomas Daniell and James Wales, 1803.jpeg|thumb|left|An early 19th-century painting of Cave 15]]
The Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open court with a free-standing monolithic ''mandapa'' at the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear. Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the upper floor illustrate a wide range of themes, including the ten [[avatar]]s of [[Vishnu]]. An inscription of [[Dantidurga]], critical to establishing the age of the temple, is on the back wall of the front ''mandapa''. According to Coomaraswamy, the finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of [[Hiranyakashipu]], where Vishnu in man-lion ([[Narasimha]]) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his shoulder. It is a Rastrakoot dynasty sculpture.<ref>Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1999). ''Introduction to Indian Art'', New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, {{ISBN|81-215-0389-2}}, p. 5</ref> Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara, [[Kalyanasundara|marriage of Shiva and Parvati]], [[Tripurantaka|Tripurantika]] of Shakti tradition, [[Markandeya|Markendeya]], [[Garuda]], aspects of life, Nandi in mandapa, [[Nataraja|dancing Shiva]], [[Andhaka|Andhakasura]], [[Govardhanadhari]] and [[Gajendra Moksha|Gajendravarada]].{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|pp=86–87, 231–232}} The panels are arranged in dyads, which states Carmel Berkson, reinforce each other by displaying "cooperative but also antagonistic energy" with a mutuality of power transference.{{Sfn|Berkson|1992|pp=231–232}}

===Other Hindu caves===
Other notable Hindu caves are the ''Ravan ki Khai'' (Cave 14) and the ''Nilkantha'' (Cave 22), both of which house numerous sculptures, Cave 25 in particular features a carving of Surya in its ceiling.
==The Buddhist monuments: Caves 1–12==
[[File:Ellora Cave No. 10.jpg|right|thumb|Ellora Cave No. 10]]
[[File:Ellora Caves, India, Facade of ancient Buddhist temple, Cave 11.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Caves 11 (above) and 12 are three-storey monasteries cut out of a rock, with Vajrayana iconography inside.{{Sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=65–82}}]]
These caves are located on the southern side and were built either between 630 and 700 CE,<ref name=d1>{{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2003|p=12}}</ref> or 600–730 CE.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=8}} It was initially thought that the Buddhist caves were the earliest structures that were created between the fifth and eighth centuries, with caves 1–5 in the first phase (400–600) and 6–12 in the later phase (650–750), but modern scholars now consider the construction of Hindu caves to have been before the Buddhist caves.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=8}}{{Sfn|Dhavalikar|2003|pp=9–12, 33}} The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6, then 5, 2, 3, 5 (right wing), 4, 7, 8, 10 and 9,<ref name=d1/> with caves 11 and 12, also known as Do Thal and Tin Thal respectively, being the last.<ref>{{cite book |author= James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access= registration |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/132 132]}}</ref>

Eleven out of the twelve Buddhist caves consist of ''[[vihara]]s'',{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=8}} or monasteries with prayer halls: large, multi-storeyed buildings carved into the mountain face, including living quarters, sleeping quarters, kitchens, and other rooms. The monastery caves have shrines including carvings of [[Gautama Buddha]], [[bodhisattva]]s and saints. In some of these caves, sculptors have endeavoured to give the stone the look of wood.

[[File:Ellora Cave 12 si0241.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Numerous tantric Buddhist goddesses are carved in Cave 12.]]Caves 5, 10, 11 and 12 are architecturally important Buddhist caves. Cave 5 is unique among the Ellora caves as it was designed as a hall with a pair of parallel refectory benches in the centre and a Buddha statue in the rear.{{Sfn|James Burgess|1880|pp=373–374}} This cave, and Cave 11 of the [[Kanheri Caves]], are the only two Buddhist caves in India arranged in such a way.{{Sfn|Pandit|2013}} Caves 1 through 9 are all monasteries while Cave 10, the Vīśvakarmā Cave, is a major Buddhist prayer hall.{{Sfn|Pandit|2013}}

Caves 11 and 12 are three-storied [[Mahayana]] monastery caves with idols, [[mandala]]s carved into the walls, and numerous goddesses, and Bodhisattva-related iconography, belonging to [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism. These are compelling evidence to suggest that Vajrayana and [[Tantra]] ideas of Buddhism were well established in South Asia by the 8th-century CE.{{Sfn|Pandit|2013}}{{Sfn|Damien Keown|Charles S. Prebish|2013|p=23}}

=== The Vishvakarma Cave ===
Notable among the Buddhist caves is Cave 10, a [[chaitya]] worship hall called the 'Vishvakarma cave', built around 650 CE.{{Sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=51}}{{Sfn|James Burgess|1880|pp=377–380}} It is also known as the "Carpenter's Cave", because the rock has been given a finish that has the appearance of wooden beams. Beyond its multi-storeyed entry is a cathedral-like stupa hall also known as ''chaitya-griha'' (prayer house). At the heart of this cave is a 15-foot statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

[[File:Ellora Caves, India, The Vishvakarma Buddhist Cave.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10)]]
[[File:*The Sutar-ki-Jhonpri -Visvakarma- Cave, Ellora; a photo by Lala Deen Dayal, 1880's* (BL).1880.jpg|thumb|left|Facade outside Vishvakarma cave, Cave 10, 1890]]
Cave 10 combines a ''vihara'' with a chapel-like worship hall that has eight subsidiary cells, four in the back wall and four in the right,<ref name="Tadgell2015p78">{{cite book|author=Christopher Tadgell|title=The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DaTbCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75384-8|pages=78–82}}</ref> as well as a portico in the front.<ref name=d1/> It is the only dedicated [[chaitya|chaitya griha]] amongst the Buddhist caves and is constructed along similar lines to Caves 19 and 26 of [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]]. Cave 10 also features a [[gavaksha]], or chandrashala, arched window and a side connection to Cave 9 of Ellora.{{Sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=51}}

The main hall of the Visvakarma cave is [[apsidal]] in plan and is divided into a central nave and side aisles by 28 octagonal columns with plain bracket capitals. In the apsidal end of the chaitya hall is a stupa on the face of which a colossal high seated Buddha in ''vyakhyana mudra'' (teaching posture). A large [[Sacred fig|Bodhi tree]] is carved at his back. The hall has a vaulted roof in which ribs (known as triforium) have been carved in the rock [[skeuomorphism|imitating the wooden ones]].<ref name=d2>{{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2003|pages=20–3}}</ref> The friezes above the pillars are Naga queens, and the extensive relief artwork shows characters such as entertainers, dancers and musicians.

The front of the prayer hall is a rock-cut court entered via a flight of steps. The entrance of the Cave has a carved facade decorated with numerous Indian motifs including [[apsaras]] and meditating monks.<ref name="Tadgell2015p78"/> On either side of the upper level are pillared porticos with small rooms in their back walls. The pillared ''verandah'' of the ''chaitya'' has a small shrine at either end and a single cell in the far end of the back wall. The corridor columns have massive squared shafts and ''ghata-pallava'' (vase and foliage) capitals. The various levels of Cave 10 also feature idols of male and female deities, such as Maitreya, Tara, Avalokitesvara (Vajradhamma), Manjusri, Bhrkuti, and Mahamayuri, carved in the Pala dynasty style found in eastern regions of India.{{Sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=53–60, 64–65}} Some southern Indian influences can also be found in various works in this cave.{{Sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=61–62}}

==The Jain monuments: Caves 30–34==
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At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the [[Digambar]]a sect, which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2003|p=87}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Geri Malandra|title=The Mandala at Ellora / Ellora in the Mandala|journal =Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |year=1996 |volume=19 | number = 2 |page=192}}</ref> These caves are smaller than the Buddhist and Hindu caves but nonetheless feature highly detailed carvings. They, and the later-era Hindu caves, were built at a similar time and both share architectural and devotional ideas such as a pillared veranda, symmetric mandapa and ''puja'' (worship).{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=2–3, 179–185}} However, unlike the Hindu temples, emphasis is placed on the depiction of the twenty-four [[Tirthankara|tirthankaras]] (spiritual conquerors who have gained liberation from the endless cycle of rebirths).{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=2–3}} In addition to these Jinas, the works at the Jain temples include carvings of gods and goddesses, ''[[yaksha]]'' (male nature deity), ''[[Yakshini|yakshi]]'' (female nature deity) and human devotees prevalent in Jain mythology of 1st millennium CE.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=9–12, 81–103, 119–129}}

[[File:Indra Sabha Ellora Temple Maharashtra India.jpg|left|thumb|Shikhar of Indra Sabha]]
According to [[José Pereira (scholar)|Jose Pereira]], the five caves were actually 23 distinct excavations, over different periods. A 13 of these are in Indra Sabha, 6 in Jagannatha Sabha and rest in the Chhota Kailash.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=2–3}} Pareira used numerous sources to conclude that the Jain caves at Ellora likely began in the late 8th century,{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|pp=25–28, 48–49}} with construction and excavation activity extending beyond the 10th century and into the 13th century before coming to a halt with the invasion of the region by the Delhi Sultanate.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=13–14, 189–199}} This is evidenced by votive inscriptions dated to 1235 CE, where the donor states to have "converted Charanadri into a holy ''tirtha''" for Jains by gifting the excavation of lordly Jinas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Geri Malandra|title=The Mandala at Ellora / Ellora in the Mandala|journal =Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |year=1996 |volume=19 | number = 2 |pages=193–194 with footnote 33}}</ref>

Particularly important Jain shrines are the ''Chhota Kailash'' (cave 30, 4 excavations), the ''Indra Sabha'' (cave 32, 13 excavations) and the ''Jagannath Sabha'' (cave 33, 4 excavations);{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=2–3}} cave 31 is an unfinished four-pillared hall, and shrine.<ref>{{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2003|p=88}}</ref> Cave 34 is a small cave, which can be accessed through an opening in the left side of Cave 33.<ref>{{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2003|p=96}}</ref>

The Jain caves contain some of the earliest ''[[Samavasarana]]'' images among its devotional carvings. The Samavasarana is of particular importance to Jains being the hall where the [[Tirthankara]] preaches after attaining ''[[Kevala Jnana]]'' (liberating omniscience).<ref>{{harvnb|Owen|2012|pp=15–16}}</ref> Another interesting feature found in these caves is the pairing of sacred figures in Jainism, specifically [[Parsvanatha]] and [[Bahubali]], which appear 19 times.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=6–7}} Other artworks of significance include those of deities [[Saraswati#In Jainism|Sarasvati]], [[Lakshmi#Jainism|Sri]], [[Indra#Jainism|Saudharmendra]] (Indra), [[Kubera#Jainism|Sarvanubhuti]], [[Gomukha]], [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]], [[Chakreshvari]], [[Padmāvatī|Padmavati]], [[Kshetrapala|Ksetrapala]] and [[Hanuman]].{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|p=30}}

===Chhota Kailasha: Cave 30===
[[File:Ellora Cave - 30 (1).jpg|thumb|Chhota Kailasha]]
The Chhota Kailasha, or the little Kailasha, is so named due to the similarity of the carvings to those in the Kailasha temple. This temple was likely built in the early 9th century, concurrent with the construction of the lower level of the Indra Sabha, some decades after the completion of the Kailasha Temple.{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|p=28}} It features two larger-than-life size reliefs of dancing Indra, one with eight arms and another with twelve, both adorned with ornaments and a crown; Indra's arms are shown in various mudra reminiscent of the dancing Shiva artworks found in nearby Hindu caves.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=28–29}} However, the iconography has several differences that indicate this cave shows a dancing Indra and not a dancing Shiva. The Indra panels at the entrance also feature other deities, celestials, musicians and dancers.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=28–32}}

Art historian Lisa Owen has raised questions concerning whether music and dance were part of 9th-century Jainism, given that Jain theology focuses on meditative [[asceticism]]. Rajan, for example, has proposed that Cave 30 May have originally been a Hindu monument that was later converted into a Jain temple. However, Owen suggests that the celebration-filled artwork in this temple is better understood as part of the ''Samavasarana'' doctrine in Jainism.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=28–32}}

The overlap between Jain and Hindu mythologies has caused confusion, given Book Three of the Hindu ''Mahabharata'' describes Indra's abode as one filled with a variety of heroes, courtesans, and artisans, within a paradise-like setting.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=32–35}} This imagery is repeated throughout Cave 30, similar to the Hindu caves, setting the context of the temple.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=32–35}} However, the symbolism closer to the centre of the temple is more aligned with the core ideas of Jainism: a greater prevalence of meditating images and Jinas, the place where the Jain devotee would perform his or her ritual ''abhisheka'' (worship).{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=168–169, 184–195}}

===Cave 31===
[[File:Ellora Caves 86.jpg|thumb|left|Mahavira with yaksha Matanga and yakshi Siddhaiki]]
Cave 31, consisting of four pillars, a small shrine a number of carvings, was not completed. Carvings of [[Parshvanatha]], guarded by [[yaksha]] [[Dharanendra]] with his 7 hoods, and Bahubali were made into the left and right walls of the hall, respectively, while within the shrine resides an idol of Mahavira. The idol is seated in a [[lotus position|padmasan position]] on a lion-throne and a chakra is seen in the middle panel of the throne. The figure of yaksha [[Kubera#Jainism|Matanga]] on an elephant is on the left side of shrine while one of yakshi Siddhaiki, seated in savya-[[lalitasana]] on a lion with a child on her lap, is on the right.<ref name="aurangabadcircle">{{cite web|title=Ellora Caves – Verul Ellora |url= http://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Ellora_Caves-_Verul__Ellora_.pdf|website=Aurangabad Circle ASI|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India, Aurangabad Circle, Sambhaji Nagar, Maharashtra, Government of India|access-date=7 May 2017|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220531040207/http://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Ellora_Caves-_Verul__Ellora_.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC| title= World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India| volume= 1 |first= Alī |last= Jāvīd |year= 2008 |publisher=Algora Publishing New York|page=164|isbn=978-0-87586-483-9}}</ref>

===The Indra Sabha: Cave 32===
[[File:Inner sanctum with Mahavira statue, Ellora Cave 32.jpg|thumb|Indra Sabha is the largest of the Jain series and dates from the 9th century, Rashtrakuta patronage. A simple gateway leads to a courtyard in which there is a monolithic shrine with a pyramidal roof. The double-storey temple is excavated in the rear of the courtyard. The interior of the cave has a columned mandapa or hall with niches on the three sides and the sanctuary in the middle of the back wall. Carved figures of the Jain Tirthankharas decorate the walls.]]

The ''Indra Sabha'' (Cave 32), excavated in the 9th century, is a two-storey cave with a monolithic shrine in its court. 19th-century historians confused the Jain yakshas for alternate images of Indra that were found in Buddhist and Hindu artworks, thus leading to the temple being given the misnomer "Indra Sabha".{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=2 with footnote 2}} [[Indra]] is an important deity in all three major religions, but is of particular importance in Jainism as not only is he one of 64 deities who reign over the heavens, but also he is, specifically, the king of the first Jain heaven, ''Saudharmakalpa'', and the chief architect of the celestial assembly hall according to the ''Adipurana'', a Jain holy text.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=25–29}}

The Indra Sabha Jain temple is historically significant as it contains evidence, in the form of layered deposits and textual records, of active worship inside by the Jain community. In particular, rituals were known to have been held in the upper level, where the artwork may have played a central role.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=13}}

As with many caves in Ellora, numerous carvings adorn the temple, such as those of the [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] flower on the ceiling. On the upper level of the shrine, excavated at the rear of the court, is an image of [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]], the yakshi of [[Neminath]], seated on her lion under a mango tree, laden with fruit. The centre of the shrine presents ''Sarvatobhadra'', where four [[Tirthankara|tirthankaras]] of [[Jainism]] – [[Rishabhanatha]] (1st), [[Kumbharia Jain temples|Neminatha]] (22nd), [[Pārśvanātha|Parshvanatha]] (23rd) and [[Mahavira]] (24th) are aligned to the cardinal directions, forming a place of worship for devotees.<ref>{{cite web| publisher=  Archaeological Survey of India, Ministry of Culture, Government of India | title= World Heritage Sites: Ellora Caves: Jaina Group of Caves| url-status= dead| website= asi.nic.in| url= http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora_jaina.asp | year= 2011 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160712222307/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora_jaina.asp | archivedate= 2016-07-12 | access-date= 2025-06-17}}</ref>

===The Jagannatha Sabha: Cave 33===
[[File:Ellora Cave - 33 (14).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Seated ''Jinas'']]

The ''Jagannatha Sabha'' (Cave 33) is the second-largest Jain cave at Ellora and dates to the 9th century according to the inscriptions on the pillars. It is a two-storeyed cave with twelve massive pillars and elephant heads projecting towards a porch, all carved from a single rock. The hall has two heavy square pillars in front, four in the middle area, and a pillared interior square principal hall with fluted shafts, all intricately carved with capitals, ridges and brackets. Inside the major idols are of [[Pārśvanātha|Parshvanatha]] and [[Mahavira]], the last two [[Tirthankara|tirthankaras]] in [[Jainism|Jainism.]]<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/j/019pho000000040u00139000.html |title= Jagannath Sabha: Façade of Jain Cave XXXIII (Jaganatha Sabha), Ellora |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20210918113552/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/j/019pho000000040u00139000.html |archivedate=18 September 2021| website= bl.uk| publisher= British Library| author= Henry Cousens | year= 1875| access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000002885u00000000.html |title= Pillared interior of Jagannath Sabha: Ellora| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20221010131837/https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000002885u00000000.html |archivedate= 2022-10-10| author= Anonymous |format= sketch| website= bl.uk| publisher= British Library | year= 1875| access-date= }}</ref>

===Cave 34===
[[File:Ellora cave34 001.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Goddess [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] sitting on a lion, Cave 34]]

Certain inscriptions in Cave 34, or J26 according to historian [[José Pereira (scholar)|José Pereira]],{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|p=90}} are not deciphered as yet but were likely to have been executed between 800 and 850 CE. Other inscriptions, such as the one by Sri Nagavarma, are thought to date from the 9th or 10th century.{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|pp=25, 90}}

This cave features a large seated Parshvanatha with four ''camara'' attendants, two of whom hold fly-whisks and seemingly emerge from the back of the Jina's throne.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=70}} As with many other Jain excavations, a large pair of ''yaksha-yakshi'' is also found in this cave near the Jina.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=82 with footnote 2}} In the back of the cave is a bearded figure with a bowl containing round sacrificial offerings, which have shapes reminiscent of ''[[pindas]]'' (rice balls) or ''laddus'' (sweetmeat). This suggests the scene may be related to Jain devotional worship, possibly a ''shraddha'' ceremony.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|pp=90–92, 143–144}} The Parshvanatha in the cave is paired with a standing Bahubali,{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=167 with footnote 5}} and accompanied by other carvings showing musicians playing a variety of instruments such as horns, drums, conchs, trumpets, and cymbals.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=76}} A particularly notable feature of the cave is a giant, open lotus carving on its ceiling and rooftop, which is found in only one other Jain excavation and one Hindu Cave 25 in all of Ellora. The placement of the lotus on the cave rather than a sculpture symbolizes that the temple is a divine place.{{Sfn|Owen|2012|p=25}}

===Rock carved image of Parshvanatha===
[[File:Ellora Jain temple (2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|{{cvt|16|ft|order=flip}} rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanatha]]

On the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves is a Jain temple containing a {{cvt|16|ft|order=flip}} rock-carved image of Parshvanatha from the Rashtrakuta period with an inscription dated AD 1234. The well-preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site.<ref name= Owen-thesis />{{rp|255}} It is still in active worship and thus not protected by the ASI. Six hundred steps must be climbed to reach it. It is managed by a Jain Gurukul in the village.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.ahimsaiyatrai.com/2017/09/ellora-2-3.html| title= Ellora Jain Gurukul| website= ahimsaiyatrai.com| publisher= | date= September 2017| access-date= }}</ref>

==Visitors, desecration and damage==
There have been several records written in the centuries following their completion indicating that these caves were visited regularly, particularly as it was within sight of a trade route.{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=3}} For example, Ellora was known to have been frequented by Buddhist monks in the 9th and 10th centuries.{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=110|ps=: "Although the art historical record of Buddhist activity here [Ellora] essentially ends in the sixth century, epigraphic material documents renewed use of the site in the ninth and tenth centuries."}} It is mistakenly referred to by the 10th-century Baghdad resident [[Al-Masudi]] as Aladra, site of a great temple, a place of Indian pilgrimage and one with thousands of cells where devotees live;{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=1–4}} in 1352 CE, the records of [[Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah]] mention him camping at the site. Other records were written by [[Firishta]], Thevenot (1633–67), Niccolao Manucci (1653–1708), Charles Warre Malet (1794), and Seely (1824).<ref name="asiintro">{{cite web| publisher= Archaeological Survey of India, Ministry of Culture, Government of India| title= World Heritage Sites: Ellora Caves| url-status= dead| website= asi.nic.in| url= http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora.asp| date= 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20180410194545/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora.asp| archivedate= 10 April 2018| access-date= 2025-06-17}}</ref> Some accounts acknowledge the importance of Ellora but make inaccurate statements regarding its construction; for example, a description of the caves by Venetian traveller Niccolao Manucci, whose Mughal history was well received in France, wrote that the Ellora caves "...were executed by the ancient Chinese" based on his assessment of the workmanship and what he had been told.{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=4|ps=: "In the next century, Ellora's attraction to travelers did not diminish; neither did understanding increase. The Venetian Niccolao Manucci, whose history of the Mughals reaches Paris in 1701 or 1702, attributed the excavations to the Chinese (...) As they are so cleverly done, and their appearance somewhat Chinese, many say that they were executed by the ancient Chinese."}} Ellora was a well-known site in [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] times: the emperor [[Aurangzeb]] used to picnic there with his family, as did other Mughal nobles. Mustaid Khan, a courtier of Aurangzeb, stated that people visited the area in all seasons but especially during the monsoon. He also spoke of "many kinds of images with lifelike forms" carved on all the ceilings and walls, but noted that the monuments themselves were in a state of "desolation in spite of its strong foundations."<ref>{{cite book|author1=Abraham Eraly|author-link1=Abraham Eraly|title=The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age| url=https://archive.org/details/mughalworldlifei00eral|url-access=limited|date=2007|publisher=Penguin Books India| isbn=978-0143102625 | via= archive.org |pages= [https://archive.org/details/mughalworldlifei00eral/page/n20 6–7]}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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| footer = Typical damage to idols centres around the face, nose, breasts, and limbs. Desecrated statues in a Hindu Cave (left) and a Buddhist Cave.
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The ''Lilacharitra'', a Marathi text dated to the late 13th century CE, is the first report stating that active use of Ellora ceased in the 13th century.{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=3}} Islamic court records indicated that Deogiri, the capital of the Yadava dynasty, and about 10 kilometres from Ellora, had come under sustained attack during this period and subsequently fell to the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1294 CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Matthew Bennett|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04S4YdDarD0C|year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-57958-116-9|pages=97–98}}</ref> According to José Pereira, there is evidence that work in the Jain caves at Ellora had flourished under Singhana, who ruled the Yadava dynasty between ~1200 and 1247 CE, and these caves were in use by Jain visitors and worshippers into the 13th century. However, Jain religious activity ceased after the region came under Islamic rule in the late 13th century.{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|pp=24–25}}

The Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monuments at Ellora show substantial damage, particularly to the idols, whereas intricate carvings on the pillars, and of natural objects on the walls, remain intact. The desecration of idols and images was traced to the 15th to 17th centuries when this region of the Deccan peninsula was subjected to [[iconoclasm]] by Muslim armies.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Noelle Watson|author3=Paul Schellinger|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&pg=PA256 |year= 2012 |publisher= Routledge| isbn= 978-1-136-63979-1|page=256| quote= Some had been desecrated by zealous Muslims during their occupation of Maharashtra in the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.}}</ref> According to Geri Malandra, such devastation by Muslims stemmed from the perceived offense caused by "the graphic, anthropomorphic imagery of Hindu and Buddhist shrines".{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|pp=1–4}} Muslim historians of the Islamic Sultanate period mention Ellora in their descriptions of the widespread damage and fanatical destruction of idols and artwork of the region, with some Muslims of this era being known to have expressed concern regarding the wanton damage and "deplored it as a violation of beauty", according to Carl Ernst.<ref>{{cite book |author= Carl Ernst| editor1=David Gilmartin|editor2=Bruce B. Lawrence|title=Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZhT5Ilq5kAC|year=2000|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-3099-9|pages=106–110}}</ref>

==Ellora inscriptions==

Several inscriptions at Ellora{{sfn|José Pereira|1977|p=87}} date from the 6th century onwards, the best known of which is an inscription by [[Rashtrakuta]] [[Dantidurga]] (c. 753–757 CE) on the back wall of the front mandapa of Cave 15 stating that he had offered prayers at that temple. Jagannatha Sabha, Jain cave 33, has 3 inscriptions that give the names of monks and donors, while a Parshvanath temple on the hill has a 1247 CE inscription that gives the name of a donor from Vardhanapura.<ref name= Owen-thesis>{{cite thesis| title= Beyond Buddhist and Brahmanical Activity: The Place of the Jain Rock-Cut Excavations at Ellora| author= Lisa Nadine Owen| degree= PhD Dissertation| publisher= University of Texas at Austin| date= May 2006}}</ref>{{rp|254–57}}

The Great Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is attributed to [[Krishna I]] (c. 757–783 CE), the successor and uncle of Dantidurga. A copper plate inscription from 812 CE, found in Baroda, Gujarat, states that a great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Ellora: "The architect builder of which (...) was himself suddenly struck with astonishment, saying 'Oh, how was it that I built it!'"{{sfn|Geri Hockfield Malandra|1993|p=10}}

==Painted carvings and paintings==
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2023}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Brahma at Kailasha temple of Ellora.jpg
| total_width = 500
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = Brahma at Kailasha temple of Ellora, with painted decorations
| image2 = ELLORA CAVE NO. 16 (6).jpg
| alt2 = 
| caption2 = Cave 16 (6), surviving plaster and painted artwork
| image3 = 4 Painting Jain Ellora Caves.jpg
| alt3 = 
| caption3 = Painting Jain Ellora Caves
| image4 = Ellora cave32 002.jpg
| alt4 = 
| caption4 = Cave 32
| footer = 
}}
The carvings at Ellora were at one time profusely painted. The rock was covered with a lime plaster which was painted. The plaster and the paint has survived in places.

{{Gallery
|title=A digital restoration of an Ellora mural
|align=center
|File:Digitally restored Ellora mural.png
 |Digitally restored Ellora mural of the Rashtrakuta period
|File:Rashtrakuta mural at Ellora.jpg 
 |Ellora mural of the Rashtrakuta period
}}

==In popular culture==
The famous Bengali filmmaker (and author) [[Satyajit Ray]] wrote the crime thriller novel ''[[Kailashey Kelenkari (novel)|Kailashey Kelenkari]]'' in 1974, featuring fictional detective [[Feluda]]. In the novel, Feluda travels to the Ellora caves to uncover a smuggling racket involving illegal trade of historical artifacts from Indian temples, including the largest cave at Ellora, the [[Kailasa temple, Ellora|Kailasa Temple]]. Satyajit's son [[Sandip Ray]] adapted the novel into a [[Kailashey Kelenkari (film)|movie of the same name]] in 2007.

==In art and literature==
Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832 contains a plate of 'Skeletal Group in the Ramedwur, Caves of Ellora, supposed to represent the nuptials of Siva and Parvati' by [[George Cattermole]], engraved by W. Kelsall, accompanied by a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] paraphrased from a translation from the [[Shiva Purana|Siva-Pooraun]].<ref>{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=8MpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PP126|section=poetical illustration|page=32|year=1831|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=8MpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PP128|section=picture|year=1831|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref> This is from cave 21.
{{wikisource|Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832/Skeletal Group in the Rameswur, Caves of Ellora|Skeletal Group in the Rameswur, Caves of Ellora, a poetical illustration by L. E. L.}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=48em}}
* {{annotated link|Ajanta Caves}}
* {{annotated link|Badami cave temples}}
* {{annotated link|Barabar Caves}}
* {{annotated link|Elephanta Caves}}
* {{annotated link|Indian rock-cut architecture}}
* {{annotated link|List of colossal sculpture in situ}}
* {{annotated link|Pitalkhora|Pitalkhora Caves}}
* {{annotated link|List of rock-cut temples in India}}
* {{annotated link|Tourism in India}}
* {{annotated link|Tourism in Marathwada}}
* {{annotated link|Udayagiri Caves}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Hinduism}}
{{BuddhasHolySites}}
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author=Pia Brancaccio|editor=Helaine Selin|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9848-1 |year=2013 |publisher=Springer Science |isbn=978-94-017-1416-7}}
* {{cite book|author=James Burgess|title=The Cave Temples of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVXa9JyxOw4C |year=1880 |publisher=Cambridge University Press (Reprinted 2013) |isbn=978-1-108-05552-9}}
* {{cite book|author=José Pereira|title=Monolithic Jinas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMTgiygj4-oC&pg=PA28|year=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2397-6}}
* {{Cite book | last = Dhavalikar | first = Madhukar Keshav | year = 2003 | title = Ellora | publisher = Oxford University Press, New Delhi | isbn = 0-19-565458-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9MYAAAAYAAJ | oclc= 47901386 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Berkson | first = Carmel  | year = 1992 | title = Ellora, Concept and Style | publisher = Abhinav Publications | isbn = 0-19-565458-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tH7KRNqIin4C }}
* {{cite book|author1=Susan L. Huntington|author2=John C.. Huntington|title=The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpywoAEACAAJ |year=2014|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3617-4}}
* {{cite book|author1=Damien Keown|author2=Charles S. Prebish|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFpcAgAAQBAJ |date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-98588-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Geri Hockfield Malandra|title=Unfolding A Mandala: The Buddhist Cave Temples at Ellora|url=https://archive.org/details/unfoldingmandala0000mala |url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1355-5}}
* {{cite book|first=Lisa|last= Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC |year=2012|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-9004206298}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pandit|first1=Suraj|year=2013|doi=10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0118|title=Ellora Caves|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book|author=P. R. Srinivasan|title=Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8UOAQAAMAAJ| year=2007| publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |isbn=978-81-87780-43-4|oclc = 420558130}}
* {{cite book|author=Walter M. Spink|title=Ajanta to Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwsNAQAAIAAJ|year=1967a|publisher=Marg Publications|oclc= 648366740}}
* {{cite book|author=Walter M. Spink|title=Ellora's Earliest Phase|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBbqAAAAMAAJ| year=1967b| publisher=American Academy |oclc = 54831981}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
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{{Wikivoyage|Ellora}}
{{commons category|Ellora Caves}}
{{EB1911 poster|Ellora}}
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243/ Ellora Caves] on UNESCO List
* [http://elloracaves.org/caves.php Layout, floor plan and description of each Ellora cave], Deepanjana and Arno Klein
* [http://www.gettyimages.com/photos/ellora?excludenudity=false&mediatype=photography&page=1&phrase=ellora&sort=mostpopular Photographs of Ellora], Getty Images
* Paintings of the caves as illustrations to {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1834/The Zenana|The Zenana]]}}, a poem by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]:
**''Dus Awtar'', by [[George Cattermole]], engraved by [[William Woolnoth]]
**''Dher Warra'', also by George Cattermole, engraved by William Woolnoth
**''Excavated Temple of Kylas'', by [[Samuel Prout]], engraved by E Challis

{{World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{Hindu temples in Maharashtra}}
{{Jain temples}}
{{Indian Buddhist Caves}}
{{Historical places of Rashtrakuta}}
{{Jain Caves in India}}
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[[Category:Lost ancient cities and towns]]
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[[Category:Jain rock-cut architecture]]
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