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{{Short description|Type of monarch}}
{{Redirect|Empress|other uses|Empress (disambiguation)|and|Emperor (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
[[File:Emperor Naruhito and Empress Masako 20190515.jpg|thumb|[[Emperor Naruhito]] and [[Empress Masako]] of Japan. The Emperor and Empress of Japan are the only [[List of current monarchs of sovereign states|current monarchs]] in the world left carrying this title.]]
{{Ranks of Nobility}}
{{politics}}
[[File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|thumb|[[Augustus]], the first [[Roman emperor|emperor]] of the [[Roman Empire]], reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.]]
An '''emperor''' (from {{langx|la|[[imperator]]}}, via {{langx|fro|empereor}})<ref>{{OEtymD|emperor|access-date=2010-08-30}}</ref> is the (male) ruler of an [[empire]]. '''Empress''', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ([[empress consort]]), mother/grandmother ([[empress dowager]]/[[grand empress dowager]]), or a woman who rules in her own right and name ([[empress regnant]] or ''[[suo jure]]''). Emperors are generally recognized to be of the highest monarchic [[honour]] and [[royal and noble ranks|rank]], surpassing [[king]]. In [[Europe]], the title of Emperor has been used since the [[Middle Ages]], considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of [[Pope]] due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of [[Western Europe]]. The [[emperor of Japan]] is the only currently [[List of current sovereign monarchs|reigning monarch]] whose title is translated into English as "Emperor".<ref>{{cite news |last=Uyama |first=Takuei |date=23 October 2019 |title=天皇はなぜ「王（キング）」ではなく「皇帝（エンペラー）」なのか |trans-title=The Title of the Monarch of Japan: not the "King" but the "Emperor" |url=https://gendai.ismedia.jp/articles/-/67945?page=2 |language=ja |access-date=23 October 2019}}</ref>

Both emperors and kings are [[monarch]]s or sovereigns, both emperor and empress are considered monarchical titles. In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation. Therefore, a king might be obliged to pay [[tribute]] to another ruler,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/south-east-se-asia/china-art/a/forbidden-city|title=The Forbidden City|last=Peng|first=Ying-chen|website=Khan Academy}}</ref> or be restrained in his actions in some unequal fashion, but an emperor should in theory be completely free of such restraints. However, monarchs heading empires have not always used the title in all contexts—the [[Queen Victoria|British sovereign]] did not assume the title Empress of the [[British Empire]] even during the [[British Raj|incorporation of India]], though she was declared [[Empress of India]].

In [[Western Europe]], the title of Emperor was used exclusively by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], whose imperial authority was derived from the concept of {{lang|la|[[translatio imperii]]}}, i.e., they claimed succession to the authority of the [[Roman emperors]], thus linking themselves to Roman institutions and traditions as part of state ideology. Although initially ruling much of Central Europe and northern Italy, by the 19th century, the emperor exercised little power beyond the German-speaking states.

Although technically an elective title, by the late 16th century, the imperial title had in practice come to be inherited by the [[Habsburg]] [[Archdukes of Austria]] and, following the [[Thirty Years' War]], their control over the states (outside the [[Habsburg monarchy]], i.e. [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]], [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] and various territories outside the empire) had become nearly non-existent. However, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] was crowned [[Emperor of the French]] in 1804 and was shortly followed by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]], who declared himself [[Emperor of Austria]] in the same year. The position of Holy Roman Emperor nonetheless continued until Francis II abdicated that position in 1806. In [[Eastern Europe]], the monarchs of [[Russia]] also used {{lang|la|translatio imperii}} to wield imperial authority as successors to the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Their status was officially recognized by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547. However, the Russian emperors are better known by their Russian-language title of [[Tsar]] even after [[Peter the Great]] adopted the title of [[Emperor of All Russia]] in 1721.

Historians have liberally used "emperor" and "empire" anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state from the past or the present. Some titles are considered equivalent to "emperor" or are translated as "emperor". Examples of that are&nbsp;Roman emperors' titles, [[King of Kings]], [[Khalifa]], [[Emperor of China|Huangdi]], [[Cakravartin]], [[Great Khan]], Aztec monarchs' title, Inca monarchs' title, etc.<ref name="malinowski1619">{{Cite book |author-last=Malinowski |author-first=Gościwit |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110731590-002/html?lang=en |title=Empire and Politics in the Eastern and Western Civilizations |chapter=''Imperator-Huangdi'': The Idea of the Highest Universal Divine Ruler in the West and China |pages=16–19|editor-last1=Balbo |editor-first1=Andrea |editor-last2=Ahn |editor-first2=Jaewon |editor-last3=Kim |editor-first3=Kihoon |year=2022 |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110731590-002 |isbn=978-3-11-073159-0 }}</ref> Sometimes this reference has even extended to non-monarchically ruled states and their spheres of influence, such as the [[Athenian Empire]] of the late 5th century BC, the [[Angevin Empire]] of the [[Plantagenets]] and the [[Soviet Empire|Soviet]] and [[American imperialism|American]] "empires" of the [[Cold War]] era. However, such "empires" did not need to be headed by an "emperor". "Empire" became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.

For purposes of protocol, the size and scope of a kingdom or empire may determine [[Order of precedence|precedence]] in international diplomatic relations, but currently, [[Order of precedence|precedence]] among [[heads of state]] who are sovereigns—whether they be kings, queens, emperors, empresses, princes, princesses and presidents may be determined by the size and scope or time that [[Seniority|each one has been continuously in office]]. Outside the European context, "emperor" was the translation given to holders of titles who were accorded the same precedence as European emperors in diplomatic terms. In reciprocity, these rulers might accredit equal titles in their native languages to their European peers. Through centuries of international convention, this has become the dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era.

==Roman Empire==
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2020}}

===Classical Antiquity===
{{Main|Roman emperor|Imperator}}
[[File:Rimini083.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue of [[Roman dictator|''dictator'']] [[Julius Caesar]]]]
When [[Roman Republic|Republican Rome]] turned into a ''de facto'' [[monarchy]] in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch. Ancient Romans abhorred the name [[King of Rome|Rex ("king")]], and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule. [[Julius Caesar]] had been [[Roman dictator|Dictator]], an acknowledged and traditional office in Republican Rome. Caesar was not the [[Titus Larcius|first]] to hold it, but following his assassination the term was abhorred in Rome.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[Augustus]], considered the first [[Roman emperor]], established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man. One of these offices was ''[[princeps senatus]]'', ("first man of the Senate") and became changed into Augustus' chief honorific, ''[[Princeps|princeps civitatis]]'' ("first citizen") from which the modern English word and title [[prince]] is descended. The first period of the [[Roman Empire]], from 27 BC to AD 284, is called the ''[[principate]]'' for this reason. However, it was the informal descriptive of ''[[Imperator]]'' ("commander") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors. Previously bestowed on high officials and military commanders who had ''[[imperium]]'', Augustus reserved it exclusively to himself as the ultimate holder of all ''imperium''. (''Imperium'' is Latin for the authority to command, one of a various types of authority delineated in Roman political thought.)

Beginning with Augustus, ''Imperator'' appeared in the title of all Roman monarchs through the extinction of the Empire in 1453. After the reign of Augustus' immediate successor [[Tiberius]], being proclaimed ''imperator'' was transformed into the act of accession to the [[head of state]]. Other honorifics used by the Roman emperors have also come to be synonyms for Emperor:

*'''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''' {{IPA|la|ˈkae̯sar|lang}} (as, for example, in [[Suetonius]]' ''[[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Twelve Caesars]]''). This tradition continued in many languages: in German it became "[[Kaiser]]"; in certain [[Slavic languages]] it became "[[Tsar]]"; in Hungarian it became "Császár", and several more variants. The name derived from [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[cognomen]] "Caesar": this cognomen was adopted by all Roman emperors, exclusively by the ruling monarch after the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] had died out. In this tradition Julius Caesar is sometimes described as the first Caesar/emperor (following Suetonius). This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of [[Caesar Augustus]] to the modern era.
*'''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' was the [[honorific]] first bestowed on Emperor Augustus: on his death it became an official title of his successor and all Roman emperors after him added it to their name. Although it had a high symbolic value, something like "elevated" or "sublime", it was generally not used to indicate the office of ''Emperor'' itself. Exceptions include the title of the ''[[Augustan History]]'', a semi-historical collection of emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century. This title also proved very enduring: after the fall of the Roman Empire, the title would be incorporated into the style of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], a precedent set by [[Charlemagne]], and its Greek translation ''[[Sebastos]]'' continued to be used in the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, although it gradually lost its imperial exclusivity. Augustus had (by his last will) granted the feminine form of this honorific ([[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]) to his wife. Since there was no "title" of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal. Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning emperors would receive it.
*'''[[Imperator]]''' (as, for example, in [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Naturalis Historia]]''). In the [[Roman Republic]] Imperator meant "(military) commander". In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, ''Imperator'' was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the [[Roman Senate]] after a great victory, roughly comparable to [[field marshal]] (head or commander of the entire army). For example, in AD 15 [[Germanicus]] was proclaimed ''Imperator'' during the reign of his adoptive father [[Tiberius]]. Soon thereafter "Imperator" became however a title reserved exclusively for the ruling monarch. This led to "Emperor" in English and, among other examples, "Empereur" in French and "Mbreti" in Albanian. The Latin feminine form [[Imperator|Imperatrix]] only developed after "Imperator" had taken on the connotation of "Emperor".
*'''[[Autokrator]]''' (Αὐτοκράτωρ) or '''[[basileus#Romans and Byzantines|Basileus]]''' (βασιλεύς): although the Greeks used equivalents of "Caesar" (Καῖσαρ, ''Kaisar'') and "Augustus" (in two forms: transliterated as {{lang|grc|Αὔγουστος}}, ''Augoustos'' or translated as {{lang|grc|Σεβαστός}}, ''[[Sebastos]]'') these were rather used as part of the name of the emperor than as an indication of the office. Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they used {{lang|grc|αὐτοκράτωρ}} (''autokratōr'', only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of "[[Autocracy|autocrat]]") or {{lang|grc|βασιλεύς}} (''[[basileus]]'', until then the usual name for "[[Monarch|sovereign]]"). ''Autokratōr'' was essentially used as a translation of the Latin ''Imperator'' in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire, but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts. For the Greeks ''Autokratōr'' was not a military title, and was closer to the Latin ''[[Roman dictator|dictator]]'' concept ("the one with unlimited power"), before it came to mean Emperor. ''Basileus'' appears not to have been used exclusively in the meaning of "emperor" (and specifically, the Roman/Byzantine emperor) before the 7th century, although it was a standard informal designation of the emperor in the Greek-speaking East. The title was later applied by the rulers of various Eastern Orthodox countries claiming to be the successors of Rome/Byzantium, such as [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]], [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], [[Serbian Empire|Serbia]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]].

After the turbulent [[Year of the Four Emperors]] in 69, the [[Flavian dynasty]] reigned for three decades. The succeeding [[Nervan-Antonian dynasty]], ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the empire. This epoch became known as the era of the ''[[Nerva–Antonine dynasty#Five Good Emperors|Five Good Emperors]]'', and was followed by the short-lived [[Severan dynasty]].

During the [[Crisis of the 3rd century]], [[barracks emperors]] succeeded one another at short intervals. Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the [[Gallic Empire]], the [[Britannic Empire]], and the [[Palmyrene Empire]] though the latter used ''rex'' more regularly.

The [[Principate]] (27 BC – 284 AD) period was succeeded by what is known as the [[Dominate]] (284 AD – 527 AD), during which Emperor [[Diocletian]] tried to put the empire on a more formal footing. Diocletian sought to address the challenges of the Empire's now vast geography and the instability caused by the informality of succession by the creation of co-emperors and junior emperors. At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the ''imperium'' (see: [[Tetrarchy]]). In 325 AD [[Constantine I]] defeated his rivals and restored single emperor rule, but following his death the empire was divided among his sons. For a time the concept was of one empire ruled by multiple emperors with varying territory under their control, however following the death of [[Theodosius I]] the rule was divided between his two sons and increasingly became separate entities. The areas administered from Rome are referred to by historians the [[Western Roman Empire]] and those under the immediate authority of Constantinople called the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] or (after the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636 AD) the [[Byzantine Empire|Later Roman or Byzantine Empire]]. The subdivisions and co-emperor system were formally abolished by [[Zeno (emperor)|Emperor Zeno]] in 480 AD following the death of [[Julius Nepos]] last Western Emperor and the ascension of [[Odoacer]] as the ''de facto'' King of Italy in 476 AD.

===Byzantine period===
{{Main|Byzantine Emperor}}

====Before the 4th Crusade====
[[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|thumb|Under [[Justinian I]], reigning in the 6th century, parts of Italy were for a few decades (re)conquered from the [[Ostrogoths]]: thus, this famous [[mosaic]], featuring the Byzantine emperor in the center, can be admired at [[Ravenna]].]]
Historians generally refer to the continuing Roman Empire in the east as the [[Byzantine Empire]] after [[Byzantium]], the original name of the town that [[Constantine I]] would elevate to the Imperial capital as [[New Rome]] in AD 330. (The city is more commonly called [[Constantinople]] and is today named [[Istanbul]]). Although the empire was again subdivided and a co-emperor sent to Italy at the end of the fourth century, the office became unitary again only 95 years later at the request of the [[Roman Senate]] and following the death of [[Julius Nepos]], last Western Emperor. This change was a recognition of the reality that little remained of Imperial authority in the areas that had been the Western Empire, with even Rome and Italy itself now ruled by the essentially autonomous [[Odoacer]].

These Later Roman "Byzantine" emperors completed the transition from the idea of the emperor as a semi-republican official to the emperor as an [[absolute monarch]]. Of particular note was the translation of the Latin ''Imperator'' into the Greek ''[[Basileus]]'', after Emperor [[Heraclius]] changed the official language of the empire from Latin to Greek in AD 620. Basileus, a title which had long been used for [[Alexander the Great]] was already in common usage as the Greek word for the Roman emperor, but its definition and sense was "King" in Greek, essentially equivalent with the Latin ''Rex''. Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word "autokrator", meaning "one who rules himself", or "monarch", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin ''[[Roman dictator|dictator]]''. Essentially, the Greek language did not incorporate the nuances of the Ancient Roman concepts that distinguished ''imperium'' from other forms of political power.

In general usage, the Byzantine imperial title evolved from simply "emperor" (''basileus'') to "emperor of the Romans" (''basileus tōn Rōmaiōn'') in the 9th century, to "emperor and autocrat of the Romans" (''basileus kai autokratōr tōn Rōmaiōn'') in the 10th.<ref>[[George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky|George Ostrogorsky]], "Avtokrator i samodržac", ''Glas Srpske kraljevske akadamije'' CLXIV, Drugi razdred 84 (1935), 95–187.</ref> In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.

One important distinction between the post Constantine I (reigned AD 306–337) emperors and their pagan predecessors was [[cesaropapism]], the assertion that the emperor (or other head of state) is also the head of the Church. Although this principle was held by all emperors after Constantine, it met with increasing resistance and ultimately rejection by bishops in the west after the effective end of Imperial power there. This concept became a key element of the meaning of "emperor" in the Byzantine and Orthodox east, but went out of favor in the west with the rise of [[Roman Catholicism]].

The Byzantine Empire also produced three women who effectively governed the state: the Empress [[Irene (empress)|Irene]] and the Empresses [[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoe]] and [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]].

====Latin emperors====
{{Main|Latin Emperor}}
In 1204 Constantinople fell to the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] and the [[Franks]] in the [[Fourth Crusade]]. Following the [[Siege of Constantinople|sacking]] of the city, the conquerors declared a new "Empire of Romania", known to historians as the [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]], installing [[Baldwin IX]], [[Count of Flanders]], as Emperor. However, Byzantine resistance to the new empire meant that it was in constant struggle to establish itself. Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] succeeded in recapturing Constantinople in 1261. The [[Principality of Achaea]], a vassal state the empire had created in [[Morea]] (Greece) intermittently continued to recognize the authority of the crusader emperors for another half century. Pretenders to the title continued among the European nobility until circa 1383.

====After the 4th Crusade====
With Constantinople occupied, claimants to the imperial succession styled themselves as emperor in the chief centers of resistance: The [[Laskaris|Laskarid]] dynasty in the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Komnenos|Komnenid]] dynasty in the [[Empire of Trebizond]] and the [[Doukas|Doukid]] dynasty in the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. In 1248, Epirus recognized the Nicaean emperors, who subsequently recaptured Constantinople in 1261. The Trapezuntine emperor formally submitted in Constantinople in 1281,<ref>Nicol, Donald MacGillivray, ''The Last Centuries of Byzantium'', second edition (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), p. 74.</ref> but frequently flouted convention by styling themselves emperor back in Trebizond thereafter.

==Europe==
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2020}}
[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]]'s close cultural and political interaction with its Balkan neighbors [[Bulgaria]] and [[Serbia]], and with Russia (Kievan Rus', then Muscovy) led to the adoption of Byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries.

===Holy Roman Empire===
{{Main|Holy Roman Emperor}}
[[File:Portrait of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, seated (1500–1558), formerly attributed to Titian (Alte Pinakothek, Munich).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Portrait of Charles V (Titian, Munich)|Portrait of Charles V]], Holy Roman Emperor in the 1550s, after [[Titian]]]]
The ''Emperor'' of the Romans' title was a reflection of the ''[[translatio imperii]]'' (''transfer of rule'') principle that regarded the Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the [[Western Roman Empire]], despite the continued existence of the [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] in the east, hence the [[problem of two emperors]].

From the time of [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto the Great]] onward, much of the former [[Carolingian]] kingdom of [[Eastern Francia]] became the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The [[prince-elector]]s elected one of their peers as [[King of the Romans]] and [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|King of Italy]] before being crowned by the [[Pope]]. The emperor could also pursue the election of his heir (usually a son) as King, who would then succeed him after his death. This junior king then bore the title of King of the Romans. Although technically already ruling, after the election he would be crowned as emperor by the pope. The last emperor to be crowned by the pope was [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]; all emperors after him were technically ''emperors-elect'', but were universally referred to as ''emperor''.

The Holy Roman emperor was considered the first among those in power. He was also the first defender of Christianity. From 1452 to the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (except in the years 1742 to 1745) only members of the [[House of Habsburg]] were Holy Roman emperors. [[Karl von Habsburg]] is currently the head of the House of Habsburg.<ref>Heer, Friedrich. Holy Roman Empire (2002); Lonnie Johnson "Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" (2011), p. 81.</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/hre.htm| title = The Holy Roman Empire}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/heiliges-roemisches-reich-im-ueberblick-geschichte-der-staatlichen-emanzipation-1.827525-0#seite-2| title = Heiliges Römisches Reich : Geschichte der staatlichen Emanzipation| date = 27 August 2006}}</ref>

===Austrian Empire===
{{Main|Emperor of Austria}}
[[File:Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Franz Joseph I of Austria]]]]
The first Austrian Emperor was the last Holy Roman Emperor, [[Francis I of Austria|Franz II]]. In the face of aggressions by [[Napoleon]], Francis feared for the future of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. He wished to maintain his and his family's Imperial status in the event that the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved, as it indeed was in 1806 when an Austrian-led army suffered a humiliating defeat at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=liamfoley63|date=2020-08-06|title=August 6, 1806. Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.|url=https://europeanroyalhistory.wordpress.com/2020/08/06/august-6-1806-dissolution-of-the-holy-roman-empire/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=European Royal History|language=en}}</ref> After which, the victorious Napoleon proceeded to dismantle the old ''Reich'' by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separate [[Confederation of the Rhine]]. With the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced, Francis II, ''Holy Roman Emperor'' became Francis I, ''Emperor of Austria''. The new imperial title may have sounded less prestigious than the old one, but Francis' [[dynasty]] continued to rule from Austria and a Habsburg monarch was still an emperor (''Kaiser''), and not just merely a king (''König''), in name. According to the historian Friedrich Heer, the Austrian Habsburg emperor remained an "auctoritas" of a special kind. He was "the grandson of the Caesars", he remained the patron of the [[Catholic Church|Holy Church]].<ref>Friedrich Heer "Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität" (1981), p. 259.</ref>

The title lasted just a little over one century until 1918, but it was never clear what territory constituted the "[[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]]". When Francis took the title in 1804, the Habsburg lands as a whole were dubbed the ''Kaisertum Österreich''. ''Kaisertum'' might literally be translated as "emperordom" (on analogy with "kingdom") or "emperor-ship"; the term denotes specifically "the territory ruled by an emperor", and is thus somewhat more general than [[Reich]], which in 1804 carried connotations of universal rule. Austria proper (as opposed to the complex of Habsburg lands as a whole) had been part of the [[Archduchy of Austria]] since the 15th century, and most of the other territories of the Empire had their own institutions and territorial history. There were some attempts at centralization, especially during the reign of [[Maria Theresa]] and her son [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]]. These efforts were finalized in the early 19th century. When the [[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen]] (Hungary) were given self-government in 1867, the non-Hungarian portions were called the Empire of Austria. They were officially known as the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the [[Imperial Council (Austria)|Imperial Council]] (''Reichsrat'')". The title of Emperor of Austria and the associated Empire were both abolished at the end [[World War I]] in 1918, when [[German Austria]] became a [[republic]] and the other kingdoms and lands represented in the Imperial Council established their independence or adhesion to other states.

The ''Kaisers'' of the Austrian Empire (1804–1918) were [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Franz I]] (1804–1835), [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]] (1835–1848), [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]] (1848–1916) and [[Charles I of Austria|Karl I]] (1916–1918). The current head of the House of Habsburg is [[Karl von Habsburg]].<ref>Lonnie Johnson "Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" (2011), p. 118.</ref><ref>Anatol Murad "Franz Joseph I of Austria and his Empire." (1968) p. 1.</ref>

===Bulgaria===
{{main|First Bulgarian Empire|Second Bulgarian Empire}}
[[File:Car Simeon Bulharsky - Alfons Mucha.jpg|thumb|[[Simeon I of Bulgaria]], the first holder of the Imperial title [[Tsar]]]]
In 913, [[Simeon I of Bulgaria]] was crowned Emperor ([[Tsar]], originally more fully Tsesar, ''cěsar''') of his own people by the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] and Imperial regent [[Nicholas Mystikos]] outside the Byzantine capital.<ref>Mladjov 2015: 171–177.</ref> In its final expanded form, under the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]] the title read "Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks" (Цар и самодържец на всички българи и гърци, ''Car i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci'' in the modern vernacular).<ref>Charters of Ivan Alexander and Ivan Shishman, in Petkov 2008: 500, 506–507.</ref> The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans, however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court.

Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government. The decade 914–924 was spent in [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927|destructive warfare]] between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict. The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title "Emperor of the Romans" (''basileus tōn Rōmaiōn''), was eventually recognized, as "Emperor of the Bulgarians" (''basileus tōn Boulgarōn'') by the Byzantine Emperor [[Romanus I|Romanos I Lakapenos]] in 924.<ref>Mladjov 2015: 177–178.</ref> Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the [[Patriarch of All Bulgaria|Bulgarian patriarch]] was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian-Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927. In the meantime, the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also tacitly confirmed by the [[pope]], as claimed in later Bulgarian diplomatic correspondence.<ref>Mladjov 1999.</ref> The Bulgarian imperial title "tsar" was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule. Despite the attempt of Pope [[Innocent III]] to limit the Bulgarian monarch to the title of King (''Rex''), [[Kaloyan of Bulgaria]] considered himself an Emperor (''Imperator'') and his successor [[Boril of Bulgaria]] was specifically accused of improperly using the imperial title by his neighbor, the [[Latin Emperor]] [[Henry of Flanders]].<ref>Prinzing 1973: 420–421.</ref> Nevertheless, the Bulgarian imperial title was recognized by its neighbors and trading partners, including Byzantium, Hungary, Serbia, Venice, Genoa, Dubrovnik. 14th-century Bulgarian literary compositions saw the Bulgarian capital ([[Veliko Tarnovo|Tarnovo]]) as a successor of Rome and [[Constantinople]].<ref>Kaimakamova 2006.</ref>

After Bulgaria obtained full independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1908, its monarch, who was previously styled ''Knyaz'', [[Prince]], took the traditional title of ''Tsar'', this time translated as [[King]]. [[Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] is the former Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://bnt.bg/news/bulgaria%E2%80%99s-former-king-and-pm-simeon-ii-celebrates-his-80th-birthday-149283news.html| title = Bulgaria's Former King and PM Simeon II Celebrates his 80th Birthday}}</ref>

===France===
{{main|Emperor of the French}}
The kings of the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' and the [[July Monarchy]] used the title ''Empereur de France'' in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] emperor from at least 1673 onwards. The Ottomans insisted on this elevated style while refusing to recognize the Holy Roman emperors or the Russian tsars because of their rival claims of the [[translatio imperii|Roman crown]]. In short, it was an indirect insult by the Ottomans to the HRE and the Russians. The French kings also used it for [[Morocco]] (1682) and [[Persia]] (1715).

====First French Empire====
{{main|First French Empire}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Coronation of Napoleon (1805-1807).jpg|thumb|One of the most famous Imperial coronation ceremonies was that of Napoleon, crowning himself Emperor in the presence of [[Pope Pius VII]] (who had blessed the [[regalia]]), at the [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris]].<br>The painting by [[Jacques-Louis David|David]] commemorating the event is equally famous: the gothic cathedral restyled ''[[Empire (style)|style Empire]]'', supervised by the [[Letizia Ramolino|mother of the Emperor]] on the balcony (a fictional addition, while she had not been present at the ceremony), the pope positioned near the altar, Napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife, [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] as Empress.]]
[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], who was already First Consul of the French Republic (''Premier Consul de la République française'') for life, declared himself '''[[Emperor of the French]]''' (''Empereur des Français'') on 18 May 1804, thus creating the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] (''Empire Français'').<ref>{{Cite web|title=Napoleon and War in 1804–05|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np4b.html|access-date=2020-11-27|website=www.fsmitha.com}}</ref>

Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on 6 April and again on 11 April 1814. Napoleon's infant son, [[Napoleon II of France|Napoleon II]], was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and therefore reigned (as opposed to ruled) as Emperor for fifteen days, 22 June to 7 July 1815.

====Elba====
Since 3 May 1814, the Sovereign Principality of [[Elba]] was created as a miniature non-hereditary monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoleon I. According to the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)]], Napoleon I was allowed to enjoy the imperial title for life. The islands were ''not'' restyled an empire.

On 26 February 1815, Napoleon abandoned Elba for France, reviving the French Empire for a [[Hundred Days]]; the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on 25 March 1815, and on 31 March 1815 Elba was ceded to the restored [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]] by the Congress of Vienna. After his final defeat, Napoleon was treated as a general by the British authorities during his second exile to Atlantic Isle of [[St. Helena]]. His title was a matter of dispute with the governor of St Helena, who insisted on addressing him as "General Bonaparte", despite the "historical reality that he had been an emperor" and therefore retained the title.<ref>''Napoleon'', Vincent Cronin, p419, HarperCollins, 1994.</ref><ref>''Napoleon'', Frank McLynn, p644, Pimlico 1998.</ref><ref>''Le Mémorial de Sainte Hélène'', Emmanuel De Las Cases, Tome III, page101, published by Jean De Bonnot, Libraire à l'enseigne du canon, 1969.</ref>

====Second French Empire====
{{main|Second French Empire}}
Napoleon I's nephew, [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]], resurrected the title of emperor on 2 December 1852, after establishing the [[Second French Empire]] in a presidential [[coup]], subsequently approved by a plebiscite.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Second French Empire (1852–1870)|url=https://about-history.com/the-second-french-empire-1852-1870/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=About History|language=en-US}}</ref> His reign was marked by large scale public works, the development of social policy, and the extension of France's influence throughout the world. During his reign, he also set about creating the [[Second Mexican Empire]] (headed by his choice of [[Maximilian I of Mexico]], a member of the [[House of Habsburg]]), to regain France's hold in the Americas and to achieve greatness for the 'Latin' race.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1O6HwzwQs4C&pg=PA88 |title=Race and nation in modern Latin America |first1=Nancy P. |last1=Appelbaum |first2=Anne S. |last2=Macpherson |first3=Karin Alejandra |last3=Rosemblatt |publisher=UNC Press Books |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8078-5441-9 |page=88}}</ref> Napoleon III was deposed on 4 September 1870, after France's defeat in the [[Franco-Prussian War]]. The [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] followed and after the death of his son Napoleon (IV), in 1879 during the Zulu War, the Bonapartist movement split, and the Third Republic was to last until 1940.

The role of head of the House of Bonaparte is claimed by [[Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon|Jean-Christophe Napoléon]] and [[Charles, Prince Napoléon|Charles Napoléon]].

===Iberian Peninsula===
====Spain====
{{Main|Imperator totius Hispaniae}}
The origin of the title ''[[Imperator totius Hispaniae]]'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] for ''Emperor of All [[Hispania|Spain]]''{{NoteTag|Before the emergence of the modern country of Spain (beginning with the union of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Aragon]] in 1492), the Latin word ''[[Hispania]]'', in any of the [[Iberian Romance languages]], either in singular or plural forms (in English: Spain or Spains), was used to refer to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula, and not exclusively, as in modern usage, to the country of Spain, thus excluding Portugal.}}) is murky. It was associated with the [[List of Leonese monarchs|Leonese monarchy]] perhaps as far back as [[Alfonso the Great]] (''r.'' 866–910). The last two kings of its [[Astur-Leonese dynasty]] were called emperors in a contemporary source.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

King [[Sancho&nbsp;III of Navarre]] conquered Leon in 1034 and began using it. His son, [[Ferdinand&nbsp;I of Castile]], also took the title in 1039. Ferdinand's son, [[Alfonso&nbsp;VI of León and Castile]], took the title in 1077. It then passed to his son-in-law, [[Alfonso&nbsp;I of Aragon]], in 1109. His stepson and Alfonso&nbsp;VI's grandson, [[Alfonso&nbsp;VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]], was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in 1135.

The title was not exactly hereditary but self-proclaimed by those who had, wholly or partially, united the Christian northern part of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], often at the expense of killing rival siblings. The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom. After Alfonso&nbsp;VII's death in 1157 the title was abandoned, and the kings who used it are not commonly mentioned as having been "emperors", in Spanish or other historiography.

After the fall of the Byzantine Empire the legitimate heir to the throne, [[Andreas Palaiologos]], willed away his claim to [[Ferdinand and Isabella]] in 1503.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicol |first=Donald MacGillivray |url=https://archive.org/details/immortalemperorl0000nico/mode/2up |title=The immortal emperor : the life and legend of Constantine Palaiologos, last emperor of the Romans |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-41456-2}}</ref>

====Portugal====
[[File:Jean-Baptiste Debret - Retrato de Dom João VI (MNBA).jpg|thumb|upright|[[John VI of Portugal|John&nbsp;VI]], [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal and the Algarves]], [[Emperor of Brazil]]]]
After the independence and proclamation of the [[Empire of Brazil]] from the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves|Kingdom of Portugal]] by [[Pedro I of Brazil|Prince Pedro]], who became Emperor, in 1822 his father, King [[John&nbsp;VI of Portugal]], briefly held the honorific style of Titular [[Emperor of Brazil]] and the treatment of ''His Imperial and Royal Majesty'' under the 1825 [[Treaty of Rio de Janeiro (1825)|Treaty of Rio de Janeiro]], by which Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil. The style of Titular Emperor was a life title, and became extinct upon the holder's demise. John&nbsp;VI held the imperial title for a few months only, from the ratification of the Treaty in November 1825 until his death in March 1826. During those months, however, as John's imperial title was purely honorific while his son, Pedro&nbsp;I, remained the sole monarch of the Brazilian Empire. [[Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza|Duarte Pio]] is the current head of the [[House of Braganza]].

===Great Britain===
{{Main|British Emperor}}
In the late 3rd century, by the end of the epoch of the ''barracks emperors'' in Rome, there were two [[Carausian Revolt|Britannic emperors]], reigning for about a decade. After the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]], the Imperator [[Cunedda]] forged the [[Kingdom of Gwynedd]] in northern Wales, but all his successors were titled kings and princes.

====England====
There was no consistent title for the king of England before 1066, and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased. Imperial titles were used inconsistently, beginning with [[Athelstan]] in 930 and ended with the [[Norman conquest of England]]. [[Empress Matilda]] (1102–1167) is the only English monarch commonly referred to as "emperor" or "empress", but she acquired her title through her marriage to [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor]].

During the rule of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] the [[Statute in Restraint of Appeals]] declared that 'this realm of England is an Empire...governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the [[imperial Crown]] of the same'. This was in the context of the divorce of [[Catherine of Aragon]] and the [[English Reformation]], to emphasize that England had never accepted the quasi-imperial claims of the papacy. Hence England and, by extension its modern successor state, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], is according to English law an Empire ruled by a King endowed with the imperial dignity. However, this has not led to the creation of the ''title'' of Emperor in England, nor in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], nor in the United Kingdom.

====United Kingdom====
[[File:George V of the united Kingdom.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George V]], [[King of the United Kingdom]] and the [[British Dominions]], [[Emperor of India]]]]
In 1801, [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] rejected the title of Emperor when offered. The only period when British monarchs held the title of ''Emperor'' in a dynastic succession started when the title [[Emperor of India|Empress of India]] was created for [[Queen Victoria]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=liamfoley63|date=2019-11-12|title=History of Styles and Titles Part IV: Emperor of Britain.|url=https://europeanroyalhistory.wordpress.com/2019/11/12/history-of-styles-and-titles-part-iv-emperor-of-britain/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=European Royal History|language=en}}</ref> The government led by [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]], conferred the additional title upon her by an Act of Parliament, reputedly to assuage the monarch's irritation at being, as a mere Queen, notionally inferior to the emperors of Russia, Germany, and Austria. That included her own daughter ([[Victoria, Princess Royal|Princess Victoria]], who was the wife of the [[Frederick III, German Emperor|reigning German Emperor]]). Hence, "Queen Victoria felt handicapped in the battle of protocol by not being an Empress herself".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Longford |first1=Elizabeth |title=Queen Victoria: Born to Succeed |date=1972 |isbn=9780515028683 |pages=404 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BGWCT8QaGD0C&q=handicapped+in+her+battles+over+protocol+by+not+being+an+Empress |access-date=18 August 2020}}</ref> The Indian Imperial designation was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding the former [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]] as [[suzerain]] over hundreds of [[princely state]]s. The [[Indian Independence Act 1947]] provided for the abolition of the use of the title "[[Emperor of India]]" by the [[British monarch]], but this was not executed by [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] until a [[royal proclamation]] on 22 June 1948. Despite this, George VI continued as king of India until 1950 and as king of Pakistan until his death in 1952.

The last Empress of India was George VI's wife, [[Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother]].

===German Empire===
{{Main|German Emperor}}
[[File:Kohner - Kaiser Wilhelm II.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]], [[German Emperor]] and [[King of Prussia]]]]
Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] prime minister [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s authoritarian ''[[Realpolitik]]''. Bismarck wanted to unify the rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: the [[Second war of Schleswig]] against Denmark in 1864, the [[Austro-Prussian War]] against [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] in 1866, and the [[Franco-Prussian War]] against the [[Second French Empire]] in 1870–71. During the [[Siege of Paris (1870-1871)|Siege of Paris]] in 1871, the [[North German Confederation]], supported by its allies from [[southern Germany]], formed the [[German Empire]] with the proclamation of the Prussian king [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the [[Palace of Versailles]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treaty of Frankfurt am Main ends Franco-Prussian War|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/treaty-of-frankfurt-am-main-ends-franco-prussian-war|access-date=2020-11-27|website=HISTORY|date=5 November 2009 |language=en}}</ref> to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later.

After his death he was succeeded by his son [[Frederick III, German Emperor|Frederick III]] who was only emperor for 99 days. In the same year his son [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] became the third emperor within a year. He was the last German emperor. After the empire's defeat in World War I the empire, called the [[German Reich]], had a president as head of state instead of an emperor. The use of the word ''Reich'' was abandoned following [[World War II]].

===Russia===
{{Main|Emperor of Russia}}
[[File:Profile portrait of Catherine II by Fedor Rokotov (1763, Tretyakov gallery).jpg|thumb|upright|Empress [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia]]
In 1472, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, [[Sophia Paleologue|Sophia Palaiologina]], married [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan&nbsp;III]], grand prince of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to the Byzantine Empire. This idea was represented more emphatically in the composition the monk Filofej addressed to their son [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili&nbsp;III]]. In 1480, after ending Muscovy's dependence on its overlords of the [[Great Horde]], Ivan&nbsp;III began the usage of the titles [[Tsar]] and Autocrat (''samoderzhets''). His insistence on recognition as such by the emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] since 1489 resulted in the granting of this recognition in 1514 by Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian&nbsp;I]] to Vasili&nbsp;III. His son [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan&nbsp;IV]] emphatically crowned himself [[Tsar of Russia]] on 16 January 1547. The word "Tsar" derives from Latin [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]], but this title was used in Russia as equivalent to "King"; the error occurred when medieval Russian clerics referred to the biblical Jewish kings with the same title that was used to designate Roman and Byzantine rulers — "Caesar".

On 31 October 1721, [[Peter the Great|Peter&nbsp;I]] was proclaimed Emperor by the [[Governing Senate]]. The title used was Latin "''Imperator''", which is a westernizing form equivalent to the traditional Slavic title "''Tsar''". He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in 1717 written in 1514 from Maximilian&nbsp;I to Vasili&nbsp;III, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili.

A formal address to the ruling Russian monarch adopted thereafter was 'Your Imperial Majesty'. The [[Tsarevich|crown prince]] was addressed as 'Your Imperial Highness'.

The title has not been used in Russia since the [[Abdication of Nicholas II|abdication]] of Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas&nbsp;II]] on 15 March 1917.

The [[Russian Empire]] produced four reigning Empresses, all in the eighteenth century. These were [[Catherine I of Russia|Catherine&nbsp;I]], [[Anna of Russia|Anne]], [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth]], and [[Catherine the Great|Catherine&nbsp;II]].

The role of head of the [[House of Romanov]] is claimed by [[Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia]] (Great-great-granddaughter of [[Alexander&nbsp;II of Russia]]), [[Prince Andrew Romanoff]] (great-great-grandson of [[Nicholas&nbsp;I of Russia]]), and [[Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen]] (Great-grandson of [[Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia]]).

===Serbia===
{{main|Serbian Empire|Emperor of Serbs}}
[[File:Serbian Emperor Stefan Dušan.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Emperor of Serbs|Emperor]] of [[Serbian Empire|Serbia]] [[Dušan the Mighty]]]]
In 1345, the Serbian King [[Stefan Dusan|Stefan Uroš IV Dušan]] proclaimed himself Emperor ([[Tsar]]) and was crowned as such at [[Skopje]] on [[Easter]] 1346 by the newly created [[Serbian Patriarch]], and by the [[Patriarch of All Bulgaria|Patriarch of Bulgaria]] and the autocephalous [[Archbishopric of Ohrid|Archbishop of Ohrid]]. His imperial title was recognized by the Bulgarian Empire and various other neighbors and trading partners but not by the Byzantine Empire. In its final standardized form, the Serbian imperial title read "Emperor of Serbs and Greeks" (цар Срба и Грка, ''car Srba i Grka'' in modern Serbian). It was only employed by two monarchs in Serbia, Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and his son Stefan Uroš V, becoming extinct after the latter's death in 1371. A half-brother of Dušan, [[Simeon Uroš]], and then his son [[Jovan Uroš]], claimed the same title, until the latter's abdication in 1373, while ruling as dynasts in [[Thessaly]]. The "Greek" component in the Serbian imperial title indicates both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans.<ref>Fine 1987: 309–310.</ref> A renegade Hungarian-Serb commander, [[Jovan Nenad]], who claimed to be a descendant of Serbian and Byzantine rulers, styled himself Emperor.

==The Americas==
===Pre-Columbian traditions===
[[File:Moctezuma Xocoyotzin.png|thumb|upright|Emperor [[Moctezuma II]] of the Aztec Empire wearing a [[tilmàtli]]]]
The Aztec and Inca traditions are unrelated to one another. Both were conquered under the reign of King [[Charles I of Spain]] who was simultaneously emperor-elect of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the fall of the Aztecs and fully emperor during the fall of the Incas. Incidentally by being king of Spain, he was also Roman (Byzantine) emperor in pretence through [[Andreas Palaiologos]]. The translations of their titles were provided by the Spanish.

====Aztec Empire====
{{Main|:es:Huey Tlatoani}}
The only [[pre-Columbian]] North American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the ''Huey Tlatoani'' of the Mexica city-states of [[Tenochtitlan]], [[Tlacopan]] and [[Texcoco (altepetl)|Texcoco]], which along with their allies and tributaries are popularly known as the [[Aztec Empire]] (1375–1521). ''Tlatoani'' is a generic Nahuatl word for "speaker"; however, most English translators use "king" for their translation, thus rendering ''huey tlatoani'' as ''great king'' or ''emperor.''<ref>Lockhart (2001, p.238); Schroeder (2007, p. 3). See also the entry for [http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/tl/nahuatlTLAHTLI.html#TLAHTOANI "TLAHTOANI"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614183207/http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/tl/nahuatlTLAHTLI.html#TLAHTOANI|date=2007-06-14}}, in Wimmer (2006).</ref>

The Triple Alliance was an [[elected monarchy]] chosen by the elite. The emperors of Tenochtitlan and Texcoco were nominally equals, each receiving two-fifths of tribute from the vassal kingdoms, whereas the emperor of Tlacopan was a junior member and only received one-fifth of the tribute,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nielsen |first=Hjørdis |date=1996 |title=THE 2:2:1 TRIBUTE DISTRIBUTION IN THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE: Analyzing the Tetzcocan manuscripts |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26307167 |journal=Ancient Mesoamerica |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=207–214 |doi=10.1017/S0956536100001413 |jstor=26307167 |issn=0956-5361}}</ref> due to the fact that Tlacopan was a newcomer to the alliance. Despite the nominal equality, Tenochtitlan eventually assumed a [[de facto]] dominant role in the Empire, to the point that even the emperors of Tlacopan and Texcoco would acknowledge Tenochtitlan's effective supremacy. Spanish [[conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]] executed Emperor [[Cuauhtémoc]] and installed puppet rulers who became vassals for Spain.

====Inca Empire====
{{Main|Sapa Inca}}
The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the ''[[Sapa Inca]]'' of the [[Inca Empire]] (1438–1533). Spanish conquistador [[Francisco Pizarro]], conquered the Inca for Spain, killed Emperor [[Atahualpa]], and installed puppets as well. Atahualpa may actually be considered a usurper as he had achieved power by [[Inca Civil War|killing his half-brother]] and he did not perform the required coronation with the imperial crown ''[[mascaipacha]]'' by the ''Huillaq Uma'' (high priest).

===Post-Columbian Americas===
====Brazil====
{{Main|Emperor of Brazil}}
[[File:Pedro Américo - D. Pedro II na abertura da Assembléia Geral.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]], [[List of monarchs of Brazil|Emperor of Brazil]] in full [[Imperial Regalia of Brazil|regalia]] at the opening of the General Assembly, by [[Pedro Américo]]]]
When [[Napoleon|Napoleon I]] ordered the invasion of Portugal in 1807 because it refused to join the [[Continental System]], the Portuguese [[House of Braganza|Braganzas]] moved their capital to [[Rio de Janeiro]] to avoid the fate of the [[Spanish Bourbons]] (Napoleon I arrested them and made his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] king). When the French general [[Jean-Andoche Junot]] arrived in [[Lisbon]], the Portuguese fleet had already left with all the local elite.

In 1808, under a British naval escort, the fleet arrived in Brazil. Later, in 1815, the Portuguese Prince Regent (since 1816 [[John VI of Portugal|King João VI]]) proclaimed the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]], as a union of three kingdoms, lifting Brazil from its colonial status.

After the fall of Napoleon I and the [[liberal Wars|Liberal revolution]] in Portugal, the Portuguese royal family returned to Europe (1821). Prince Pedro of Braganza (King João's older son) stayed in South America acting as regent of the local kingdom, but, two years later in 1822, he proclaimed himself [[Peter I of Brazil|Pedro I]], first [[Emperor of Brazil]]. He did, however, recognize his father, João VI, as ''Titular Emperor of Brazil'' —a purely honorific title—until João VI's death in 1826.

The empire came to an end in 1889, with the overthrow of [[Pedro II of Brazil|Emperor Pedro II]] (Pedro I's son and successor), when the [[First Brazilian Republic|Brazilian republic]] was [[Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)|proclaimed]].

Today the headship of the [[Brazilian imperial family|Imperial House of Brazil]] is disputed between two branches of the [[House of Orléans-Braganza]].

====Haiti====
{{Main|Emperor of Haiti}}
[[Haiti]] was declared an empire by its ruler, [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]], who made himself Jacques I, on 20 May 1805. He was assassinated the next year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jean-Jacques Dessalines|url=https://www.biography.com/political-figure/jean-jacques-dessalines|access-date=2020-11-27|website=Biography|language=en-us}}</ref> Haiti again became an empire from 1849 to 1859 under [[Faustin Soulouque]].

====Mexico====
{{Main|Emperor of Mexico}}
[[File:Emperador Maximiliano I de Mexico.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Maximilian I of Mexico]], by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]]]]
In Mexico, the [[First Mexican Empire]] was the first of two empires created. After the [[Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire|declaration of independence]] on 15 September 1821, it was the intention of the Mexican parliament to establish a commonwealth whereby the king of Spain, [[Fernando VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]], would also be [[Emperor of Mexico]], but in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices. Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for a member of the [[House of Bourbon]] to accede to the Mexican throne.

Ferdinand VII, however, did not recognize the independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico. By request of Parliament, the president of the regency [[Agustín de Iturbide]] was proclaimed emperor of Mexico on 12 July 1822 as [[Agustín I]]. Agustín de Iturbide was the general who helped secure Mexican independence from Spanish rule, but was overthrown by the [[Plan of Casa Mata]].

In 1863, the invading French, under [[Napoleon III]] (see above), in alliance with Mexican conservatives and [[Mexican nobility|nobility]], helped create the [[Second Mexican Empire]], and invited Archduke Maximilian, of the [[House of Lorraine|House of Habsburg-Lorraine]], younger brother of the Austrian Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Josef I]], to become emperor [[Maximilian of Mexico|Maximilian I of Mexico]]. The childless Maximilian and his consort [[Charlotte of Belgium|Empress Carlota of Mexico]], daughter of [[Leopold I of Belgium]], adopted Agustín's grandsons Agustin and Salvador as his heirs to bolster his claim to the throne of Mexico. Maximilian and Carlota made [[Chapultepec Castle]] their home, which has been the only palace in North America to house sovereigns.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} After the withdrawal of French protection in 1867, Maximilian was captured and executed by the liberal forces of [[Benito Juárez]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-24|title=Mexican Historical Figures: Maximilian I|url=https://weexpats.com/mexican-historical-figures-maximilian/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=WeExpats|language=en-US}}</ref>

This empire led to French influence in the Mexican culture and also [[French Mexican|immigration from France]], Belgium, and Switzerland to Mexico. Maximilian's closest living agnatic relative is [[Karl von Habsburg]], the head of the House of Habsburg.

==Middle East==
{{further|King of Kings}}

The term "king of kings" is used for the "emperor".<ref name="malinowski1619"/> The title [[King of Kings]] takes various forms depending on the language, and was used not only in Iran but also in countries surrounding Iran.
* ''[[King of Kings#Assyria and Babylon|Šar Šarrāni]]'',<ref name="malinowski78">{{Cite book |author-last=Malinowski |author-first=Gościwit |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110731590-002/html?lang=en |title=Empire and Politics in the Eastern and Western Civilizations |chapter=''Imperator-Huangdi'': The Idea of the Highest Universal Divine Ruler in the West and China |pages=7–8 |editor-last1=Balbo |editor-first1=Andrea |editor-last2=Ahn |editor-first2=Jaewon |editor-last3=Kim |editor-first3=Kihoon |year=2022 |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110731590-002 |isbn=978-3-11-073159-0 }}</ref> the king of kings form of ''Šar'', used in [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]], etc.
* ''[[King of kings|Shahanshah]]'',<ref name="malinowski78"/> the king of kings form of ''[[Shah]]'', used in Iran, etc.
* ''[[King of Kings#Hellenic usage|Basileus Basileōn]]'',<ref name="malinowski78"/> the king of kings form of ''[[Basileus]]'', used in Macedonia, Byzantine, etc.
* ''[[Rajadhiraja]]'',<ref name="malinowski78"/> the king of kings form of ''[[Raja]]'', used in [[Champa]], etc.
**  ''[[Maharajadhiraja]]'',<ref name="malinowski78"/> the king of kings form of ''[[Maharaja]]'', used in [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]], [[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepal]], etc.
* ''[[Sultan of Sultans|Sulṭānü's-Selāṭīn]]'', the king of kings form of ''[[Sultan]]'', used in Ottoman, [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi]], etc.
* ''[[King of Kings#Buyid revival|Malik al-Muluk]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Savant |first=Sarah Bowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9U4CAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |page=8|title=The New Muslims of Post-Conquest Iran: Tradition, Memory, and Conversion |date=2013-09-30 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-29231-4 |language=en}}</ref> the king of kings form of ''[[Malik]]'', used in Palmyra, [[Buyid dynasty|Buyid]], etc.
* ''[[King of Kings#Armenia|Ark'ayits Ark'a]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dédéyan |first=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5MlAQAAMAAJ&q=%22ark'ayits+ark'a%22 |title=Les Arméniens entre Grecs, Musulmans et Croisés: étude sur les pouvoirs arméniens dans le Proche-Orient méditerranéen (1068-1150) |year=2003 |page=531|publisher=Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian |language=fr}}</ref> the king of kings form of ''[[Armenian nobility|Arka]]'', used in Armenia.
* ''[[Mepe-Mepeta]]'', the king of kings form of ''[[Mepe]]'', used in [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]].
* ''[[Nəgusä nägäst]]'',<ref name="malinowski78"/> the king of kings form of ''[[Negus]]'', used in [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]].
* ''[[Khagan]]'', "[[Khan (title)|khan]] of khans"<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQhDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA203 |volume=21|page=203 |title=Alden's Manifold Cyclopedia of Knowledge and Language |date=1890 |publisher=J. B. Alden |language=en}}</ref>

=== Iran ===
{{Main|Shahanshah|List of monarchs of Iran|Achaemenid Empire|List of monarchs of Parthia|List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire}}
[[File:Darius I.jpg|thumb|Aechaemenid Emperor [[Darius the Great]], from [[Behistun Inscription]].]]
Persian monarchs took the imperial title of [[king of kings|shahenshah]] (king of kings) to show superiority towards subordinate kings ([[shah]]). ''Shahanshah'' is usually translated as ''king of kings'' or simply ''king'' for ancient rulers of the [[Achaemenid]], [[Arsacid Empire|Arsacid]], and [[Sassanid]] dynasties, and often shortened to ''shah'' for rulers since the [[Safavid]] dynasty in the 16th century. Iranian rulers were typically regarded in the West as emperors.

In [[History of Iran|Persia]], from the time of [[Darius the Great]], Persian rulers used the title "[[King of Kings]]" (''[[Shah]]anshah'' in Persian) since they had dominion over peoples from the borders of India to the borders of Greece and Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Darius I|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Darius_I/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|date=10 April 2017 }}</ref> The Sassanid monarchs used the title King of kings of Iranians and [[Aneran|non-Iranians]] to denote their rule over non-Iranian lands. The last ''shahanshah'' ([[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]) was ousted in 1979 following the [[Iranian Revolution]].

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|List of Sultans of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Suleiman Agostino.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Agostino Veneziano]]'s engraving of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] emperor [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] wearing his [[Süleyman the Magnificent's Venetian Helmet|Venetian Helmet]]{{NoteTag|Agostino never saw the Sultan, but probably did see and sketch the helmet in Venice.}}]]
[[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rulers]] held [[List of Ottoman titles and appellations|many titles and appellations]] denoting their Imperial status. These included: [[Sultan of Sultans]], [[Padishah]], and [[Khagan|Hakan]].

The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:<ref>{{Cite web |title=TheOttomans.org – The Ottomans History |url=http://theottomans.org/english/family/index.asp |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=theottomans.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-10 |title=Turkish And Ottoman Nobility And Royalty {{!}} Nobility Titles – Genuine Titles Of Nobility For Sale |url=https://nobilitytitles.net/turkish-ottoman-nobility-royalty/ |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=Nobility Titles |language=en}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Sultan (given name) [[Khan (title)|Khan]], Sovereign of [[Ottoman dynasty|The Sublime House of Osman]], {{lang|tr|[[Sultan of Sultans|Sultan us-Selatin]]}} (Sultan of Sultans), {{lang|ota-Latn|[[Khagan|Hakan]]}} (Khan of Khans), [[Amir al-Mu'minin|Commander of the faithful]] and [[Ottoman Caliphate|Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe]], [[Protector (title)#Islamic|Custodian]] of the Holy Cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and [[Jerusalem#Ottoman rule|Quds]] (Jerusalem), [[Padishah]] (Emperor) of The Three Cities of [[History of Istanbul#Ottoman Empire|Istanbul]] (Constantinople), [[Edirne]] (Adrianople) and [[Bursa]], and of the Cities of [[Damascus#The Ottoman conquest|Châm]] (Damascus) and [[Egypt Eyalet|Cairo]] (Egypt), of all [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]], of the [[Maghreb]], of [[Cyrenaica|Barkah]], of [[Kairouan]], of [[Aleppo|Alep]], of [[History of Iraq#Ottoman Iraq and Mamluk rule|the Arab and Persian Iraq]], of [[Basra Vilayet|Basra]], of [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|El Hasa]] strip, of [[Raqqa]], of [[Mosul Vilayet|Mosul]], of [[Parthia]], of {{lang|ota-Latn|[[Diyarbekir Vilayet|Diyâr-ı Bekr]]}}, of [[Cilicia#Ottoman Empire|Cilicia]], of the provinces of [[Erzurum Eyalet|Erzurum]], of [[Rûm Eyalet|Sivas]], of [[Adana Eyalet|Adana]], of [[Karaman Eyalet|Karaman]], of [[Eyalet of Van|Van]], of Barbaria, of [[Habesh Eyalet|Habech]] (Abyssinia), of [[Ottoman Tunisia|Tunisia]], of [[Ottoman Tripolitania|Tripoli]], of [[Ottoman Syria|Châm]] (Syria), of [[Ottoman Cyprus|Cyprus]], of [[Rhodes]], of [[History of Crete#Venetian and Ottoman Crete|Crete]], of the province of [[Morea Eyalet|Morea]] (Peloponnese), of [[Mediterranean Sea|Bahr-i Sefid]] (Mediterranean Sea), of [[Black Sea|Bahr-i Siyah]] (Black Sea), of [[Anatolia Eyalet|Anatolia]], of [[Rumelia]] (the European part of the Empire), of [[Baghdad Vilayet|Bagdad]], of [[Kurdistan]], of [[Ottoman Greece|Greece]], of [[Turkestan]], of [[Tartary]], of [[Circassia]], of the two regions of [[Kabardino-Balkaria|Kabarda]], of [[History of Georgia (country)#Ottoman and Iranian domination|Gorjestan]] (Georgia), of the [[Cumania|steppe]] of [[Kipchaks]], of the whole [[Khanate of Kazan|country]] of the [[Tatars]], of [[Feodosia#Kefe (Ottoman)|Kefa]] (Theodosia) and of all the [[Crimean Khanate|neighbouring regions]], of [[Bosnia Eyalet|Bosnia]], of the City and Fort of [[Belgrade#Ottoman rule and Austrian invasions|Belgrade]], of the province of [[Ottoman Serbia|Sirbistan]] (Serbia), with [[list of fortifications in Serbia|all the castles]] and [[List of cities in Serbia|cities]], of all [[Albania under the Ottoman Empire|Arnaut]], of all [[Wallachia|Eflak]] (Wallachia) and [[Moldavia|Bogdania]] (Moldavia), as well as [[vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire#List|all the dependencies and borders]], and [[list of Ottoman Empire territories|many others countries and cities]].}}

After the [[Capture of Constantinople|Ottoman capture of Constantinople]] in 1453, the Ottoman sultans began to style themselves '''Kaysar-i Rum''' (Ceaser of the Romans) as they asserted themselves to be the heirs to the Roman Empire by right of conquest. The title was of such importance to them that it led them to eliminate the various Byzantine successor states – and therefore rival claimants – over the next eight years. Though the term "emperor" was rarely used by Westerners of the [[Ottoman sultan]], it was generally accepted by Westerners that he had imperial status.

[[Harun Osman]] is currently the head of the [[Ottoman dynasty]].

==Indian subcontinent==
{{further|:hi:सम्राट्|Chakravartin}}

In the [[Vedic period]], there was a [[Federal monarchy|federal]] [[empire|imperial system]] called the ''Samrajya system'' and its emperor's title was ''Samrat'' ([[:hi:सम्राट्]]).<ref name="mahajan">{{Cite book |author=Mahajan V.D. |author-link=Vidya Dhar Mahajan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 |page=166|title=Ancient India |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=978-93-5253-132-5 |language=en}}</ref> Those monarchs, who could bring under subjection many rulers, claimed the title of ''Samrat''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Luniya |first=Bhanwarlal Nathuram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b0k9AAAAMAAJ&q=%22Those+monarchs,+who+could+bring+under+subjection+many+petty+rulers+called+Rajans,+claimed+the+title+of+Samrat.%22 |title=Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 A.D. |date=1978 |publisher=Lakshmi Narain Agarwal |language=en|page=130}}</ref>

Another type of [[Ancient india|Indian]] imperialism was called the ''Chakravarti system''.<ref name="mahajan"/> Emperors wished to be called ''[[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravarti]]'',<ref name="derrett"/> meaning "[[Universal monarchy|universal monarch]]."<ref name="britannica"/>

The actual condition of ''Samrat'', which is an objective term, and the theoretical status of ''Chakravarti'', which is a poetical concept, were connected in point of psychology.<ref name="derrett">{{Cite book |last=Derrett |first=J. Duncan M. |author-link=J. Duncan M. Derrett|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOP7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |chapter=Hindu empires|page=2|title=Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law: Volume One: Dharmasastra and Related Ideas |date=2023-12-11 |orig-date=1976|publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-64389-5 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Mauryan Empire ===
{{further|List of Maurya emperors}}
[[File:Ashoka's visit to the Ramagrama stupa Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern gateway.jpg|thumb|Mauryan Emperor [[Ashoka]] riding a [[ratha|chariot]] to [[Sanchi Stupa]]]]
From 322 to 185 BC the Indian subcontinent was dominated by the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya dynasty]] of Magadha, whose monarchs used the title(s) of Chakravarti or Samrat.

[[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] of the [[Maurya Empire]] is referred to as the first emperor of the first unified [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chandragupta Chandragupta] in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> The first references to a ''Chakravartin'' as a secular monarch appear in reference to [[Ashoka]] of the [[Maurya Empire]].<ref name="britannica">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/chakravartin Chakravartin] in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref>

=== Delhi Sultanate ===
{{further|List of sultans of Delhi|Sultan of Sultans}}
From 1206 to 1526 most of the Indian subcontinent was dominated by the Muslim [[Delhi Sultanate]], whose monarchs used the title [[Sultan of Sultans]].

=== Mughal Empire ===
{{further|Mughal Emperor|Padishah|Emperor of Hindustan}}
[[File:The Elderly Akbar Receives Murtaza Khan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Akbar]] in his [[Durbar (court)|Durbar]]]]
From the 14th century until the 19th century the Indian subcontinent was dominated by predominantly Muslim rulers like the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in the second unified Indian subcontinent,whose rulers used the title [[King of Kings|Shahenshah]] and [[Padishah]] (or Badshah) of [[Hindustan]].

=== British Raj ===
{{further|Emperor of India}}
When the British monarchs ruled over India, they adopted the additional title of ''[[Kaisar-i-Hind]]'' (transl. [[Emperor of India]]).

=== Regional emperors ===
* [[Janaka]] of [[Videha]] secured the position of ''Samrat''.<ref name="mahajan"/>
* [[Dasharatha]] of [[Kosala]] called himself the ''Samrat'' over all rulers of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guruge |first=Ananda W. P. |author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWlsWQ8foNgC&pg=PA52 |page=52 |title=The Society of the Ramayana |date=1991 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-265-9 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Yashodharman]] is designated as ''Samrat'' in an inscription.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dikshitar |first=V. R. Ramachandra |author-link=V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP_DTtd6kJEC&pg=PA10 |page=10|title=The Gupta Polity |date=1993 |orig-date=1952|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1024-2 |language=en}}</ref>
* The [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka]] ruler [[Pravarasena I]] was titled ''Samrat''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA482 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |pages=482 |language=en|quote=Pravarasena I was the only Vakataka king with the imperial title ''samrat''; the others had the relatively modest title ''maharaja''.}}</ref>
* The ruler of Kalinga, [[Kharavela]] of the [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]], used the title ''[[Kalinga (region)|Kalinga]]-[[Chakravartin]]''.<ref name="MajumdarBhavan1951">{{cite book |author=[[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial unity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dDAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Kalinga-chakravartin%22 |page=213|year=1951 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}</ref>
* [[Lakshmikarna]] of the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri dynasty]] proclaimed himself ''[[Chakravartin]]''.
* The [[Chola Empire|Imperial Cholas]] used the title ''[[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravartigal]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA366 |page=366|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |year=2004 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 |language=en|quote=The unobtrusive titles used by the early Chola kings were replaced with high-sounding ones, such as ''chakravartigal'' (emperor, the equivalent of the northern ''chakravartin'').}}</ref>
* The term ''Chakravartin'' was used by the [[Pallavas]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=Indira |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ym17YA_jhCgC&pg=PT4 |page=14|title=Rhythms in Stone: The Temples of South India |date=2013 |publisher=Ambi Knowledge Resource |isbn=978-81-903591-3-9 |language=en}}</ref>
* The title ''Tribhuvana-Chakravartin'', literally "emperor of the three worlds", was used by the [[Cholas]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA103 |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 |page=103|language=en}}</ref>
* The [[Pandyan Dynasty|Pandyan]] Emperor [[Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I]] was titled ''Tribhuvana-Cakravarti'', "emperor of the three worlds".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leão |first=David Pierdominici |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP5BEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 |page=165|title=Breaking the Crown of Indra: The Pāṇḍyas and Their Dynastic Identity in the South Indian Context |date=2025-01-27 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-72150-0 |language=en}}</ref>
* Dharasena IV, the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka]] ruler of [[Kingdom of Valabhi|Valabhi]], called himself ''Chakravartin''.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Mahajan V.D. |author-link=Vidya Dhar Mahajan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA449 |page=449|title=Ancient India |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=978-93-5253-132-5 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Veera Ballala II]] of the [[Hoysala Kingdom]] assumed the title ''Hoysala-Chakravartin''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aiyangar |first=Sakkottai Krishnaswami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htArUg0OMpcC&pg=PA252 |page=252 |title=Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India |date=2004 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1850-3 |language=en}}</ref>

==Africa==

===Ethiopia===
{{Main|Emperor of Ethiopia}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2012}}
[[File:Haile Selassie Portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Haile Selassie]], last [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] who ruled from 1930 to 1974]]
From 1270 the [[Solomonic dynasty]] of [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] used the title {{transliteration|am|Nəgusä Nägäst}}, literally "King of Kings". The use of the ''king of kings'' style began a millennium earlier in this region, however, with the title being used by the kings of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksum]], beginning with [[Sembrouthes]] in the 3rd century.

Another title used by this dynasty was {{transliteration|am|Itegue Zetopia}}. {{transliteration|am|Itegue}} translates as Empress, and was used by the only reigning empress, [[Zewditu]], along with the official title {{transliteration|am|Negiste Negest}} ("Queen of Kings").

In 1936, the Italian king [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] claimed the title of emperor after Ethiopia was occupied by Italy during the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]. After the defeat of the Italians by the British and the Ethiopians in 1941, [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]] was restored to the throne but Victor Emmanuel did not relinquish his claim until 1943, even though he had no standing to the title.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vadala|first=Alexander Attilio|date=2011-01-01|title=Elite Distinction and Regime Change: The Ethiopian Case|url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/156913311x590664|journal=Comparative Sociology|volume=10|issue=4|pages=636–653|doi=10.1163/156913311X590664|issn=1569-1330|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The current head of the Solomonic dynasty is [[Zera Yacob Amha Selassie]].

===Central African Empire===
{{Main|Emperor of Central Africa}}
In 1976, President [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] of the [[Central African Republic]], proclaimed the country to be an autocratic [[Central African Empire]], and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I. The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country. He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/headsofstatesgov00lent|title=Heads of states and governments: a worldwide encyclopedia of over 2,300 leaders, 1945 through 1992|last=Lentz|first=Harris M|date=1994-01-01|publisher=McFarland|isbn=0899509266|location=Jefferson, N.C.|language=en|url-access=registration}}</ref>

==East Asia==
{{See also|Emperor at home, king abroad}}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2015}}
[[wikt:皇帝|皇帝]] is the title of emperors in East Asia. An emperor is called ''Huángdì'' in Chinese, ''Hwangje'' in Korean, ''Hoàng đế'' in Vietnamese, and ''Kōtei'' in Japanese, but these are all just their respective pronunciations of the Chinese character 皇帝. However, the Japanese call only their emperors with the special title of ''[[Tennō]]'' (天皇).

The rulers of China and (once Westerners became aware of the role) Japan were always accepted in the West as emperors, and referred to as such. The claims of other East Asian monarchies to the title may have been accepted for diplomatic purposes, but it was not necessarily used in more general contexts.

===China===
{{Main|Emperor of China}}
The [[East Asian]] tradition is different from the Roman tradition, having arisen separately. What links them together is the use of the Chinese logographs 皇 (''huáng'') and 帝 (''dì'') which together or individually are imperial. Because of the cultural influence of China, China's neighbors adopted these titles or had their native titles conform in ''[[hanzi]]''. Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address the emperor as bìxià (陛下, lit. the "Bottom of the Steps"), corresponding to the [[Imperial Majesty (style)|Imperial Majesty]]"; shèngshàng (聖上, lit. Holy Highness); or wànsuì (万岁, lit. "You, of Ten Thousand Years").

In 221 BC, [[Qin Shi Huang|Ying Zheng]], who was [[Chinese sovereign|king]] of [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] at the time, proclaimed himself ''[[Shi Huangdi]]'' (始皇帝), which translates as "first emperor". ''Huangdi'' is composed of ''huang'' ("august one", 皇) and ''di'' ("sage-king", 帝), and referred to legendary/mythological [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|sage-emperors]] living several millennia earlier, of which three were ''huang'' and five were ''di''. Thus Ying Zheng became [[Qin Shi Huang]], abolishing the system where the ''huang''/''di'' titles were reserved to dead and/or mythological rulers. Since then, the title "king" became a lower ranked title, and later divided into two grades. Although not as popular, the title 王 ''wang'' (king or prince) was still used by many monarchs and dynasties in China up to the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taipings]] in the 19th century. 王 is pronounced ''vương'' in Vietnamese, ''ō'' in Japanese, and ''wang'' in Korean.

The imperial title continued in China until the [[Qing dynasty]] was overthrown in 1912. The title was briefly revived from 12 December 1915 to 22 March 1916 by President [[Yuan Shikai]] and again in early July 1917 when General [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]] attempted to restore last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] to the throne. Puyi retained the title and attributes of a foreign emperor, as a personal status, until 1924. After the Japanese occupied [[Manchuria]] in 1931, they proclaimed it to be the Empire of [[Manchukuo]], and Puyi became emperor of Manchukuo. This empire ceased to exist when it was occupied by the Soviet [[Red Army]] in 1945.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchukuo|title=Manchukuo {{!}} puppet state created by Japan in China [1932]|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-06-02}}</ref>

In general, an emperor would have one empress (''Huanghou'', 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for a [[concubines|concubine]] was not uncommon. The earliest known usage of ''huanghou'' was in the [[Han dynasty]]. The emperor would generally select the empress from his [[concubine]]s. In subsequent dynasties, when the distinction between wife and concubine became more accentuated, the [[crown prince]] would have chosen an empress-designate before his reign. [[Early Imperial China|Imperial China]] produced only one reigning empress, [[Wu Zetian]], and she used the same Chinese title as an emperor (''Huangdi'', 皇帝). Wu Zetian then reigned for about 15 years (AD 690–705).

Under the tributary system of China, monarchs of Korea and Vietnam sometimes called themselves ''emperor'' in their country. They introduced themselves as ''king'' for China and other countries ([[Emperor at home, king abroad]]). In Japan, [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] a [[shogun]] was granted title of ''King of Japan'' for trade by the Ming emperor. However, the Shogun was a subject of the Japanese emperor. It was contrary to rules of tributary system, but the Ming emperor connived it for the purpose of suppressing the [[Wokou]].

===Japan===
{{Main|Emperor of Japan}}
[[File:Emperor Showa.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Emperor Shōwa]], the last Japanese emperor having ruled with prerogative powers, combined with assumption of divinity (photographed 1926 on his ascendancy to the [[Chrysanthemum Throne]])]]
The earliest emperor recorded in {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Kojiki]]}} and {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Nihon Shoki]]}} is [[Emperor Jimmu]], who is said to be a descendant of [[Amaterasu]]'s grandson Ninigi who descended from Heaven ([[Tenson kōrin]]). If one believes what is written in {{Lang|ja-latn|Nihon Shoki}}, the emperors have an unbroken direct male lineage that goes back more than 2,600 years.
In ancient Japan, the earliest titles for the sovereign were either ヤマト大王/大君 (''yamato [[Okimi|ōkimi]]'', Grand King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (''waō''/''wakokuō'', King of Wa, used externally), or 治天下大王 (''amenoshita shiroshimesu [[Okimi|ōkimi]]'', Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally).

In 607, [[Empress Suiko]] sent a diplomatic document to China, which she wrote "the emperor of the land of the rising sun (日出處天子) sends a document to the emperor of the land of the setting sun (日沒處天子)" and began to use the title emperor externally.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20191225163843/https://business.nikkei.com/atcl/seminar/19/00080/093000003/ Satoshi Yabuuchi, ''時代背景から知る 仏像の秘密'', The Nikkei], 10 October 2019.</ref> As early as the 7th century, the word 天皇 (which can be read either as ''sumera no mikoto'', divine order, or as ''tennō'', Heavenly Emperor, the latter being derived from a Tang Chinese term referring to the Pole star around which all other stars revolve) began to be used. The earliest use of this term is found on a wooden slat, or ''[[mokkan]]'', unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998. The slat dated back to the reign of [[Emperor Tenmu]] and [[Empress Jitō]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180318174952/http://bunshun.jp/articles/-/6397 Masataka Kondo, ''ご存知ですか 3月2日は飛鳥池遺跡で「天皇」木簡が出土したと発表された日です''], 2 March 2018.</ref> The reading 'Tennō' has become the standard title for the Japanese sovereign up to the present age. The term 帝 (''mikado'', Emperor) is also found in literary sources.

In the Japanese language, the word ''tennō'' is restricted to Japan's own monarch; ''kōtei'' (皇帝) is usually used for foreign emperors. Historically, [[Daijō-tennō|retired emperors]] often kept power over a child-emperor as de facto regent. For a long time, a ''[[shōgun]]'' (military aristocratic class) or an [[Sesshō and Kampaku|imperial regent]] wielded actual political power.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Spafford | first1=David | title=Emperor and Shogun, Pope and King: The Development of Japan's Warrior Aristocracy | journal=Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts | date=2014 | volume=88 | issue=1–4 | pages=10–19 | doi=10.1086/DIA43493624 | url=https://doi.org/10.1086/DIA43493624 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a figurehead. The [[Meiji Restoration]] restored practical abilities and the political system under [[Emperor Meiji]].<ref>Henry Kissinger on China. 2011, p. 79.</ref> The last shogun [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]] resigned in 1868.

After World War II, all claims of divinity were dropped (see [[Ningen-sengen]]). The Diet acquired all prerogative powers of the Crown, reverting the latter to a ceremonial role.<ref>Although the Emperor of Japan is classified as constitutional monarch among political scientists, the current constitution of Japan defines him only as 'a symbol of the nation' and no subsequent legislation states his status as the [[Head of state]] or equates the Crown synonymously with any government establishment.</ref> By 1979, after the short-lived [[Central African Empire]] (1976–1979), [[Hirohito|Emperor Shōwa]] was the only monarch in the world with the title emperor.{{Failed verification|date=February 2023}}

As of the early 21st century, Japan's succession law prohibits a female from ascending the throne. With the birth of a [[Aiko, Princess Toshi|daughter]] as the first child of the then-Crown Prince [[Naruhito]], Japan [[Naruhito#Marriage and family|considered abandoning that rule]]. However, shortly after the announcement that [[Kiko, Crown Princess of Japan|Princess Kiko]] was pregnant with her third child, the proposal to alter the [[Imperial Household Law]] was suspended by then-Prime Minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]]. On 3 January 2007, as the child turned out to be a [[Prince Hisahito of Akishino|son]], Prime Minister [[Shinzō Abe]] announced that he would drop the proposal.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070103/ap_on_re_as/japan_imperial_succession| title = Japan Imperial Succession}}</ref><!-- Keep this section updated in line with the page for Emperor of Japan -->

Emperor Naruhito is the 126th monarch according to Japan's [[List of emperors of Japan|traditional order of succession]]. The second and third in line of succession are [[Fumihito, Prince Akishino]] and [[Prince Hisahito]]. Historically, Japan has had eight reigning empresses who used the genderless title ''Tennō'', rather than the female consort title ''kōgō'' (皇后) or ''chūgū'' (中宮). There is ongoing discussion of the [[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]]. <!--
Emperor's highest wife is called Kogo, and the female emperor is not called Kogo but Tenno as her male counterparts. The female emperor should be called (天皇 Ten-no) but Empress is usual in Western parlances. However, how should female emperor's husband be called? It has not been provided in Japan yet, because no female emperor was married when reigning: only single women (widows, unmarrieds) have been female emperors in history, or a wife or widow of an emperor or Crown Prince was made female Tenno (i. e., she was already Kogo or something like it).
-->Although current Japanese law prohibits female succession, all Japanese emperors claim to trace their lineage to ''[[Amaterasu]]'', the Sun Goddess of the [[Shinto|Shintō]] [[religion]]. <!-- Shintō religion does not recognize a "supreme" kami, rather, kami and humans alike are viewed equally.--> Thus, the emperor is thought to be the highest authority of the Shinto religion, and one of his duties is to perform Shinto rituals for the people of Japan.

===Korea===
{{Main|Korean imperial titles}}
[[File:복원품 순종 어진 복원모사도(1).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Emperor Sunjong]], the last emperor of Korea]]
Some rulers of [[Goguryeo]] (37 BC–AD 668) used the title of ''[[Taewang]]'' ({{Korean|태왕|太王|labels=no}}), literally translated as "Greatest King". The title of ''Taewang'' was also used by some rulers of [[Silla]] (57 BC–AD 935), including [[Beopheung of Silla|Beopheung]] and [[Jinheung of Silla|Jinheung]].

The rulers of [[Balhae]] (698–926) internally called themselves ''Seongwang'' ({{Korean|성왕|聖王 |labels=no }}; lit. "Holy King").<ref>[[:zh:s:新唐書/卷219|New Book of Tang, vol. 209]]</ref>

The rulers of [[Goryeo]] (918–1392) used the titles of emperor and ''[[Son of Heaven]] of the East of the Ocean'' ({{Korean|해동천자|海東天子|labels=no}}). Goryeo's imperial system ended in 1270 with capitulation to the [[Mongol Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Em |first1=Henry |title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea |date=2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822353720 |pages=24–26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C&pg=PA24 |access-date=3 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1897, [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]], the king of Joseon, proclaimed the founding of the [[Korean Empire]] (1897–1910), becoming the [[emperor of Korea]]. He declared the [[Korean era name|era name]] of "Gwangmu" ({{Korean|광무|光武|labels=no}}), meaning "Bright and Martial". The Korean Empire lasted until 1910, when it was annexed by the [[Empire of Japan]].

===Mongolia===
{{Main|Khagan|Emperor of Mongolia}}
[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Genghis Khan]] was the founder and first [[Great khan|Great Khan]] or Emperor of the largest land empire in history, the [[Mongol Empire]]. His reign as emperor lasted from 1206 to 1227 and he is considered by some to be the greatest conqueror of all time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weatherford|first=Jack|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWF_CwAAQBAJ|title=Genghis Khan and the Quest for God: How the World's Greatest Conqueror Gave Us Religious Freedom|date=2016-10-25|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-7352-2116-1|language=en}}</ref>]]
The ''[[Book of Wei]]'', a Chinese history book, records that the title [[Khagan]] (可汗) and the title [[Emperor of China|Huángdì]] (皇帝) are the same.<ref>[[:s:zh:魏書/卷103|Book of Wei, vol. 103]]; "「丘豆伐」猶魏言駕馭開張也，「可汗」猶魏言皇帝也。"</ref> In the 13th century, [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]] called the Mongol [[great khan]] simply ''[[imperator]]''.<ref name="malinowski1619"/>

The title [[Khagan]] ([[Khan (title)|khan]] of khans or grand khan) was held by [[Genghis Khan]], founder of the [[Mongol Empire]] in 1206; he also formally took the Chinese title [[Emperor of China|''huangdi'']], as "Genghis Emperor" ({{lang-zh |c = 成吉思皇帝 |p = Chéngjísī Huángdì |labels = no }} ). Only the Khagans from Genghis Khan to the fall of the [[Yuan dynasty]] in 1368 are normally referred to as emperors in English.

===Vietnam===
{{Main|Emperor of Vietnam}}
[[File:Emperor Bảo Đại on his throne (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Emperor [[Bao Dai]], the last emperor of Vietnam]]
[[Đại Việt|Đại Việt Kingdom]] (40–43, 544–602, 938–1407, 1427–1945) (The first ruler of [[Vietnam]] to take the title of Emperor (Hoàng Đế) was the founder of the [[Early Lý dynasty]], [[Lý Nam Đế]], in the year AD 544)

Ngô Quyền, the first ruler of [[Đại Việt]] as an independent state, used the title ''Vương'' (王, ''King''). However, after the death of Ngô Quyền, the country immersed in a civil war known as [[Anarchy of the 12 Warlords]] that lasted for over 20 years. In the end, [[Đinh Bộ Lĩnh]] unified the country after defeating all the warlords and became the first ruler of Đại Việt to use the title ''Hoàng Đế'' (皇帝, ''Emperor'') in 968. Succeeding rulers in Vietnam then continued to use this Emperor title until 1806 when this title was stopped being used for a century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dutton |first=George |date=2016 |title=From civil war to uncivil peace: The Vietnamese army and the early Nguyễn state (1802–1841) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26596471 |journal=South East Asia Research |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=167–184 |doi=10.1177/0967828X16649042 |jstor=26596471 |s2cid=148779423 |issn=0967-828X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was not the first to claim the title of ''Hoàng Đế'' (皇帝, ''Emperor''). Before him, [[Lý Bí]] and [[Mai Thúc Loan]] also claimed this title. However, their rules were short-lived.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

The Vietnamese emperors also gave this title to their ancestors who were lords or influential figures in the previous dynasty, as did the Chinese emperors. This practice was one of the many indications that Vietnam considered itself an equal to China which remained intact up to the twentieth century.<ref>{{citation|author=Tuyet Nhung Tran, Anthony J. S. Reid|title=Việt Nam Borderless Histories|year=2006|publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison, Wisconsin|isbn=978-0-299-21770-9|page=67}}</ref>

In 1802 the newly established [[Nguyễn dynasty]] requested canonization from the Chinese [[Jiaqing Emperor]] and received the title ''Quốc Vương'' (國王, ''King of a State)'' and the name of the country as ''Việt Nam'' (越南) instead ''Đại Việt'' (大越). To avoid unnecessary armed conflicts, the Vietnamese rulers accepted this in diplomatic relation and [[Emperor at home, king abroad|used the title Emperor only domestically]]. However, Vietnamese rulers never accepted the vassalage relationship with China and always refused to come to Chinese courts to pay homage to Chinese rulers (a sign of vassalage acceptance). China waged a number of wars against Vietnam throughout history, and after each failure, settled for the tributary relationship. The [[Yuan dynasty]] under [[Kublai Khan]] waged three wars against Vietnam to force it into a vassalage relationship but after successive failures, Kublai Khan's successor, [[Temür Khan]], finally settled for a tributary relationship with Vietnam. Vietnam sent tributary missions to China once in three years (with some periods of disruptions) until the 19th century, [[Sino-French War]] France replaced China in control of northern Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hurst |first=Ryan |date=2009-05-20 |title=Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970) • |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/nigerian-civil-war-1967-1970/ |access-date=2023-06-08 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The emperors of the last dynasty of Vietnam continued to hold this title until the French conquered Vietnam. The emperor, however, was then a puppet figure only and could easily be disposed of by the French for more pro-France figure. Japan took Vietnam from France and the [[Axis powers|Axis]]-occupied Vietnam was declared an [[Empire of Vietnam|empire]] by the Japanese in March 1945. The line of emperors came to an end with [[Bảo Đại]], who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state of [[South Vietnam]] from 1949 to 1955.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vietnam: A Television History; America's Mandarin (1954–1963); Interview with Ngo Dinh Luyen|url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_FF5BADFE44A0417BAA2F1F9C6F206209|access-date=2020-11-27|website=openvault.wgbh.org|date=31 January 1979 }}</ref>

== Religion ==
=== Christianity ===
{{Main|Pontifex maximus}}

[[Pope]]s bear the title ''[[Pontifex maximus]]'', which was one of the titles of the Roman emperors, so [[Guglielmo Ferrero]] said that the Pope is a direct successor to the Roman Emperor.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ferrero |first=Guglielmo |author-link=Guglielmo Ferrero |year=1911 |title=Pontifex Maximus |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1911/07/pontifex-maximus/644161/ |access-date=2025-04-02 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en |issn=2151-9463}}</ref>

In East Asia, China, Japan, and South Korea, the title Pope is translated as [[wikt:教皇|教皇]], literally "emperor of the religion".<ref>{{cite news |title=[깨알지식 Q] 아버지 뜻하는 '포프', 왜 교황이라 부를까 |url = https://www.chosun.com/international/international_general/2025/03/04/SJCZAL2WGFDYLEBHLHDOP4A4PQ/ |date = 2025-03-04 |newspaper = [[조선일보]] |accessdate = 2025-04-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=教皇フランシスコ、今夕来日 呼称を「法王」から「教皇」へと政府が変更し、一般メディアも追随|newspaper=クリスチャンプレス|date=2019-11-23|url=https://www.christianpress.jp/pope-francis-visit-japan-this-evening-government-changes-name-from-houou-to-kyoukou/|accessdate=2025-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=罗马教皇祝贺中国新年：中国一直是伟大的国家 |url = http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2016/0203/c1002-28107474.html |date = 2016-02-03 |newspaper = 人民网 |accessdate = 2025-04-01 }}</ref>

=== Islam ===
{{Main|Khalifa|List of caliphs|List of Abbasid caliphs}}

In the [[Islamosphere]], ''[[Khalifa]]'' appears as the equivalent of emperor. During the [[Crusades]], Abbasid khalifa came to be referred to as the "emperor".<ref name="malinowski1619"/>

=== Buddhism and Hinduism ===
{{Main|Chakravartin|Emperor Manjushri}}

Some Buddhist or Hindu monarchs of East and Southeast Asia called Chakravarti were:
* The Wheel-Turning King (Chakravarti) was used by some Chinese monarchs, such as [[Emperor Wu of Liang]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Andy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7INLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 |pages=183 |title=Tracking Bodhidharma: A Journey to the Heart of Chinese Culture |date=2013-06-11 |publisher=Catapult |isbn=978-1-61902-159-4 |language=en}}</ref> etc.
** The Cakravartin of the Golden Wheel was used by some Chinese monarchs, such as [[Wu Zetian]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rothschild |first=N. Harry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHmpBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 |page=200|title=Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers |date=2015-06-16 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-53918-0 |language=en}}</ref> etc.
** The title [[Emperor Manjushri]], related to the wheel-turning king (Chakravarti), was given to the Chinese [[Qing emperors]] in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
* The Wheel-Turning King (Chakravarti) was used by some Mongolian monarchs, such as [[Altan Khan]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perdue |first=Peter C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA487 |page=487|title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia |date=2009-06-30 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04202-5 |language=en}}</ref> etc.
* The Wheel-Turning Sacred King (Chakravarti) was used by some Korean monarchs, such as [[Jinheung of Silla]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=진흥왕(眞興王) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0055013 |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref> etc.
** The Cakravartin of the Golden Wheel was used by some Korean monarchs, such as [[Mun of Balhae]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=문왕(文王) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0019602 |access-date=2025-06-03 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref> etc.
* The Cakravartin of the Golden Wheel (金輪聖王) was used by some Japanese monarchs, such as [[Emperor Go-Daigo]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conlan |first=Thomas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m34p1f93HogC&pg=PA90 |page=90 |title=From Sovereign to Symbol: An Age of Ritual Determinism in Fourteenth Century Japan |date=2011-11-10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-977810-2 |language=en}}</ref> etc.
* The Chakkraphat (Chakravarti) was used by some [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Siamese]] monarchs, such as [[Maha Chakkraphat]], etc.
* The Cakkavatti (Chakravarti) was used by some [[First Toungoo Empire|Burmese]] monarchs, such as [[Bayinnaung]], etc.
* The Chakkaphat (Chakravarti) was used by some Lao monarchs, such as [[Chakkaphat Phaen Phaeo]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |first=John Clifford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dl8EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |page=29|title=Theravada Traditions: Buddhist Ritual Cultures in Contemporary Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka |date=2017-03-31 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-7245-8 |language=en}}</ref> etc.
* The Chakravartin was used by some Khmer monarchs, such as [[Jayavarman II]],<ref>{{Cite book |author-last=Coedès |author-first=George |author-link=George Coedès|editor-first=Walter F. |editor-last=Vella|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC&pg=PA100 |page=100|title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1 |language=en}}</ref> etc.
* The Chakravartin was used by some Javanese monarchs, such as [[Airlangga]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC&pg=PA149 |pages=148–149|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 |date=2010-12-28 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC |isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7 |language=en}}</ref> etc.

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Auctoritas}}
* {{annotated link|Lists of emperors}}
* {{annotated link|Tlatoani}}
* {{annotated link|Emperor Norton}}

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle = Emperor |volume= VIII |last= Bryce |first= James, 1st Viscount |author-link= James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce| pages=179-180 |short=1 }}
* Fine, J. V. A. Jr., ''The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest'', Ann Arbor, 1987.
* Kaimakamova, M., "Turnovo – New Constantinople: The Third Rome in the Fourteench-Century Bulgarian Translation of Constantine Manasses' Synopsis Chronike," ''The Medieval Chronicle'' 4 (2006) 91–104. [https://brill.com/display/book/9789401203500/B9789401203500_s008.xml?language=en online]
* Mladjov, I. S. R., "Between Byzantium and Rome: Bulgaria in the aftermath of the Photian Schism," ''Byzantine Studies/Études Byzantines'' 4 (n.s.) (1999) 173–181. [https://www.academia.edu/5629764/I_Mladjov_Between_Byzantium_and_Rome_Bulgaria_and_the_West_in_the_Aftermath_of_the_Photian_Schism_Byzantine_Studies_Etudes_Byzantines_4_1999_ online]
* Mladjov, I. S. R., "The Crown and the Veil: Titles, Spiritual Kinship, and Diplomacy in Tenth-Century Bulgaro-Byzantine Relations," ''History Compass'' 13 (2015) 171–183. [https://www.academia.edu/12165815/I_Mladjov_The_Crown_and_the_Veil_Titles_Spiritual_Kinship_and_Diplomacy_in_Tenth_Century_Bulgaro_Byzantine_Relations_History_Compass_13_2015_171_183 online]
* Petkov, K., ''The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century'', Leiden, 2008.
* Prinzing, G., "Der Brief Kaiser Heinrichs von Konstantinopel vom 13. Januar 1212," ''Byzantion'' 43 (1973) 395–431. [https://archive.org/details/byzantion-06-1931/Byzantion-43-%281973%29/page/422/mode/2up online]

==External links==
{{commons category|Emperors}}
* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1MQkH5e5oj3aWw0vsgA07DQUFbdqv8tn9/view?usp=sharing Ian Mladjov's site at University of Michigan]
**[https://archive.today/20121215110224/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/monarchs__chronology_and_genealogy Monarchs (chronology and genealogy)]
**[https://archive.today/20121212073215/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/addenda Monarchs (more genealogy)]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Emperors| ]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Imperial titles]]
[[Category:Gendered occupations]]