View source for Employment

{{Short description|Relationship between employee and employer}}
{{Redirect|Day job|the album by Gord Bamford|Day Job|the album by Surburban Legends|Day Job (Suburban Legends album)}}
'''Employment''' is a relationship between two [[party (law)|parties]] [[Regulation|regulating]] the provision of paid [[Labour (human activity)|labour]] services.  Usually based on a [[employment contract|contract]], one party, the employer, which might be a [[corporation]], a [[not-for-profit organization]], a [[co-operative]], or any other entity, pays the other, the employee, in return for carrying out assigned work.<ref name=":2" /> Employees work in return for [[wage]]s, which can be paid on the basis of an hourly rate, by [[piecework]] or an annual [[salary]], depending on the type of work an employee does, the prevailing conditions of the sector and the [[bargaining power]] between the parties. Employees in some sectors may receive [[gratuity|gratuities]], [[bonus payment]]s or [[employee stock option|stock option]]s. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits may include [[health insurance]], [[housing]], and [[disability insurance]]. Employment is typically governed by [[Labour law|employment laws]], organization or legal contracts.

== {{anchor|Employee}} Employees and employers ==
{{Distinguish|Supervisor}}
{{Further|List of largest employers|List of professions|Tradesman}}
An '''employee''' contributes labour and expertise to an endeavor of an '''employer''' or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCB)<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Archer| first1 = Richard| last2 = Borthwick| first2 = Kerry| last3 = Travers| first3 = Michelle| last4 = Ruschena| first4 = Leo| title = WHS: A Management Guide| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cQapBQAAQBAJ| edition = 4th| publisher = Cengage Learning Australia| date = 2017| pages = 30–31| isbn = 978-0170270793| access-date = 2016-03-30| quote = The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.}}</ref> and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a [[job (role)|job]]. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a [[company]] on a regular basis in exchange for [[Financial compensation|compensation]] and who does not provide these services as part of an [[independent business]].<ref name=":3" />

Employers include individuals who engage businesses or [[self-employed]] persons for trade work as well as businesses who may have significant numbers of employees. Some states require employers to make contributions towards [[social security]] and [[pension#Employment-based pensions|pension]] schemes.<ref>[[UK Government]], [https://www.gov.uk/national-insurance-rates-letters National Insurance rates and categories], accessed on 13 June 2025</ref> Employing other people is often a significant step for a self-employed person whose work is developing into a [[small business]].<ref>UK Government, [https://www.gov.uk/get-ready-to-employ-someone Get your business ready to employ staff: step by step], accessed on 13 June 2025</ref>

===Independent contractor===
{{About|the classification in general|3=Independent contractor (disambiguation)|section=yes}}
An issue that arises in most companies, especially the ones that are in the [[gig economy]], is the classification of workers. A lot of workers that fulfill gigs are often hired as ''independent contractors''.

To categorize a worker as an independent contractor rather than an employee, an independent contractor must agree with the client on what the finished work product will be and then the contractor controls the means and manner of achieving the desired outcome. Secondly, an independent contractor offers services to the public at large, not just to one business, and is responsible for disbursing payments from the client, paying unreimbursed expenses, and providing their own tools to complete the job. Third, the relationship of the parties is often evidenced by a written agreement that specifies that the worker is an independent contractor and is not entitled to employee benefits; the services provided by the worker are not key to the business; and the relationship is not permanent.<ref name="author">{{Cite book |last=Bagley|first=Constance E|title=The entrepreneur's guide to law and strategy |year= 2017 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1285428499 |oclc=953710378}}</ref>

As a general principle of employment law, in the United States, there is a difference between an agent and an independent contractor. The default status of a worker is an employee unless specific guidelines are met, which can be determined by the ABC test.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ABC test |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/abc_test |access-date=2022-10-06 |website=[[Legal Information Institute]] (LII)}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Dynamex Operations West, Inc. v. Superior Court|date=April 30, 2018|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/berkjemp40&div=11|url-access=limited|volume=4|page=903|access-date=March 30, 2020}}</ref> Thus, clarifying whether someone who performs work is an independent contractor or an employee from the beginning, and treating them accordingly, can save a company from trouble later on.

Provided key circumstances, including ones such as that the worker is paid regularly, follows set hours of work, is supplied with tools from the employer, is closely monitored by the employer, acting on behalf of the employer, only works for one employer at a time, they are considered an employee,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://corporate.findlaw.com/human-resources/overview-of-independent-contractor-guidelines.html|title=Overview of Independent Contractor Guidelines|website=Findlaw|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref> and the employer will generally be liable for their actions and be obliged to give them benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://corporate.findlaw.com/human-resources/employer-liability-for-employee-conduct.html|title=Employer Liability for Employee Conduct|website=Findlaw|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref> Similarly, the employer is the owner of any invention created by an employee "hired to invent", even in the absence of an assignment of inventions. In contrast, a company commissioning a work by an independent contractor will not own the copyright unless the company secures either a written contract stating that it is a "work made for hire" or a written assignment of the copyright. In order to stay protected and avoid lawsuits, an employer has to be aware of that distinction.<ref name="author"/>

== Employer–worker relationship ==
Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.

===Labor acquisition / hiring===
{{Further|Application for employment}}
The main ways for [[employer]]s to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via [[classified advertising]]) and online, also called [[job board]]s. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional [[recruitment consultant]]s which receive a [[commission (remuneration)|commission]] from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|url=http://www.forecastingprinciples.com/paperpdf/Predicting%20job%20performance.pdf|title=Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings|last1=Dakin|first1=Stephen|last2=Armstrong|first2=J. Scott|journal=International Journal of Forecasting|volume=5 |issue=2|pages=187–94|year=1989|doi=10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1|s2cid=14567834}}</ref> A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" [[sign]] in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door<ref>{{cite report|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJgyAQAAMAAJ&q=%22help+wanted%22+sign |title=Report to the Legislature of the State of New York by the Commission appointed under Chapter 518 of the laws of 1909 to inquire into the question of employers' liability and other matters|author=Wainwright,J. Mayhew|author-link=J. Mayhew Wainwright|pages=11,50,144|year=1910|publisher=J. B. Lyon Company}}</ref> or placed on a store counter).<ref name=":3">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91V6_EEO9XoC&pg=PA74|title=Intro to Business |author=Ristau, Robert A.|page=74|year=2010|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn= 978-0538740661}}</ref>  Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skills to measure their talents within the field can be best through [[Industrial & Organizational Assessment|assessments]].  Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of a [[job interview]].

===Training and development===
[[File:Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02.jpg|thumb|Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02]]
[[Training and development]] refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with the necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization.  An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's [[job satisfaction]].<ref name=":4" />

===Remuneration===
There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by [[piecework]], by yearly [[salary]], or by [[gratuity|gratuities]] (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a [[commission (remuneration)|commission]], a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (''e.g.'', executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in [[share capital|shares]] or [[employee stock option|stock options]], a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.

Under the [[faithless servant]] doctrine, a [[Legal doctrine|doctrine]] under the laws of a number of states in the United States, and most notably [[Law of New York (state)|New York State law]], an employee who acts unfaithfully towards his employer must forfeit all of the compensation he received during the period of his disloyalty.<ref name="auto6">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RaGDwAAQBAJ&q=%22faithless+servant%22&pg=PA472|title=Employment Law: Private Ordering and Its Limitations|first1=Timothy P.|last1=Glynn|first2=Rachel S.|last2=Arnow-Richman|first3=Charles A.|last3=Sullivan|date= 2019|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Law & Business|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1543801064}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VdCAQAAIAAJ&q=%22faithless+servant%22|title=Annual Institute on Employment Law|volume=2|date= 2004|publisher=Practising Law Institute|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bD0pAQAAMAAJ&q=%22faithless+servant%22+-bible+-england+-jesus+-lord+-testament|title=New York Jurisprudence 2d|volume=52|date=2009|publisher=West Group|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-BZAAAAYAAJ&q=%22faithless+servant%22+-bible+-england+-jesus+-lord+-testament|title=Labor Cases|volume=158|date= 2009|publisher=Commerce Clearing House.|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="auto5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/18/us/met-opera-sues-conductor/index.html|title=Met Opera sues former conductor for $5.8 million over sexual misconduct allegations|author=Kaufman, Ellie|date=May 19, 2018|website=CNN}}</ref>

===Employee benefits===
{{main|Employee benefits}}
Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries.  The benefits can include:  housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals.  Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.<ref name=":5" />

=== Organizational justice ===
{{main|Organizational justice}}
Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice.  The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.<ref name=":5" />

=== Workforce organizing ===
Employees can organize into trade or [[labor union]]s, which represent the workforce to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.<ref name=":6" />

=== Ending employment ===
{{main|Termination of employment}}
Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as [[at-will employment]]. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, [[severance pay]], and security measures.<ref name=":6" /> A contract forbidding an employee from leaving their employment, under penalty of a [[surety bond]], is referred to as an [[employment bond]]. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have [[tenure]], which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a [[layoff]].

==Wage labor==
{{main|Wage labor}}
[[File:Rebar worker.jpg|thumb|Worker assembling [[rebar]] for a water treatment plant in [[Mazatlan]], [[Sinaloa]], [[Mexico]]]]

Wage labor is the [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] relationship between a [[Workforce|worker]] and an employer, where the worker sells their [[Labour economics|labor]] under a formal or informal employment [[contract]]. These transactions usually occur in a [[labor market]] where [[wage]]s are market-determined.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|title =The Law of the Labour Market|last1 = Deakin|first1 = Simon|last2= Wilkinson|first2= Frank|publisher =Oxford University Press|date = 2005|url = http://moglen.law.columbia.edu/twiki/pub/EngLegalHist/StatuteLaborers/Davies_et_al.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book|chapter = Chapter 2|chapter-url = http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/ch02.htm
 |last= Marx |first= Karl |author-link= Karl Marx |year= 1847
 |title= Wage Labour and Capital
 |url= http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/
 }}</ref> In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the [[work for hire|undifferentiated property]] of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of [[intellectual property]] patents in the United States where [[patent#Ownership|patent rights]] are [[freelancer|usually]] vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.<ref name=":6" />

In modern mixed economies such as that of the [[OECD]] [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development#Current members|countries]], it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of  [[Chief executive officer|CEOs]], professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with [[working class|class assignments]], so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or [[manual labour|manual labor]].<ref name="Geoffrey Ostergaard p. 133" />

===Wage slavery===
{{Main|Wage slavery}}
{{See also|Exploitation of labour|Unreported employment}}
Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,<ref name=":6">{{Harvnb|Ellerman|1992}}.</ref> especially by [[Socialism|socialists]],<ref name="Geoffrey Ostergaard p. 133">{{Harvnb|Ostergaard|1997|p=133}}.</ref><ref name="English Working Class p. 599">{{Harvnb|Thompson|1966|p=599}}.</ref><ref name="English Working Class p. 912">{{Harvnb|Thompson|1966|p=912}}.</ref><ref name="Shop Floor p. 37">{{cite book|last=Lazonick|first=William|author-link= William Lazonick|year=1990|title=Competitive Advantage on the Shop Floor|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0674154162|url=https://archive.org/details/competitiveadvan0000lazo|page = 37}}</ref> using the [[pejorative]] term [[wage slavery]].<ref name="merriam-webster.com">{{cite web |title= wage slave |url= http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wage%20slave |publisher= [[Merriam Webster|merriam-webster.com]] |access-date= 4 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Dictionary.com|wage slave}}</ref> Socialists draw parallels between the trade of [[Wage labour|labor]] as a commodity and [[slavery]]. [[Cicero]] is also known to have suggested such parallels.<ref>"...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – [[De Officiis]] [http://www.constitution.org/rom/de_officiis.htm]</ref>

The American philosopher [[John Dewey]] posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "[[industrial democracy]]", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".<ref>"As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163</ref> [[Thomas Ferguson (academic)|Thomas Ferguson]] has postulated in his [[investment theory of party competition]] that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state plus cities.<ref name=":7">{{Harvnb|Ferguson|1995}}.</ref>

American business theorist [[Jeffrey Pfeffer]] posits that contemporary employment practices and employer commonalities in the United States, including toxic working environments, job insecurity, long hours and increased performance pressure from management, are responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pfeffer|first=Jeffrey|date=2018 |title=Dying for a Paycheck: How Modern Management Harms Employee Health and Company Performance – and What We Can Do About It|publisher=HarperBusiness|page=38 |isbn=978-0062800923|author-link=Jeffrey Pfeffer}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= McGregor|first=Jena|date=March 22, 2018|title=This professor says the workplace is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2018/03/22/this-professor-says-the-workplace-is-the-fifth-leading-cause-of-death-in-the-u-s/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=June 7, 2023}}</ref>

==Employment contract==
{{main|Employment contract}}<!-- Please A-Z -->

===Australia===
Australian employment has been governed by the [[Fair Work Act]] since 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/03/19/2193974.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429055842/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/03/19/2193974.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 29, 2008 |title=House of Reps seals 'death' of WorkChoices  |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=2008-03-19 |access-date=2014-02-15}}</ref>

===Bangladesh===
Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies ([[BAIRA]]) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.<ref name="Geoffrey Ostergaard p. 133" />

===Canada===
In the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] of [[Ontario]], formal complaints can be brought to the [[Ministry of Labour (Ontario)|Ministry of Labour]]. In the province of [[Quebec]], grievances can be filed with the [https://web.archive.org/web/20061011030434/http://www.cnt.gouv.qc.ca/en/index.asp Commission des normes du travail].<ref name="Shop Floor p. 37" />

=== Germany ===
Two of the prominent examples of work and employment contracts in Germany are the '''Werksvertrag'''<ref>{{Citation|last1=Gross|first1=Willi|title=Werkvertrag|date=1990|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-322-99402-8_13|work=Bürgerliches Recht 3: Fall · Systematik · Lösung · Schuldrecht · Besonderer Teil. Kauf und Tausch · Schenkung · Miete und Pacht · Leihe · Verwahrung · Darlehen · Bürgschaft · Dienst- und Werkvertrag|pages=127–135|editor-last=Gross|editor-first=Willi|place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Gabler Verlag|language=de|doi=10.1007/978-3-322-99402-8_13|isbn=978-3322994028|access-date=2021-04-11|last2=Söhnlein|first2=Walter|editor2-last=Söhnlein|editor2-first=Walter|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=§ 631 BGB – Einzelnorm|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb/__631.html|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref> or the '''Arbeitsvertrag''',<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2006|title=Arbeitsrecht|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/3-540-32544-1|journal=Recht – Schnell Erfasst|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/3-540-32544-1|isbn=3540325417|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Kollegen anstellen: Was beim Arbeitsvertrag zu beachten ist!|journal=Uro-News|year = 2017|language=de|doi=10.1007/s00092-017-1358-0|last1 = Höhl|first1 = Rebekka|volume = 21|page = 45|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=§ 611a BGB – Einzelnorm|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb/__611a.html|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Links zu Musterverträgen|url=http://www.frankfurt-main.ihk.de/recht/mustervertrag/|access-date=2021-04-11|website=IHK Frankfurt am Main|language=de}}</ref> which is a form of Dienstleistungsvertrag (service-oriented contract). An Arbeitsvertrag can also be temporary,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arbeitsvertrag (Befristet)|url=http://www.frankfurt-main.ihk.de/recht/mustervertrag/arbeitsvertrag_befristet/|access-date=2021-04-11|website=IHK Frankfurt am Main|language=de}}</ref> whereas a temporary worker is working under '''Zeitarbeit'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zeitarbeit: Infos und Stellen {{!}} Bundesagentur für Arbeit |url=https://www.arbeitsagentur.de/arbeitslos-arbeit-finden/zeitarbeit |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=www.arbeitsagentur.de}}</ref> or '''Leiharbeit'''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zeitarbeit = Leiharbeit: häufige Fragen – Bundesagentur für Arbeit|url=https://www.arbeitsagentur.de/arbeitslos-arbeit-finden/zeitarbeit|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.arbeitsagentur.de}}</ref> Another employment setting is '''Arbeitnehmerüberlassung''' (ANÜ).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Auer|first1=M.|last2=Egglmeier-Schmolke|first2=B.|date=2009-10-01|title=Arbeitnehmerüberlassung aus Deutschland im Bereich des Baugewerbes|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00738-009-0718-x|journal=Baurechtliche Blätter|language=de|volume=12|issue=5|pages=199|doi=10.1007/s00738-009-0718-x|s2cid=176538819|issn=1613-7612|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Stieglmeier|first=Jacqueline|title=Internationales Arbeitsrecht|date=2005|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27450-2_24|work=Handbuch des internationalen und ausländischen Baurechts|pages=361–368|editor-last=Hök|editor-first=Götz-Sebastian|place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer|language=de|doi=10.1007/3-540-27450-2_24|isbn=978-3540274506|access-date=2021-04-11|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=AÜG – nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/a_g/|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref>

===India===
[[India]] has options for a fixed term contract or a permanent contract. Both contracts are entitled to minimum wages, fixed working hours and social security contributions.<ref name="Shop Floor p. 37" />

===Pakistan===
[[Pakistan]] has no contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.<ref name="Geoffrey Ostergaard p. 133" />

===Philippines===
In the [[Philippines]], employment is regulated by the [[Department of Labor and Employment (Philippines)|Department of Labor and Employment]].<ref name=":8" />

===Sweden===
According to Swedish law,<ref>Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)</ref> there are three types of employment.
* Test employment (Swedish: ''Provanställning''), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and in employee combination. Usually, a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.<ref name="ODI2" />
* Time limited employment (Swedish: ''Tidsbegränsad anställning''). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually, they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
* Normal employment (Swedish: ''Tillsvidareanställning'' / ''Fast anställning''), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: '''personal reason''', immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or '''lack of work tasks''' (Swedish: ''Arbetsbrist''), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.<ref name="ODI2" />
There are no laws about [[minimum wage|minimum salary]] in Sweden. Instead, there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.

There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (Swedish: ''Timanställning''), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.<ref name="ODI2" />

===United Kingdom===
[[File:Callcentreterminal.JPG|thumb|200px|A [[call centre]] worker confined to a small workstation/booth]]
In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorized by the government into the following types:<ref>{{cite web|title=Contract types and employer responsibilities|url=https://www.gov.uk/contract-types-and-employer-responsibilities|publisher=gov.uk|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>
* [[Fixed-term contract]]: last for a certain length of time, are set in advance, end when a specific task is completed, ends when a specific event takes place.
* [[Full-time job|Full-time]] or [[part-time contract]]: has no defined length of time, can be terminated by either party, is to accomplish a specific task, specified number of hours.<ref name=":8" />
* Agency staff
* [[Freelancer]]s, [[Consultant]]s and [[Independent contractor|Contractors]]
* [[Zero-hour contract]]s

===United States===
[[File:EmploymentUSbranchFredgr.png|thumb|All employees, private industries, by branches]]
For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the [[Internal Revenue Code]]:
[[File:Government employment as % of total employment in EU.jpg|thumb|Government employment as % of total employment in EU]]
"For purposes of this chapter, the term "employee" includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term "employee" also includes an officer of a corporation."<ref>26 U.S.C. § 3401(c)</ref> This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. "Similarly, Latham's instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of 'employee' does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word 'includes' is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others."<ref>''United States v. Latham'', 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).</ref>

Employees are often contrasted with [[Independent contracting in the United States|independent contractors]], especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, [[workers compensation]], and [[unemployment insurance]] benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of ''Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc.'' ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|discrimination laws]] if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.<ref name=":8">{{cite web |title=Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc., No. 08-2713 (3d Cir. Sept. 11, 2009) |url=http://www.employmentlawblog.info/2009/09/brown-v-j-kaz-inc-no-08-2713-3d-cir-sept-11-2009.shtml |access-date=2010-01-23 |archive-date=2012-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323132913/http://www.employmentlawblog.info/2009/09/brown-v-j-kaz-inc-no-08-2713-3d-cir-sept-11-2009.shtml |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the [[United States Department of Labor]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Termination|url=http://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/termination/index.htm|publisher=[[United States Department of Labor]]|access-date=27 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927160835/https://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/termination/index.htm|archive-date=27 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States.  Their activity today centers on [[collective bargaining]] over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.<ref name=":8" />

Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the [[AFL–CIO]] created in 1955, and the [[Change to Win Federation]] which split from the AFL–CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL–CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.<ref name=":7" />

==Age-related issues==

=== Younger age workers ===
{{Main|Young worker safety and health}}
[[File:US youth employment rate, both genders.png|thumb|Youth employment rate in the [[United States|US]], i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total [[Labor force in the United States|labor force]] (15–24Y)<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.bluenomics.com/data#!data/labour_market/employment/employment_rate_15_24y_/employment_rate_15_24y_annual_both_genders_in_%7Cchart/line$countries=usa&sorting=list//title | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117072912/http://www.bluenomics.com/data#!data/labour_market/employment/employment_rate_15_24y_/employment_rate_15_24y_annual_both_genders_in_%7Cchart/line$countries=usa&sorting=list//title | url-status=dead | archive-date=2014-11-17 | title=Bluenomics}}</ref>]]

Young workers are at higher risk for [[occupational injury]] and face certain [[occupational hazard]]s at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title =  Young Worker Safety and Health  |publisher= CDC NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/youth/|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-06-15}}</ref> These workers are also at higher risk for [[motor vehicle accidents]] at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seat belts, and higher rates of distracted driving.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2013-152/pdfs/2013-152.pdf|title = Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers|date = September 2013|website = NIOSH Publication 2013-152|publisher = NIOSH}}</ref> To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.<ref name=":1" />

High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2013-153/pdfs/2013-153.pdf|title = Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes|date = September 2013|work = NIOSH Publication 2013-153|publisher = NIOSH}}</ref> In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]].<ref name=":1" />

Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.<ref>Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891</ref>

In the conversation of employment among younger aged workers, youth unemployment has also been monitored. [[Youth unemployment]] rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in every country in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pastore |first=Francesco |date=2018-01-23 |title=Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries? |url=https://wol.iza.org/articles/why-is-youth-unemployment-so-high-and-different-across-countries/long |journal=IZA World of Labor |language=en-US |doi=10.15185/izawol.420|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Older age workers ===
Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/741559|title = When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?|date = May 3, 2011|website = NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health|publisher = Medscape and NIOSH|last = Chosewood|first = L. Casey}}</ref> Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination|date = February 20, 2016|journal = Journal of Economic Psychology|last = Baert|first = Stijn|doi=10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002|volume=57|pages=86–101|hdl = 10419/114164|s2cid = 38265879| url=https://repository.uantwerpen.be/docman/irua/c9497a/139958_2019_12_01.pdf |hdl-access = free}}</ref>

==Working poor==
[[File:Worker, Dhaka, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|A worker in [[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]]]]
Employment is no guarantee of escaping [[poverty]], the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day [[poverty line]].<ref name="ODI2">Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5752&title=jobs-growth-poverty-employment Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520045610/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5752&title=jobs-growth-poverty-employment |date=May 20, 2011 }} London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> For instance, in [[India]] most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.<ref name=ODI2/> According to the [[UNRISD]], increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.<ref name=ODI2/> Both increased employment opportunities and increased [[Workforce productivity|labor productivity]] (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.<ref name=ODI2/> This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in [[East Asia]], but the negative impact is beginning to show.<ref name=ODI2/> In [[Vietnam]], for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.<ref name=ODI2/> Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the [[United States]], where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.<ref name=ODI2/> [[Oxfam]] and social scientist [[Mark Robert Rank]] have argued that the economy of the United States is failing to provide jobs that can adequately support families.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfamamerica.org/explore/research-publications/where-hard-work-doesnt-pay-off/|title=Where hard work doesn't pay off: An index of US labor policies compared to peer nations|last=Henderson|first= Kaitlyn |date=May 3, 2023 |website= |publisher=[[Oxfam]] |access-date=February 18, 2024|quote=The US is falling drastically behind similar countries in mandating adequate wages, protections, and rights for millions of workers and their families. The wealthiest country in the world is near the bottom of every dimension of this index.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rank|first=Mark Robert |author-link=Mark Robert Rank|date=2023|title=The Poverty Paradox: Understanding Economic Hardship Amid American Prosperity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGewEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|location= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=4, 121 |isbn= 978-0190212636|quote=The tendency of our free market economy has been to produce a growing number of jobs that will no longer support a family. In addition, the basic nature of capitalism ensures that unemployment exists at modest levels. Both of these directly result in a shortage of economic opportunities in American society. In addition, the absence of social supports stems from failings at the political and policy levels. The United States has traditionally lacked the political desire to put in place effective policies and programs that would support the economically vulnerable. Structural failing at the economic and political levels have therefore produced a lack of opportunities and supports, resulting in high rates of American poverty.}}</ref> According to sociologist [[Matthew Desmond]], the US "offers some of the lowest wages in the industrialized world," which has "swelled the ranks of the working poor, most of whom are thirty-five or older."<ref>{{cite book |last=Desmond|first=Matthew |author-link=Matthew Desmond|date=2023 |title=[[Poverty, by America]]|url= |location= |publisher=Crown Publishing Group|page=62 |isbn=978-0593239919}}</ref>

Researchers at the [[Overseas Development Institute]] argue that there are differences across [[economic sector]]s in creating employment that reduces poverty.<ref name=ODI2/> 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing [[unemployment]], such as [[manufacturing]].<ref name=ODI2/> The [[services sector]] is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. [[Agriculture]] provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.<ref name=ODI2/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=5|Growth, employment and poverty<ref name=ODI2/>
|-
|  || Number of <br />episodes || Rising <br />agricultural <br />employment || Rising<br /> industrial <br />employment || Rising <br />services <br />employment
|-
| Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates || {{center|18}} || {{center|6}} || {{center|10}} || {{center|15}}
|-
| Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates || {{center|6}} || {{center|2}} || {{center|3}} || {{center|1}}
|}

==Models of the employment relationship==
Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.<ref>Kaufman, Bruce E. (2004) ''Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship'', Industrial Relations Research Association.</ref> A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.<ref>Fox, Alan (1974) ''Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations'', Farber and Farber.</ref> In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In [[human resource management]] theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label "unitarism"). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label "pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and [[working classes]] in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:<ref>Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in ''Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations'', Sage.</ref>

# Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
# [[Human resource management]] (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
# [[Industrial relations|Pluralist industrial relations]]: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets<ref name="ODI2" />
# Critical [[industrial relations]]: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.

These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.<ref>Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) ''Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus'', Stanford University Press.</ref> For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers' interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.<ref>Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in ''Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management'', Sage.</ref>

==Academic literature==
Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.<ref name="partnerplatform.org">Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4</ref>

Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.<ref name="ODI2" /> The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles, however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In [[agri-business]] and [[food processing]], they found impact growth to be positive.<ref name="partnerplatform.org"/>

They found that most available literature focuses on [[OECD]] and [[middle-income countries]] somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in [[Least developed country|LDCs]] despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.<ref name="partnerplatform.org"/>

Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blattman|first1=Christopher|last2=Annan|first2=Jeannie|date=2016-02-01|title=Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/div-classtitlecan-employment-reduce-lawlessness-and-rebellion-a-field-experiment-with-high-risk-men-in-a-fragile-statediv/BAD0B309BD8AB92BBCEB7CAD6E999213|journal=American Political Science Review|volume=110|issue=1|pages=1–17|doi=10.1017/S0003055415000520|s2cid=229170512|issn=0003-0554|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Globalization and employment relations ==
The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of [[industrial relations|employment relations]].<ref name=":9">Budd, John W. (2004) ''Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice'', Cornell University Press.</ref> By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.<ref name=":9" />

[[Globalization]] has affected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:

# International competition, from the [[newly industrialized countries]], will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.<ref name=":9" />
# Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
# Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a "race to the bottom". Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.<ref name=":9" />
# Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.

What also results from Lee's (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving [[workforce]], and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).<ref name=":9" />

==Alternatives==

===Subcultures===
Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the [[hippie]] subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the [[punk subculture]].

===Post-secondary education===
One of the alternatives to work is engaging in post-secondary education at a [[college]], [[university]] or [[professional school]]. One of the major costs of obtaining a post-secondary education is the [[opportunity cost]] of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get post-secondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.

===Social assistance===
In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive [[social assistance]] support (e.g., [[welfare spending|welfare]] or [[Food Stamp Program|food stamps]]) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.

===Volunteerism===
Workers who are not paid wages, such as [[Volunteering|volunteers]] who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an [[internship]], an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.<ref name=":10">{{cite news |last=Rayasam|first=Renuka|title=Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business|url=http://money.usnews.com/money/careers/articles/2008/04/24/why-workplace-democracy-can-be-good-business.html|access-date=16 August 2010|newspaper=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=24 April 2008}}</ref>

===Indentured servitude and slavery===
Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as [[indentured servant]]s, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as [[slavery|slaves]], do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians{{which|date=September 2018}} suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with [[human rights]] or with [[democracy]].<ref name=":10" />

== Self-employment ==
{{excerpt |Self-employment |only=paragraphs}}

==Local employment==
Local employment initiatives aim to ensure that residents of the area adjacent to an employers' premises are offered employment there. Local jobs initiatives are common in a [[construction]] context.<ref>[[Joseph Rowntree Foundation]], [https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/migrated/migrated/files/n80.pdf Local labour in construction: tackling social exclusion and skill shortages], published November 2000, accessed 17 February 2024</ref> In retail, the [[Westfield London|Westfield Centre]] in [[west London]], which opened in 2008, has been noted as an example offering employment to local residents: during the period when the centre was under construction, up to 3000 local people received pre-employment training through a partnership scheme aiming to ensure that a significant proportion of the centre's jobs were taken up by local people. 40% of the centre's management staff had been locally recruited at the time when the centre opened.<ref>All Party Urban Development Group, [https://www.roofmagazine.org.uk/1_5/1bb/3e5/3ba/APUDG-BuildingLocalJobs%20FINAL.pdf Building local jobs], p. 18, published in 2008, accessed on 25 December 2024</ref>

==Statistics==
{{Main|List of sovereign states by employment rate|Employment-to-population ratio}}

== See also ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Alternative employment arrangements]]
* [[Automation]]
* [[Bullshit job]]
* [[Career-oriented social networking market]]
* [[Critique of work]]
* [[Domestic inquiry]]
* [[Employer branding]]
* [[Employer registration]]
* [[Employment fraud]]
* [[Employment gap]]
* [[Employment of autistic people]]
* [[Employment rate]]
* [[Employment website]]
* ''[[The End of Work]]''
* [[Equal opportunity employment]]
* [[Equal pay for equal work]]
* [[Ethnic Penalty]]
* [[Green growth#Employment|Green growth]]
* [[Job analysis]]
* [[Job description]]
* [[Job fraud]]
* [[Job guarantee]]
* [[Jobless recovery]]
* [[Labor economics]]
* [[Labor power]]
* [[Labor rights]]
* [[List of largest employers]]
* [[Lump of labor fallacy]]
* [[Onboarding]]
* [[Payroll]]
* [[Personnel selection]]
* [[Post-work society]]
* [[Protestant work ethic]]
* [[Refusal of work]]
* [[Reserve army of labor]] (Marxism)
* [[Salary inversion]]
* [[Staffing models]]
* [[Universal basic income]]
* [[Work ethic]]
* [[Work (human activity)]]
}}

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist |30em}}

== General bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Acocella, Nicola |author-link=Nicola Acocella |title=Social pacts, employment and growth: a reappraisal of Ezio Tarantelli's thought |publisher=Springer Verlag |location=Heidelberg |year=2007 |isbn=978-3790819151}}
* {{cite book |last= Anderson | first=Elizabeth | date= 2017 |title= Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don't Talk about It) | publisher= [[Princeton University Press]] | location = Princeton, NJ | isbn= 978-0691176512 |author-link=Elizabeth S. Anderson }}
* {{cite book |last=Dubin |first=Robert |title=The World of Work: Industrial Society and Human Relations |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofworkindus0000dubi |url-access=registration |year=1958 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J |oclc=964691 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldofworkindus0000dubi/page/213 213]}}
* {{cite book |title=Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy |last=Ellerman |first=David P. |author-link=David Ellerman |year=1992 |isbn=1557863091 |publisher=Blackwell}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Freeman |first1= Richard B. |author-link1= Richard B. Freeman |last2=Goroff |first2=Daniel L. |title=Science and Engineering Careers in the United States: An Analysis of Markets and Employment |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2009 |isbn=978-0226261898}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ferguson |first1=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Ferguson (academic) |title=Golden Rule : The Investment Theory of Party Competition and the Logic of Money-Driven Political Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/goldenruleinvest00ferg |url-access=registration |date=1995 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0226243176 |access-date=January 26, 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Eddy |title=Globalization and Employment: Is Anxiety Justified? |journal=International Labour Review |date=January 1996 |volume=135 |issue=5 |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-11173991/globalization-and-employment-is-anxiety-justified |pages=485–98 |via= |access-date=2017-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516223906/http://www.questia.com/read/1P3-11173991/globalization-and-employment-is-anxiety-justified |archive-date=2013-05-16 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Markey |first1= Raymond |last2=Hodgkinson |first2=Ann |last3=Kowalczyk |first3= Jo |year= 2002 |title=Gender, part-time employment and employee participation in Australian workplaces |journal= Employee Relations |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=129–50 |doi=10.1108/01425450210420884}}
* {{cite book |last=Ostergaard |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Ostergaard |year=1997 |title=The Tradition of Workers' Control |location=London |publisher=Freedom Press |isbn=978-0900384912}}
* {{cite book |last=Stone |first=Raymond J. |title=Human Resource Management |year=2005 |publisher=John Wiley |location=Milton, Qld |isbn=978-0470804032 |pages=412–14 |edition=5th}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=E. P. |author-link=E. P. Thompson |year=1966 |orig-year=1963 |title=The Making of the English Working Class |location=New York |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0394703220 |title-link=The Making of the English Working Class}}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Jack M. |title=Organisational Behaviour: A Global Perspective |year=2004 |publisher=Wiley |location=Milton, Qld |isbn=978-0470802625 |pages=355–57 |edition=3rd}}

==External links==
<!-- Please do not link to any employment services, free or otherwise. Link to informative sites *about* employment, instead. -->
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary pipe|employee|employment}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120929152904/http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/home Business Link] (archived from the [http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/home original] on 29 September 2012)
* {{cite web |title=Labor and Employment |url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/labor.htm |department=Government Information Library |publisher=University of Colorado at Boulder |access-date=2009-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612060749/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/labor.htm |archive-date=2009-06-12 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web|title=Overview and topics of labour statistics|department=Statistics and databases |url=http://www.ilo.org/global/statistics-and-databases/statistics-overview-and-topics/lang--en/index.htm |publisher=International Labour Organization}}

{{Employment|sp=us}}
{{Economics}}
{{Aspects of capitalism|sp=us}}
{{Aspects of workplaces|sp=us}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Employment| ]]