View source for Enver Pasha

{{Short description|Turkish general and politician (1881–1922)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{family name hatnote|Ismail Enver|Pasha||lang=Ottoman Turkish}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = İsmâil Enver
| honorific-suffix    = [[Pasha]]
| image               = File:Enver Pasha 1911.jpg
| caption             = Enver Bey in 1911
| office1             = [[Ministry of War (Ottoman Empire)|Minister of War]]
| primeminister1      = [[Mehmed Talaat Pasha]] <br/>[[Said Halim Pasha]]
| term_start1         = 3 January 1914
| term_end1           = 13 October 1918
| predecessor1        = [[Ahmet Izzet Pasha]]
| successor1          = [[Ahmet Izzet Pasha]]
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|df =y|1881|11|22}}
| death_date          = {{Death date and age| df =y|1922|8|4|1881|11|22}}
| birth_place         = [[Ottoman Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Ottoman Empire]] <br/> {{small|(present-day [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]])}}
| death_place         = [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] <br/> {{small|(present-day [[Tajikistan]])}}
| resting_place       = [[Monument of Liberty, Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]
| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|41.06814|28.982041|type:landmark_scale:10000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| nationality         = <!--Deprecated per MOS:INFONAT-->
| party               = [[Committee of Union and Progress|Union and Progress Party]]
| branch              = [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman Army]]
| serviceyears        = 1903–1918
| rank                = [[Birindji ferik|Ferik-i evvel]]
| battles             = {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|''See list''}}|
{{Tree list}}
* [[Macedonian Struggle]]
* [[Young Turk Revolution]]
* [[31 March Incident]]
* [[Italo-Turkish War]]
** [[Battle of Derna (1912)|Battle of Derna]]
** [[Battle of Tobruk (1911)|Battle of Tobruk]]
* [[First Balkan War]]
* [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état]]
* [[Second Balkan War]]
** [[Siege of Adrianople (1913)|Recapture of Adrianople]]
* [[World War I]]
** [[Caucasus campaign]]
*** [[Bergmann Offensive]]
*** [[Battle of Sarikamish]]
*** [[Battle of Goychay]]
*** [[Battle of Baku]]
*** [[Battle of Sardarabad]]
** [[Gallipoli campaign]]
** [[Persian campaign (World War I)|Persian campaign]]
* [[Basmachi Revolt]] 
** [[Enver Pasha's Rebellion]]
*** [[Siege of Dushanbe (1922)]]
***[[Enver Pasha's campaign in Bukhara (1922)]]
***[[Battle of Yurchi]] 
*** [[Battles for Dushanbe (1922)|Battles of Dushanbe]]{{KIA}} 
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
| spouse              = [[Emine Naciye Sultan]]
| children            = [[Mahpeyker Hanımsultan]]<br />[[Türkan Hanımsultan]]<br />[[Sultanzade Ali Bey]]
| alma_mater          = [[Ottoman Military College|Army War College]] (1903)<ref name = "Akademi">{{Citation | first = Harp Akademileri | last = Komutanlığı | title = Harp Akademilerinin 120 Yılı | place = İstanbul | year = 1968 | page = 46 | language = tr}}</ref>
| signature           = Enver Paşa imzası.png
| commands            = [[Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire)|Army of Islam]]<br/>[[Yildirim Army Group]]<br/>[[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]]
| predecessor2        = [[Mehmed Hâdî Pasha]]
| office4             = Chief of Staff of the Commander-in-Chief
| term_end4           = 13 October 1918
| term_start4         = 10 August 1918
| successor2          = [[Ahmed Izzet Pasha]]
| term_start2         = 8 January 1914
| monarch3            = [[Mehmed V]]<br/>[[Mehmed VI]]
| term_end3           = 10 August 1918
| term_start3         = 8 January 1914
| term_end2           = 13 October 1918
| office3             = Deputy Commander-in-Chief
| office2             = [[:tr:Erkân-ı Harbiye-i Umûmiye Riyaseti|Chief of the General Staff]]
| monarch4            = [[Mehmed VI]]
}}
'''İsmâil Enver''' ({{langx|ota|اسماعیل انور پاشا}}; {{langx|tr|İsmail Enver Paşa}}; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), better known as '''Enver Pasha''', was an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkish people|Turkish]] military officer, revolutionary, and [[Istanbul trials of 1919–1920|convicted war criminal]]<ref name="Herzig 2005">{{cite book|editor1-last=Herzig|editor1-first= Edmund|title=The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity|editor2-last=Kurkchiyan | editor2-first = Marina|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|year=2005|isbn=0203004930|location=Abingdon, Oxon, Oxford}}</ref><ref name="Andreopoulos 1997">{{cite book|editor-last=Andreopoulos|editor-first=George J.|title=Genocide : conceptual and historical dimensions|publisher=Univ. of Pennsylvania Press|year=1997|isbn=0812216164|edition=1. paperback print.|location=Philadelphia, Pa.}}</ref> who was a part of the dictatorial triumvirate known as the "[[Three Pashas]]" (along with [[Talaat Pasha]] and [[Djemal Pasha|Cemal Pasha]]) in the [[Ottoman Empire]].

While stationed in Ottoman Macedonia, Enver joined the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP), an organization affiliated with the [[Young Turks]] movement that was agitating against Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]]'s despotic rule. He was a key leader of the 1908 [[Young Turk Revolution]], which reestablished the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876|Constitution]] and [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|parliamentary democracy in the Ottoman Empire]]. Along with [[Ahmed Niyazi Bey|Ahmed Niyazi]], Enver was hailed as "hero of the revolution". However, a series of crises in the Empire, including the [[31 March Incident]], the [[Balkan Wars]], and the power struggle with the [[Freedom and Accord Party]], left Enver and the [[Committee of Union and Progress|Unionists]] disillusioned with liberal [[Ottomanism]]. After the [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état]] brought the CUP directly to power, Enver became [[Ministry of War (Ottoman Empire)|War Minister]], while Talaat assumed control over the [[Government of the late Ottoman Empire|civilian government]].

As war minister and ''de facto'' Commander-in-Chief (despite his role as the ''de jure'' Deputy Commander-in-Chief, as the [[Sultan of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan]] formally held the title), Enver was one of the most powerful figures in the Ottoman government.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bourne, J. M.|title=Who's who in World War One|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-14179-6|location=London|pages=282|oclc=46785141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Maksudyan|first=Nazan|title=Ottoman children and youth during World War I|date=25 April 2019|isbn=978-0-8156-5473-5|edition=First|location=Syracuse, New York|pages=52|oclc=1088605265}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=New york times current history volume 9.|date=2012|isbn=978-1-236-26433-6|pages=85|oclc=935658756}}</ref> He initiated the formation of [[German–Ottoman alliance|an alliance]] with [[German Empire|Germany]], and was instrumental in the [[Ottoman entry into World War I|Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I]]. He then led a disastrous attack on Russian forces in the [[Battle of Sarikamish]], after which he blamed Armenians for his defeat. Along with Talaat, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the [[late Ottoman genocides]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tK_pHoNlUYIC&pg=PA5|title=The Criminal Law of Genocide: International, Comparative and Contextual Aspects|date=2009|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-1-40949591-8|editor1-last=Henham|editor1-first=Ralph|location=Farnham|quote=The guilty main architects of the genocide Talaat Pasaha [...] and  Enver Pasha...|editor2-last=Behrens|editor2-first=Paul}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Freedman|first1=Jeri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC&pg=PA18|title=The Armenian Genocide|date=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub|isbn=978-1-40421825-3|edition=1st|location=New York|quote=Enver Pasha, Mehmet Talat, and Ahmed Djemal were the three men who headed the CUP.  They ran the Ottoman administration during World War I and planned the Armenian genocide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Adam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkPqxCBbF7UC&pg=PA105|title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-41535385-4|edition=Repr.|location=London|quote=The new ruling triumvirate – Minister of Internal Affairs Talat Pasha; Minister of War Enver Pasha; and Minister of Navy Jemal Pasha – quickly established a de facto dictatorship. Under the rubric of the so-called Special Organization of the CUP, they directed, this trio would plan and oversee the Armenian genocide...|author-link=Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)}}</ref> and thus is held responsible for the death of between 800,000 and 1,500,000<ref>{{cite book|last1=Göçek|first1=Fatma Müge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-eMBAAAQBAJ|title=Denial of violence : Ottoman past, Turkish present and collective violence against the Armenians, 1789–2009|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-933420-9|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Auron2000">{{cite book|last=Auron|first=Yair|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nnUR4hSTb8gC&pg=PA44|title=The banality of indifference: Zionism & the Armenian genocide|publisher=Transaction|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7658-0881-3|page=44}}</ref><ref name="Forsythe2009">{{cite book|last=Forsythe|first=David P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=PA98|title=Encyclopedia of human rights|date=11 August 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533402-9|page=98|format=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="ChalkJonassohn1990">{{cite book|last1=Chalk|first1=Frank Robert|url=https://archive.org/details/historysociology00chal|title=The history and sociology of genocide: analyses and case studies|last2=Jonassohn|first2=Kurt|date=10 September 1990|publisher=Yale University Press|others=Institut montréalais des études sur le génocide|isbn=978-0-300-04446-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historysociology00chal/page/270 270]–|url-access=registration}}</ref> Armenians, 750,000 Assyrians and 500,000 Greeks. Following defeat in World War I, Enver, along with other leading Unionists, escaped the Ottoman Empire. The [[Istanbul trials of 1919–1920|Ottoman Military Tribunal]] convicted him and other Unionists and sentenced them to death ''in absentia'' for [[Ottoman entry into World War I|bringing the Empire into World War I]] and organizing massacres against Greeks and Armenians. Enver ended up in Central Asia, where he was killed leading the [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi Revolt]] against the [[Bolsheviks]]. In 1996, his remains were reburied in Turkey. Enver was subsequently rehabilitated by Turkish president [[Süleyman Demirel]], who praised his contributions to [[Turkish nationalism]]. 

As Enver rose through the ranks of the military, he was known by increasingly esteemed titles, including Enver [[Efendi]] ({{lang |ota|انور افندی}}), Enver [[Bey]] ({{lang|ota|انور بك}}), and finally Enver [[Pasha]]. "Pasha" was the honorary title granted to Ottoman military officers upon promotion to the rank of [[Mirliva]] (major general).

==Early life and career==
[[File:Enver Pasha Babası Ahmet Bey Kardeshi Nuri Killigil.jpg|thumb|right|Enver (left) with his father, Ahmed Bey (center), and half-brother [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] (later Nuri Killigil; right)]]

İsmail Enver was born in [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] (Istanbul) on 22 November 1881.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Yilmaz |first=Şuhnaz |date=1999 |title=An Ottoman Warrior Abroad: Enver Paşa as an Expatriate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284039 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=42 |doi=10.1080/00263209908701286 |jstor=4284039 |issn=0026-3206|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Enver's father, Ahmed ({{circa}} 1860–1947), was either a bridge-keeper in [[Bitola|Monastir]] (Bitola)<ref>{{Citation | first = Muammer | last = Kaylan | title = The Kemalists: Islamic Revival and the Fate of Secular Turkey | publisher = Prometheus Books | year = 2005 | page = 75}}.</ref> or an [[Albania]]n small town public prosecutor in the [[Balkans]].<ref>{{Citation | first = Handan Nezir | last = Akmese | title = The Birth of Modern Turkey: The Ottoman Military and the March to WWI | publisher = IB Tauris | year = 2005 | page = 44}}.</ref> His mother Ayşe Dilara was a [[Tatars|Tatar]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Zürcher |first=Erik |title=The young turk legacy and nation building |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=9780857718075 |edition=1st |language=English}}</ref> According to [[Şuhnaz Yilmaz]], he was of [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]] descent.<ref name=":2" /> His uncle was [[Halil Kut|Halil Pasha (later Kut)]]. Enver had two younger brothers, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] and Mehmed Kâmil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He was the brother-in-law of Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım.<ref name="Hanioglu266"/> At age six, Enver moved with his father to Monastir, where he attended primary school.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Swanson |first=Glen W. |date=1980 |title=Enver Pasha: The Formative Years |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4282792 |journal=[[Middle Eastern Studies]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=193–199 |doi=10.1080/00263208008700445 |jstor=4282792 |issn=0026-3206|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He studied at several military institutions. In 1902, he graduated from the [[Ottoman Military Academy]] making him a ''[[Mektebli and Alaylı|mektebli]]''. In the context of the late [[Abdul Hamid II|Hamidian]] era ''mektebli''s were educated officers hailing from the new military colleges, as opposed to the older ''alaylı'' officers which did not receive formal educations, resulting in some in the latter group being illiterate.<ref name=":1" /> His classmate in the military academy was the first president of the [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]] [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)]], and the two quickly developed a rivalry with one another.

Between 1903 and 1908, Enver was stationed in various locations in Ottoman Macedonia, where he helped suppress the [[Macedonian Struggle]]. He fought no less than 54 engagements, mostly against [[Komitadji|Bulgarian bands]], developing a reputation as an expert counter-insurgent. During his service, he became convinced of the need for reforms in the Ottoman military.<ref>Swanson, Glen W. (1980).pp.196–197</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Zürcher |first=Erik Jan |date=2014b |title=Macedonians in Anatolia: The Importance of the Macedonian Roots of the Unionists for their Policies in Anatolia after 1914 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585700 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=963 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2014.933422 |issn=0026-3206 |jstor=24585700 |s2cid=144491725|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

By 1905 Enver had achieved success in Macedonia and was recognized for fighting with distinction. He became a lieutenant colonel was awarded the fourth and third class [[Order of the Medjidie|Mecidiye]] medal, fourth class [[Order of Osmanieh|Osmaniye]] medal, and a gold [[Liakat Medal|medal of merit]] for his outstanding achievements in military operations against Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian insurgents. This did not mean he was immune from the suspicions of the intelligence agencies. He was interrogated by the secret police for alleged seditious activity against the government, but he was not convicted. These events radicalized Enver's perceptions of nationalism, and a sympathy for the [[Young Turks]] as he became skeptical of the [[Abdul Hamid II|Hamidian regime]].<ref name=":6" />

== Joining the CUP ==
{{See also|Macedonian Struggle}}
[[File:1908-mesrutiyet.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Enver Pasha (then Enver [[Bey]]) depicted on a [[Young Turks]] flyer with the slogan ''Long live the fatherland, long live the nation, long live liberty'' written in Ottoman Turkish and French]]

Enver, through the assistance of his uncle, [[Halil Kut]], became the twelfth member of the nascent [[Ottoman Freedom Society]] (OFS).<ref name="Zurcher35"/> The OFS later merged with the Paris-based [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP) led by [[Ahmed Rıza]].<ref name="Zurcher35" /> The CUP gained access to the [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]] through Enver.<ref name="Zurcher35" /> Upon his return to Monastir in 1906, Enver formed a CUP cell within the town and worked closely with Ottoman officer [[Kâzım Karabekir]].<ref name="Zurcher35"/> Enver became the main figure in the CUP Monastir branch, and he initiated Ottoman officers like [[Ahmed Niyazi Bey|Ahmet Niyazi bey]] and [[Eyüp Sabri]] into the CUP organisation.<ref name="Kansu90">{{harvnb|Kansu|1997|p=90.}}</ref><ref name="Zurcher35">{{harvnb|Zürcher|2014|p=35.}}</ref><!-- did he initiate Niyazi or did Niyazi initiate him? -->

In the early twentieth century some prominent [[Young Turks|Young Turk]] members such as Enver developed a strong interest in the ideas of [[Gustave Le Bon]].<ref name="Hanioglu308311">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|pp=308, 311.}}</ref> For example, Enver saw deputies as mediocre and in reference to Le Bon he thought that as a collective mind they had the potential to become dangerous and be the same as a despotic leader.<ref name="Hanioglu311">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=311.}}</ref> As the CUP shifted away from the ideas of members who belonged to the old core of the organisation to those of the newer membership, this change assisted individuals like Enver in gaining a larger profile in the Young Turk movement.<ref name="Hanioglu291">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=291.}}</ref>

In [[Ohrid|Ohri]] (modern Ohrid) an armed band ([[çetes|çete]]) called the Special Muslim Organisation (SMO) composed mostly of notables was created in 1907 to protect local Muslims and fight [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO) bands.<ref name="Hanioglu225"/> Enver along with Sabri recruited the SMO and turned it into the Ohri branch of the CUP with its band becoming the local CUP band.<ref name="Hanioglu226">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|pp=226.}}</ref> CUP Internal headquarters proposed that Enver go form a CUP band in the countryside.<ref name="Hanioglu266"/> Approving the decision by the committee to assassinate his brother-in-law Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım, Enver under instructions from CUP headquarters traveled from Selanik ([[Thessaloniki]]) to [[Tikveš|Tikveş]] on 26 June 1908 to establish a band.<ref name="Hanioglu266"/> CUP headquarters conferred upon Enver the title of "CUP Inspector General of Internal Organisation and Executive Forces".<ref name="Hanioglu266">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=266.}}</ref>

== Young Turk Revolution ==
{{Main|Young Turk Revolution}}
[[File:Mehemed Rechad Empereur des Ottomans 14.27. Avril 1909.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Postcard of Mehmed V flanked by Niyazi Bey (left) and Enver Bey (right)<ref name="Ozen31"/>]]

On 3 July 1908, Niyazi, protesting the rule of [[Abdul Hamid II]], fled with his band from [[Resen, North Macedonia|Resne]] (modern Resen) into the mountains where he initiated the Young Turk Revolution and issued a proclamation that called for the restoration of the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876|constitution of 1876]].<ref name="Baskan51"/> Following his example, Enver in Tikveş, and other officers such as Sabri in Ohri, also went into the mountains and formed guerilla bands.<ref name="Hale35">{{harvnb|Hale|2013|p=35.}}</ref><ref name="Baskan51">{{cite book|last=Başkan|first=Birol|title=From Religious Empires to Secular States: State Secularization in Turkey, Iran, and Russia|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317802044|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t0MsAwAAQBAJ&q=Ahmet+Niyazi&pg=PA51|pages=51}}</ref> It is unclear whether the CUP had a fixed date for the revolution; in comments made in an interview following the event Enver stated that they planned for action in August 1908, yet events had forced them to begin the revolution at an earlier time.<ref name="Hanioglu262">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=262.}}</ref> For the revolt to get local support Enver and Niyazi played on fears of possible foreign intervention.<ref name="Gawrych150">{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=150.}}</ref> Enver led a band composed of volunteers and deserters.<ref name="Hanioglu268"/> For example, he allowed a deserter who had engaged in brigandage in areas west of the river [[Vardar]] to join his band at Tikveș.<ref name="Hanioglu226"/> Throughout the revolution, guerilla bands of both Enver and Niyazi consisted of Muslim (mostly [[Albanians|Albanian]]) paramilitaries.<ref name="Gingeras28">{{cite book|last=Gingeras|first=Ryan|title=Heroin, Organized Crime, and the Making of Modern Turkey|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780198716020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOq-AwAAQBAJ&q=Enver+were+launched|pages=28}}</ref>

Enver sent an ultimatum to the Inspector General on 11 July 1908 and demanded that within 48 hours Abdul Hamid II issue a decree for CUP members that had been arrested and sent to Constantinople to be freed.<ref name="Hanioglu268"/> He warned that if the ultimatum was not complied with by the Inspector General, he would refuse to accept any responsibility for future actions.<ref name="Hanioglu268"/> In Tikveș a handwritten appeal was distributed to locals calling for them to either stay neutral or join with him.<ref name="Hanioglu268">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=268.}}</ref> Enver possessed strong authority among fellow Muslims in the area where he resided and could communicate with them as he spoke both [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].<ref name="Hanioglu228452">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|pp=228, 452. "Enver Bey's mother was from a mixed Albanian-Turkish family, and he could communicate in Albanian."}}</ref> During the revolution, Enver stayed in the homes of notables, and as a sign of respect they would kiss his hands since he had earlier saved them from an attack by an IMRO band.<ref name="Hanioglu228">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=228.}}</ref> He stated that the CUP had no support in the countryside apart from a few large landowners with CUP membership that lived in towns, yet they retained influence in their villages and were able to mobilise the population for the cause.<ref name="Zurcher3839"/> Whole settlements were enrolled into the CUP through councils of village elders convened by Enver in Turkish villages of the Tikveş region.<ref name="Zurcher3839">{{cite book|last=Zürcher|first=Erik Jan|title=The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey|year=2014|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857718075|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54gAAwAAQBAJ&q=Enver|pages=38–39}}</ref> As the revolution spread by the third week and more officers deserted the army to join the cause, Enver and Niyazi got like minded officials and civilian notables to send multiple petitions to the Ottoman palace.<ref name="Gingeras33">{{harvnb|Gingeras|2016|p=33.}}</ref> Enver wrote in his memoirs that while he still was involved in band activity in the days toward the end of the revolution he composed more detailed rules of engagement for use by paramilitary units and bands.<ref name="Hanioglu225">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=225.}}</ref> 

On 23 July he proclaimed an age of liberty in front of the government mansion of [[Veles, North Macedonia|Köprülü]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A Shameful Act |publisher=Holt Paperbacks |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-8665-2 |location=New York, NY |pages=55}}</ref> In Salonica, he spoke from the balconies of the ''Grand Hôtel D'Angleterre'' to a crowd in the city center, where he declared that absolutism was finished, and [[Ottomanism]] would prevail.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Tzimos |first=Kyas |date=28 February 2018 |title=Έφτασε η ώρα της Πλατείας Ελευθερίας |url=https://parallaximag.gr/thessaloniki-news/platiaeleftherias-to-parelthon-to-par |website=Parallaxi}}</ref> The square would be named [[Eleftherias Square]], or the Square of Liberty thereafter.<ref name=":5" /> Facing a deteriorating situation in the [[Balkans]], on 24 July Sultan Abdul Hamid II restored the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876|constitution of 1876]].<ref name="Hanioglu275">{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2001|p=275.}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
[[File:Greek lithograph celebrating the Ottoman Constitution.png|thumb|left|220px|Greek [[lithograph]] celebrating the 1908 revolution. Enver is depicted in the lower right hand corner with a large hammer freeing Lady Liberty from her chains.{{sfn|Bilici|2012|loc= para. 26}}]]

In the aftermath of the revolution, Niyazi and Enver remained in the political background due to their youth and junior military ranks with both agreeing that photographs of them would not be distributed to the general public; however, this decision was rarely honoured.<ref name="Hale38">{{cite book|last=Hale|first=William|title=Turkish Politics and the Military|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136101403|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Z3dAAAAQBAJ&q=Enver|pages=38}}</ref> Instead, Niyazi and Enver as leaders of the revolution elevated their positions to near legendary status, with their images placed on postcards and distributed throughout the Ottoman state.<ref name="Gingeras34">
{{cite book|last=Gingeras|first=Ryan|title=Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1908–1922|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780191663581|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGyMCwAAQBAJ&q=Enver|pages=34}}</ref>{{sfn|Bilici|2012|loc= para. 25}} Toward the latter part of 1908, photographs of Niyazi and Enver had reached Constantinople and school children of the time played with masks on their faces that depicted the revolutionaries.<ref name="Ozen28">{{harvnb|Özen|2017|p=28.}}</ref> In other images produced at the same time, the sultan is presented in the centre, flanked by Niyazi and Enver to either side.<ref name="Ozen31">{{cite book|last=Özen|first=Saadet|chapter=The Heroes of Hürriyet: The images in Struggle|editor1-last=Lévy-Aksu|editor1-first=Noémi|editor2-last=Georgeon|editor2-first=François|title=The Young Turk Revolution and the Ottoman Empire: The Aftermath of 1918|year=2017|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781786720214|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1OQzDwAAQBAJ&q=Manakis+Enver|pages=31}}</ref> As the actions of both men carried the appearance of initiating the revolution, Niyazi, an Albanian, and Enver, a Turk, later received popular acclaim as "heroes of freedom" (''hürriyet kahramanları'') and symbolised Albanian-Turkish cooperation.<ref name="Gawrych150169">{{cite book|last=Gawrych|first=George|title=The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913|year=2006|location=London|publisher=IB Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPOtzk-unJgC&q=Enver|isbn=9781845112875|pages=150, 169}}</ref><ref name="Zurcher44">{{cite book|last=Zürcher|first=Erik Jan|title=The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement 1905–1926|year=1984|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004072626|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcoUAAAAIAAJ&q=The+Unionist+Factor:+The+R%C3%B4le+%5Bsic%5D+of+the+Committee+of+Union+and+Progress|pages=44}}</ref>

As a tribute to his role in the Young Turk Revolution that began the [[Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, Niyazi is mentioned along with Enver in the [[:File:Marche des Députés par Mehmed Zati.ogg|March of the Deputies]] ({{langx|tr|Mebusan Marşı}} or ''Meclis-i Mebusan Marşı''), the anthem of the [[Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)|Chamber of Deputies]], the lower house of the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman parliament]].<ref name="Guclu121"/><ref name="BokeTinç22"/> It was performed in 1909 upon the opening of the new parliament.<ref name="Guclu121">{{cite book|last=Güçlü|first=Yücel|title=The Armenian Events Of Adana In 1909: Cemal Pasa And Beyond|year=2018|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780761869948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDBZDwAAQBAJ&q=The+Armenian+Events+Of+Adana+In+1909:+Cemal+Pasa+And+Beyond|pages=121}}</ref><ref name="BokeTinç22"/> The fourth line of the anthem reads "Long live Niyazi, long live Enver" ({{langx|tr|links=no|"Yaşasın Niyazi, yaşasın Enver"}}).<ref name="BokeTinç22">{{cite book|last1=Böke|first1=Pelin|last2=Tınç|first2=Lütfü|title=Son Osmanlı Meclisi'nin son günleri &#91;The last days of the last Ottoman Assembly&#93;|year=2008|publisher=Doğan Kitap|isbn=9789759918095|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JCctAQAAIAAJ&q=Bando%2C+a%C3%A7%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C5%9F+merasiminde+g%C3%BCftesi+Samih+Bey%27in+%28Samih+Rifat+olmas%C4%B1+muhtemeldir%29%2C+bestesi+de+Zati+Bey%27e+ait+olan+%22Meclis-i+Mebusan+Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1%22n%C4%B1+%C3%A7alm%C4%B1%C5%9Ft%C4%B1.2+S%C3%B6zleri+aynen+%C5%9F%C3%B6yleydi+bu+mar%C5%9F%C4%B1n%3A+Osmanl%C4%B1lar+bug%C3%BCn+oldu+muzaffer+Fethetti+yeniden+vatan%C4%B1+asker+A%C3%A7t%C4%B1+mebuslara+yolu+s%C3%BCng%C3%BCler+Ya%C5%9Fas%C4%B1n+Niyazi%2C+ya%C5%9Fas%C4%B1n+Enver%21|pages=22}}</ref><ref name="Bilici27">{{cite journal|last=Bilici|first=Faruk|title=Le révolutionnaire qui alluma la mèche: Ahmed Niyazi Bey de Resne &#91;Niyazi Bey from Resne: The Revolutionary who lit the Fuse&#93;|url=https://journals.openedition.org/ceb/1052|journal=Cahiers balkaniques|volume=40|year=2012}} para. 27.</ref> The Ottoman newspaper ''[[Volkan (newspaper)|Volkan]]'', a strong supporter of the constitution published adulatory pieces about Enver and Niyazi in 1909.<ref name="Vahide69">{{cite book|last=Vahide|first=Şükran|title=Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|year=2005|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=9780791482971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdX-iggjrxwC&q=Enver|pages=69}}</ref>

Following the revolution, Enver rose within the ranks of the Ottoman military and had an important role within army–committee relations.<ref name="Yilmaz144"/> Soon after the revolution he was assigned to the Inspectorate of the Rumelian Provinces, but in March 1909 he was the military attaché at [[Berlin]] and formed personal ties with high ranking German state officials and the Kaiser.<ref name="Yilmaz144"/><ref name=":6" /> It was during this time that Enver came to admire the culture of Germany and power of the German military.<ref name="Yilmaz144"/><ref name=":6" /> He invited German officers to reform the [[Ottoman Army]]. In 1909 a reactionary conspiracy to organise a countercoup culminated in the [[31 March Incident]]; the countercoup was put down.<ref name="Yilmaz144"/> Enver for a short time in April 1909 returned to Constantinople to join the [[Action Army]].<ref name="Yilmaz144"/> As such he took an active role in the suppression of the countercoup, which resulted in the overthrow of Abdul Hamid II, who was replaced by his brother [[Mehmed V]], while the power of the CUP was consolidated.<ref name="Yilmaz144">{{cite book |last=Yılmaz |first=Șuhnaz |title=Subversives and Mavericks in the Muslim Mediterranean: A Subaltern History |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2016 |isbn=9781477310939 |editor1-last=Moreau |editor1-first=Odile |pages=144 |chapter=Revisiting Networks and Narratives: Enver Pasha's Pan-Islamic and Pan-Turkic Quest |editor2-last=Schaar |editor2-first=Stuart |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6FIDQAAQBAJ&q=Hareket+Ordusu+Enver&pg=PA144}}</ref> Throughout the Young Turk era, Enver was a member of the CUP central committee from 1908 to 1918.<ref name="Hanioglu216">{{cite book|last=Hanioğlu|first=M. Șükrü|title=Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902–1908|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199771110|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nNdKQfEdyvgC&q=Enver|pages=216}}</ref>

In March 1911, he was recalled from Berlin and once again sent to Macedonia by War Minister [[Mahmud Shevket Pasha|Mahmud Şevket Pasha]], whom he first met on 19 March 1911, to inspect the measures taken against insurgents in Macedonia. Making the rounds in Salonica, [[Üsküp]], Monastir, Köprülü and Tikveş, he also met with the leading figures of the CUP. He returned to Istanbul on 11 May 1911. On 27 July he left the capital to suppress the [[Malissori uprising|Malissori rebellion]] as the chief of staff of the Second Corps, traveling to [[Shkodër]] via [[Trieste]], again spending time to resolve disputes between the Unionists and Albanian nationalists. Later, he went to Berlin, but returned home when the Italians attacked Tripoli.<ref name=":6" />

== Italo-Turkish War ==
{{Main|Italo-Turkish War}}
[[File:Ismail Enver Bey in Cyrenaica.jpg|thumb|left|145px|Enver Bey in Libya during the [[Italo-Turkish War]], 1911–12, wearing the style of hat named "Enveriye" after him]]

On 29 September 1911, [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] launched an invasion of the [[Ottoman Tripolitania|Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania]] (''Trablus-i Garb'', modern [[Libya]]), starting the [[Italo-Turkish War]]. Enver advocated for a guerilla war against the Italians in a CUP congress and went off to Libya with several other Unionist military officers, which formed the nucleus of the [[Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)|Special Organization]]. After meeting with the sultan and government officials he left Istanbul for [[Alexandria]] on 10 October. He established various contacts with prominent Arab leaders in Egypt and set off for [[Benghazi]] on October 22. He established his military headquarters in Ayn al-Mansur on 1 December 1911. There, he assumed the overall command after successfully mobilizing 20,000 troops.<ref name=ezber>{{Citation | first = Serdar | last = Hakyemezoğlu | url = http://www.ezberbozanbilgiler.com/bizim-tarih/item/301-buhara-cumhuriyeti-ve-enver-pasa.html | language = tr | title = Buhara Cumhuriyeti ve Enver Paşa | publisher = Ezberbozanbilgiler | access-date = 24 June 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111001181703/http://www.ezberbozanbilgiler.com/bizim-tarih/item/301-buhara-cumhuriyeti-ve-enver-pasa.html | archive-date = 1 October 2011 | url-status=dead }}.</ref> He achieved great success in the war and guerrilla operations against the Italians. On 24 January 1912, he was officially appointed commander of the General Benghazi Zone [''Umum Bingazi Mıntıkası kumandanlığı'']. On 17 March 1912, he was additionally appointed as the [[mutasarrif]] of Benghazi, and then [[Kaymakam]]. Because of the outbreak of the [[Balkan Wars]], however, Enver and other Ottoman generals in Libya were called back to Istanbul. This allowed Italy to take control of Libya.<ref name=os-ar>{{Citation | url = http://www.os-ar.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=240318 | publisher = Osmanlı Araştırmaları Sitesi | title = Enver Paşa Makalesi | language = tr | access-date = 26 July 2014 | archive-date = 1 April 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170401062803/http://os-ar.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=240318 | url-status = dead }}.</ref><ref name=":6" /> 

== Balkan Wars and 1913 coup ==
{{Main|1913 Ottoman coup d'état}}

In October 1912, the [[First Balkan War]] broke out, and the Ottoman armies suffered severe defeats at the hands of the [[Balkan League]]. In late November 1912, he found his way back to Istanbul via the route of Alexandria (during which he was disguised), [[Brindisi]] (which he travelled to on an Italian ship), and [[Vienna]]. Enver was appointed as the Chief of the General Staff of the Tenth Corps on 1 January 1913 to fight on the Bulgarian front.<ref name=":6" />

[[File:Lieut.-Colonel Tyrrell and Enver Bey after 1913 Ottoman coup d'état.png|thumb|195px|right|Enver Bey (center) talking to the British attaché and press in Constantinople immediately after seizing power in the 1913 [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|Raid on the Sublime Porte]], also known as the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état]].

While he was in Libya, the Ottoman political situation had significantly deteriorated. The loss of Libya cost the CUP in popularity. After rigging the [[1912 Ottoman general election|1912 elections]] against the [[Freedom and Accord Party]], opposition to the CUP in the military brought down their government in [[1912 Ottoman coup d'état|a coup by military memorandum]]. However military defeat in the First Balkan War weakened anti-Unionist government, and gave the committee the chance to seize power. 

On 23 January 1913, Enver and CUP leader [[Talaat Pasha|Mehmed Talaat]] with a group of fifty Unionists [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|stormed into the Sublime Porte]] and overthrew the government. Enver had [[Kâmil Pasha]] resign from the [[List of Ottoman grand viziers|Grand Vizierate]] at gun point. This was done after extensive activity dissuading Kâmil from peace negotiations. Enver earlier reached an agreement with the Minister of War [[Nazım Pasha|Nâzım Pasha]] to force Kâmil Pasha to resign and to form a government that would resume war, but he was unsuccessful in convincing the sultan of cashiering his prime minister.<ref name=":6" /> Nâzım Pasha ended up getting accidentally cut down during the coup, so the premiership was awarded to [[Mahmud Shevket Pasha]]. A radicalized CUP in power now suppressed the opposition. Turkey then withdrew from [[London Conference of 1912–13|the peace negotiations then under way in London]] and did not sign the [[Treaty of London (1913)]], resuming the First Balkan War. A complicated plan was envisaged to envelop Bulgarian forces on the Gallipoli peninsula ([[Battle of Şarköy]]), which was bungled by due to bad communications between Enver, [[Fethi Okyar|Ali Fethi (Okyar)]], and [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]. The change in government did not change the fact that the war was lost, and the Ottoman Empire gave up almost all of its [[Rumelia|Balkan territory]] to the Balkan League.

In June 1913, however, the [[Second Balkan War]] broke out between the Balkan Allies. Enver Bey took advantage of the situation and led an army into [[Eastern Thrace]], [[Siege of Adrianople (1913)|recovering Adrianople]] (Edirne) from the Bulgarians, who had concentrated their forces against the Serbs and Greeks, with the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1913)]]. Enver is therefore recognised by some Turks as the "conqueror of Edirne".

When Shevket was assassinated on 11 June 1913, the CUP took full control over the empire. Enver was basically the leader of the military cadre of the CUP and was influential in making vital decisions. His reconquest of Edirne increased his prestige. He became a colonel on 15 December 1913, and then a [[mirliva]] ([[brigadier general]]) on 3 January 1914. That same date, he replaced [[Ahmed Izzet Pasha|Ahmed İzzet Pasha]] as [[Ministry of War (Ottoman Empire)|Minister of War]] and [[Mehmed Hâdî Pasha|Hâdî Pasha]] as Chief of the General Staff (8 January 1914). Despite great criticism, he achieved this position at a very young age and as a result of rapid promotion, thanks to both his high prestige among the public and unparalleled power of the CUP. He also married HIH Princess [[Emine Naciye Sultan]] (1898–1957) on 5 March 1914, the daughter of [[Şehzade Selim Süleyman|Prince Süleyman]], thus entering the royal family as a ''[[damat]]'' ("bridegroom" to the ruling [[House of Osman]]). They were previously engaged on 15 May 1911.<ref name=":6" />

Enver worked with great effort in his new position to reorganize the Ottoman army, which had been defeated in the First Balkan War. Almost all of the old ''alaylı'' officers of the Hamidian era were purged, and young officers were appointed to important positions in the army. Officers such as [[İsmet İnönü|Mustafa İsmet (İnönü)]] and [[Musa Kâzım Karabekir]], who were part of this effort, acknowledged that these reforms were successful. This reorganization by Enver Pasha also ensured that the military cadre, which played an important role in the establishment of the Turkish Republic, rose in the Ottoman army.<ref name=":6" />

==World War I==
{{further|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I}}
Being able to communicate in [[German language|German]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|title=Talaat Pasha, Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of a Genocide|title-link=Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-691-15762-7|pages=5|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser}}</ref> Enver Pasha, along with Talaat and [[Halil Menteşe|Halil Bey]] were architects of the [[Ottoman-German Alliance]], and expected a quick victory in the war that would benefit the Ottoman Empire. Without informing the cabinet, he allowed the two German warships [[SMS Goeben]] and [[SMS Breslau]], under the command of German admiral [[Wilhelm Souchon]], to enter the [[Dardanelles]] to escape British [[pursuit of Goeben and Breslau|pursuit]]; the subsequent "donation" of the ships to the neutral Ottomans worked powerfully in Germany's favor, despite French and Russian diplomacy to keep the Ottoman Empire out of the war. Finally on 29 October, the point of no return was reached when [[Wilhelm Souchon|Admiral Souchon]], now Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman navy, took ''Goeben'', ''Breslau'', and a squadron of Ottoman warships into the Black Sea and [[Black Sea Raid|bombed the Russian ports]] of [[Odessa]], [[Sevastopol]], and [[Feodosiya|Theodosia]]. Russia declared war on Ottoman Empire on 2 November, and Britain followed suit on 5 November. Most of the Turkish cabinet members and CUP leaders were against such a rushed entry to the war, but Enver Pasha held that it was the right course of action.

As soon as the war started, 31 October 1914, Enver ordered that all men of military age report to army recruiting offices. The offices were unable to handle the vast flood of men, and long delays occurred. This had the effect of ruining the crop harvest for that year.<ref name="isbn0-8050-6884-8" />

===Battle of Sarikamish, 1914===
{{Main|Battle of Sarikamish}}
[[File:Enver wwI.jpg|thumb|upright|Enver Pasha in 1914]]

Enver Pasha's only actual command during World War I was on the [[Caucasus campaign|Caucasus front]]. Enver Pasha assumed command of the Ottoman forces arrayed against the Russians in the [[Caucasus Campaign|Caucasus theatre]] after dismissing [[Hasan Izzet Pasha]]. He wanted to encircle the Russians, force them out of Ottoman territory, and take back [[Kars]] and [[Batumi]], which had been ceded after the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78]]. Enver thought of himself as a great military leader, while the German military adviser, [[Otto Liman von Sanders|Liman von Sanders]], thought of him as incompetent.<ref name="isbn0-8050-6884-8">{{cite book|author=Fromkin, David|title=A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East|url=https://archive.org/details/peacetoendallpea00from|url-access=registration|publisher=H. Holt|location=New York|year=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peacetoendallpea00from/page/119 119]|isbn=0-8050-6884-8}}</ref> Enver ordered a complex attack on the Russians, but despite the objections of the commanders in his command, Enver Pasha continued the forward operation under harsh winter conditions in the mountains. In what was known as the [[Battle of Sarikamish]] a large portion of the 90,000-strong army froze to death in the [[Allahuekber Mountains|Allahüekber Mountains]] or were killed by the Russians, so he left the front on 10 January 1915 and returned to Istanbul. This was the single worst Ottoman defeat of [[World War I]] and Enver did not perform any active front-line duty for the rest of the war.<ref name=":6" /> On his return to Constantinople, Enver Pasha blamed his failure on his Armenian soldiers, although in January 1915, an Armenian named Hovannes had saved his life during a battle by carrying Enver through battle lines on his back.<ref>Derogy, Jacques. ''Resistance and Revenge'', p. 12 Published 1986, Transaction Publishers. {{ISBN|0-88738-338-6}}.</ref> Nonetheless, Enver Pasha later initiated the deportations and sporadic massacres of Western Armenians, culminating in the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref>Palmer-Fernandez, Gabriel. ''Encyclopedia of Religion and War'', p. 139. Published 2003, Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-94246-2}}</ref><ref>Tucker, Spencer. "World War I", p. 394. Published 2005, ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|1-85109-420-2}}</ref><ref>Balakian, Peter. ''The Burning Tigris'', p. 184. Published 2003, HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-06-019840-0}}.</ref><ref>Akcam, Taner. ''A Shameful Act'', p. 143. Published 2006, Henry Holt & Co. {{ISBN|0-8050-7932-7}}.</ref><ref name=":6" />

===Commanding the forces of the capital, 1915–1918===
{{Main |Battle of Gallipoli}}
[[File:Kaiser W in Gallipoli.jpg|thumb|[[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] and Enver Pasha in Gallipoli]]

After his defeat at Sarıkamış, Enver returned to Istanbul (Constantinople) and took command of the Turkish forces around the capital. He was confident that the capital was safe from any Allied attacks.{{Sfn | Moorehead | 1997 | p = 79}}  The British and French were planning on forcing the approaches to Constantinople in the hope of knocking the Ottomans out of the war. A large Allied fleet assembled and staged an attack on the [[Dardanelles]] on 18 March 1915. The attack (the forerunner to the failed [[Gallipoli campaign]]) was a disaster, resulting in the loss of several ships. As a result, Enver turned over command to [[Liman von Sanders]], who led the successful defence of Gallipoli. Enver then left to attend to pressing concerns on the Caucasus Front. Later, after many towns on the peninsula had been destroyed and women and children killed by the Allied bombardment, Enver proposed setting up a concentration camp for the remaining French and British citizens in the empire. [[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.|Henry Morgenthau]], the American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, convinced Enver not to go through with this plan.{{Sfn | Moorehead | 1997 | p = 166–68}}

===Yildirim===
Enver's plan for [[Erich von Falkenhayn|Falkenhayn]]'s [[Yildirim Army Group]] was to retake Baghdad, recently [[Fall of Baghdad (1917)|taken]] by [[Frederick Stanley Maude|Maude]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2017}} This was nearly impossible for logistical reasons. Turkish troops were deserting freely, and when Enver visited [[Beirut]] in June 1917, soldiers were forbidden to be stationed along his route for fear that he would be assassinated. Lack of rolling stock meant that troops were often detrained at [[Damascus]] and marched south.{{Sfn | Woodward |  1998 | pp = 160–1}}

===Army of Islam===
{{Main|Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire)|Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|First Republic of Armenia}}
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2014}}
[[File:Wilhelm enver.jpg|thumb|Wilhelm II and Enver Pasha in 1917]]

During 1917, due to the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] and subsequent [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]], the [[Caucasus Front (Russian Republic)|Russian army in the Caucasus]] fell apart and dissolved. At the same time, the CUP managed to win the friendship of the Bolsheviks with the signing of the Ottoman-Russian friendship treaty (1 January 1918). Enver looked for victory when Russia withdrew from the Caucasus region. When Enver discussed his plans for taking over southern Russia, he ordered the creation of a new military force called the [[Ottoman Army of Islam|Army of Islam]] which would have no German officers. Enver's Army of Islam avoided Georgia and marched through [[Azerbaijan]]. The [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]] under [[Vehib Pasha]] was also moving forward to pre-war borders and towards the [[First Republic of Armenia]], which formed the frontline in the Caucasus. General [[Tovmas Nazarbekian]] was the commander on the [[Caucasus Campaign|Caucasus front]], and [[Andranik Ozanian]] took the command of Armenia within the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman advance was halted at the [[Battle of Sardarabad]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2017}}

The Army of Islam, under the control of [[Nuri Pasha]], moved forward and attacked Australian, New Zealand, British, and Canadian troops led by [[General Lionel Charles Dunsterville]] at [[Baku]]. General Dunsterville ordered the evacuation of the city on 14 September, after six weeks of occupation, and withdrew to Iran.<ref>[[Homa Katouzian]], ''State and Society in Iran: The Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis'', (I.B. Tauris, 2006), 141.</ref> As the Army of Islam and their Azerbaijani allies entered the city on September 15 following the [[Battle of Baku]], up to [[September Days|30,000 Armenian civilians were massacred]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2017}}

However, after the [[Armistice of Mudros]] between Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire on 30 October, Ottoman troops were obliged to withdraw and replaced by the [[Triple Entente]]. These conquests in the Caucasus counted for very little in the war as a whole but they did however ensure that Baku remained within the boundaries of Azerbaijan while a part of the [[Soviet Union]] and later as an independent nation.

==Armistice and exile==
[[File:Enver Paşa in Batumi in 1918.jpg|thumb|left|Enver Pasha in [[Batumi]] in 1918]]

Faced with defeat, the Sultan dismissed Enver from his post as War Minister on 4 October 1918, while the rest of [[Talaat Pasha]]'s government resigned on 14 October 1918. On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire capitulated by signing the [[Armistice of Mudros]]. 1-2 November 1918, he escaped to Odessa by boarding a German submarine from [[Arnavutköy]] with seven other leaders of the CUP. In exile they hoped to continue agitating against the Allies from abroad in the conflict which came to be known as the [[Turkish War of Independence]].

On 1 January 1919, the new government discharged Enver Pasha from the army. He was tried ''in absentia'' in the [[Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20]] for crimes of "plunging the country into war without a legitimate reason, forced deportation of Armenians and leaving the country without permission" and condemned to death.<ref>{{Citation | publisher = U Mich | url = http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/papazian/misplace.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020404005331/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/papazian/misplace.html | url-status=dead | archive-date = 2002-04-04 | title = Refuting Genocide }}.</ref> 

From Crimea Enver first attempted to link up with units under Halil and Nuri to defend against the Allies, but his boat ran aground and hearing the army was demobilizing he gave up and went to Berlin like the other Unionists émigrés did. He settled in the suburb of [[Babelsberg]] to maintain an emigre network of exiled CUP members. In April 1919 after meeting with [[Karl Radek]] with Talaat, he took on the role of a secret envoy for his friend General [[Hans von Seeckt]] who wished for a German-Soviet alliance.<ref name="Wheeler-Bennett, John page 126">{{Citation | last = Wheeler-Bennett | first = John | title = The Nemesis of Power | place = London | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1967 | page = 126}}.</ref> In August 1920, Enver sent Seeckt a letter in which he offered on behalf of the Soviet Union the partition of Poland in return for German arms deliveries to Soviet Russia.<ref name="Wheeler-Bennett, John page 126" /> Besides working for General von Seeckt, Enver envisioned cooperation between the new [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russian]] government against the British, and went to [[Moscow]].

Accompanying Mehmed Ali Sâmi, Enver's new pseudonym, was his Unionist comrade [[Bahaeddin Şakir]]. Sâmi would be a doctor representing the [[Turkish Red Crescent]] in Russia. On 10 October 1919, their plane flight took off from the German border and stopped in [[Königsberg]] and then [[Šiauliai]] but crashed in the outskirts of [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]]. Stranded in a country teeming with Allied soldiers, they were not recognized by journalists or occupation forces until they were about to escape. They were eventually arrested for two months, but Enver and Şakir managed to escape from the Lithuanian prison back to Berlin. Enver and Şakir tried again to enter Russia by air but their plane broke down and crashed not even beyond the German border. After tending to their wounds in a near by village, they returned to Berlin. Enver's insistence to arrive to Moscow by plane costed them another plane crash in flight trials. Eventually Cemal joined the duo, and using a plane that successfully passed flight tests they set off once again for Moscow. But hearing strange noises from the engine, Enver asked the pilot to turn back. After small repairs to the plane Enver attempted a fifth flight to Moscow, where the plane disintegrated one hour into the flight. While Enver was determined to make a grand entrance from the sky, Şakir and Cemal gave up and instead joined a Russian prisoner of war convoy heading back to their homeland. Enver's new alias was now Herr Altman, "a German Jewish Communist of no importance". In his sixth attempt, a one-seat plane carrying Enver and a pilot malfunctioned in mid-air and landed in British-occupied [[Danzig]]. Enver begged the pilot to repair the plane lest he would be captured by the British. Taking off once again, they only made it as far as [[Königsberg]]. The plane once again repaired, they made it to Bolshevik occupied Estonia to refill on gas, but the Bolsheviks arrested Enver, mistaking him for a fugitive Baltic German count that fled to Germany, and imprison him in the city of [[Reval]]. Enver's case for his identity was not helped when an Estonian peasant identified him as the abusive count. Enver took up painting in prison, at one point painting a portrait of the warden and his family. With the [[Estonian-German peace treaty]], Enver was repatriated to Germany as the German count.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Hanioğlu |first=Şükrü |title=Enver Paşa |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/enver-pasa |website=İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=147 ) UÇTU UÇTU, ENVER PAŞA UÇTU !.. |url=http://tarihtenanekdotlar.blogspot.com/2011/12/147-uctu-uctu-enver-pasa-uctu.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062136/http://tarihtenanekdotlar.blogspot.com/2011/12/147-uctu-uctu-enver-pasa-uctu.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 |website=Tarihten Anektotlar}}</ref>

Enver finally made it to Moscow in August 1920 (he came by land in the end). There he was well-received staying in the guesthouse in the [[:ru:Софийская_набережная|Sofiskaia Naberezhnaya]] district, and established contacts with representatives from [[Central Asia]] and other exiled CUP members as the director of the Soviet Government's Asiatic Department.{{Sfn | Moorehead | 1997 | p = 300}} He also met with [[Bolshevik]] leaders, including [[Georgy Chicherin]], Radek, [[Grigory Zinoviev]] and [[Vladimir Lenin]]. He tried to support the [[Turkish national movement]] and corresponded with [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]], giving him the guarantee that he did not intend to intervene in the movement in [[Anatolia]]. According to two letters dated 25 and 26 August to von Seect, he asked for arms support to the Anatolian movement in his meetings with [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]] and even received a promise.<ref name=":6" />

Between 1 and 8 September 1920, he was in Baku for the [[Congress of the Peoples of the East]], representing Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. His appearance was a personal triumph, but the congress failed in its aim to create a mass pro-Bolshevik movement among Muslims. [[Victor Serge]], a witness, recorded that:

{{blockquote|At Baku, Enver Pasha put in a sensational appearance. A whole hall full of Orientals broke into shouts, with scimitars and yataghans brandished aloft: "''Death to imperialism''" All the same, genuine understanding with the Islamic world ... was still difficult.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Serge |first1=Victor |title=emoirs of a Revolutionary |date=1984 |publisher=Writer and Readers Publishing Inc |location=New York |isbn=0-86316-070-0 |page=109}}</ref>|}}He returned to Berlin in early October 1920 and settled in the luxurious [[Grunewald (locality)|Grünewald]] district. Enver Pasha then went to Switzerland, where he met with Hakkı Pasha and decided to establish a secret organization to send military aid from Russia to Anatolia. The committee included Major Fischer, von Seect's former aide-de-camp, and Captain Kress, who was in charge of military equipment at the [[Ministry of the Reichswehr|German War Ministry]]. However, the necessary financial aid could not be obtained from Moscow. According to a letter dated November 4, 1920, written by Halil Pasha to Enver Pasha, new demands in this area were also rejected by Karahan. Enver went to Moscow again at the end of February 1921 and held several meetings with Chicherin and [[Bekir Sami Kunduh|Bekir Sami (Kunduh)]], the representative of the new Ankara government. When the Greeks advanced on [[Ankara]] on 30 July, Enver arrived to [[Batumi|Batum]] with other Unionist leaders with the hope to enter Anatolia and usurp the [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish nationalist movement]] from Mustafa Kemal. At that time, the [[Trabzon]] chapter of the [[Association for Defence of National Rights|Defence of Rights Committee]] openly supported him. However this attempt was abortive as Ankara's victory in the [[Battle of the Sakarya]] caused Enver Pasha's plans to completely change once again.<ref name=":6" />

==Relations with Mustafa Kemal==
[[File:Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) with Enver Pasha.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Kemal Pasha (second in the back) and Enver Pasha (front) while inspecting the front in Damascus in 1917]]

Much has been written about the poor relations between Enver and [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]], two men who played pivotal roles in the Turkish history of the 20th century. Both hailed from the Balkans, and the two served together in North Africa during the wars preceding World War I, Enver being Mustafa Kemal's senior. Enver disliked Mustafa Kemal for his circumspect attitude toward the political agenda pursued by the CUP, and regarded him as a serious rival.<ref name="Kaylan">{{cite book| first =Muammer | last = Kaylan |title=The Kemalists: Islamic Revival and the Fate of Secular Turkey | date = 8 April 2005 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aEh_IofABkYC&pg=PA77 | publisher =Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61592-897-2|page= 77}}</ref> Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk) considered Enver to be a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin;<ref name = "Zürcher1984">{{cite book| first =Erik Jan | last = Zürcher |author-link=Erik-Jan Zürcher |title= The Unionist Factor: The {{sic|Rôle|nolink=y}} of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement, 1905–1926|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BUGIBa78aWwC&pg=PA59 |date=1 January 1984 | publisher =Brill |isbn=90-04-07262-4|page= 59}}</ref> he criticized Enver and his colleagues for their policies and their involvement of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.<ref name = "HarrisCriss2009">{{cite book | first1 = George Sellers | last1 = Harris| first2= Bilge | last2 = Criss | title = Studies in Atatürk's Turkey: The American Dimension | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KsNvyTwz9y0C&pg=PA85 | year = 2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-17434-4|page=85}}</ref><ref name = "RubinKirişci2001">{{cite book| first1=Barry M | last1 = Rubin | author-link1 =Barry M. Rubin| first2=Kemal | last2 = Kirişci | author-link2 =Kemal Kirişci|title=Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=M01_djppi18C&pg=PA168 |date=1 January 2001|publisher= Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=978-1-55587-954-9|page = 168}}</ref> In the years of upheaval that followed the Armistice of October 1918, when Mustafa Kemal led [[Turkish War of Independence|the Turkish resistance]] to occupying and invading forces, Enver sought to return from exile, but his attempts to do so and join the military effort were blocked by the [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Ankara government]] under Mustafa Kemal.

== Last years ==
[[File:Enverpasa1.jpg|thumb|right|185px|A portrait of Enver Pasha]]

On 30 July 1921, with the [[Turkish War of Independence]] in full swing, Enver decided to return to Anatolia. He went to [[Batum]] to be close to the new border. However, Mustafa Kemal did not want him among the [[Turkish revolutionaries]]. Mustafa Kemal had stopped all friendly ties with Enver Pasha and the CUP as early as 1912,<ref name = "Zürcher1984" /> and he explicitly rejected the [[pan-Turkic]] ideas and what Mustafa Kemal perceived as Enver Pasha's utopian goals.<ref name = "Kaylan" /> Enver Pasha changed his plans and traveled to Moscow where he managed to win the trust of the Soviet authorities. In November 1921 he was sent by Lenin to [[Bukhara]] in the [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] to help suppress the [[Basmachi Revolt]] against the local pro-Moscow [[Bolshevism|Bolshevik]] regime. Instead, however, he made secret contacts with some of the rebellion's leaders and, along with a small number of followers, defected to the ''Basmachi'' side. His aim was to unite the numerous Basmachi groups under his own command and mount a co-ordinated offensive against the Bolsheviks in order to realise his pan-Turkic dreams. After a number of successful military operations he managed to establish himself as the rebels' supreme commander, and turned their disorganized forces into a small but well-drilled army. His command structure was built along German lines and his staff included a number of experienced Turkish officers.<ref>{{Citation | first = Peter | last = Hopkirk | author-link = Peter Hopkirk|title = Setting the East Ablaze: Lenin's Dream of an Empire in Asia | place = Oxford | year = 1986 | publisher = Oxford University Press |page = 160 | isbn = 0192851667}}.</ref>

According to [[David Fromkin]]:
{{Blockquote | However Enver's personal weaknesses reasserted themselves. He was a vain, strutting man who loved uniforms, medals and titles. For use in stamping official documents, he ordered a golden seal that described him as 'Commander-in-Chief of all the Armies of Islam, Son-in-Law of the Caliph and Representative of the Prophet.' Soon he was calling himself Emir of Turkestan, a practice not conducive to good relations with the Emir whose cause he served. At some point in the first half of 1922, the Emir of Bukhara broke off relations with him, depriving him of troops and much-needed financial support. The Emir of Afghanistan also failed to march to his aid.<ref>{{Harvnb | Fromkin | 1989 | p = 487}}</ref>}}

On 4 August 1922, as he allowed his troops to celebrate [[Eid al-Adha]] while retaining a guard of 30 men at his headquarters near the village of Ab-i-Derya near [[Dushanbe]], the Red Army [[Bashkir people|Bashkir]] cavalry brigade under the command of ethnic [[Armenians|Armenian]], [[Yakov Melkumov]] (Hakob Melkumian), launched a surprise attack. According to some sources, Enver and some 25 of his men mounted their horses and charged the approaching troops, when Enver was killed by machine-gun fire.<ref>{{Citation | first = Feridun | last = Kandemir | title = Enver Paşa'nın Son Gũnleri | language = tr | pages = 65–69 | publisher = Gũven Yayınevi | year = 1955}}.</ref> In his memoirs, Enver Pasha's aide Yaver Suphi Bey stated that Enver Pasha died of a bullet wound right above his heart during a cavalry charge.<ref>{{Citation | first = Yaver | last = Suphi Bey | title = Enver Paşa'nın Son Günleri | language = tr | page = 239 | publisher = Çatı Kitapları | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-975-8845-28-6}}.</ref> Alternatively, according to Melkumov's memoirs, Enver managed to escape on horseback and hid for four days in the village of Chaghan. His hideout was located after a Red Army officer infiltrated the village in disguise. Melkumov's troops ambushed Enver at Chaghan, and in the ensuing combat he was killed by machine gun fire.<ref>{{Citation | last =Melkumov | first =Ya. A. | title = Туркестанцы |trans-title=Memoirs | place = Moscow | year = 1960 | language = ru| pages=124–127}}.</ref> Some sources write that Melkumov personally killed Enver Pasha with his sabre, although Melkumov does not claim this in his memoirs.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://ratnikjournal.narod.ru/200802/23.htm | newspaper = Ratnik | title = Civil War in Central Asia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hayadat.ru/heros/view_heros.php?id=42|title=Акоп Мелькумов|author=Гайк Айрапетян|work=HayAdat.ru|access-date=2013-06-23|language=ru|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130625100117/http://www.hayadat.ru/heros/view_heros.php?id=42|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-06-25}}</ref>

[[File:EnverpashaGrave.JPG|thumb|right|Enver Pasha's grave at the [[Monument of Liberty, Istanbul|Abide-i Hürriyet]] (Monument of Liberty) cemetery in Istanbul, where his remains were interred in 1996]]

Fromkin writes:
{{Blockquote | There are several accounts of how Enver died. According to the most persuasive of them, when the Russians attacked he gripped his pocket Koran and, as always, charged straight ahead. Later his decapitated body was found on the field of battle. His Koran was taken from his lifeless fingers and was filed in the archives of the Soviet secret police.<ref>{{Harvnb | Fromkin | 1989 | p = 488}}</ref>}}

Enver's body was buried near Ab-i-Derya in [[Tajikistan]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=1996-11-07|title=Lost Opportunity, Potential Disaster|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB847320335522422000|access-date=2021-03-29|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> In 1996, his remains were brought to [[Turkey]] and reburied at [[Monument of Liberty, Istanbul|Abide-i Hürriyet]] (Monument of Liberty) cemetery in [[Şişli]], [[Istanbul]]. He was re-buried on the 4 August, the anniversary of his death in 1922.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turk Enver Pasha headed for reburial|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1996/08/02/Turk-Enver-Pasha-headed-for-reburial/3721838958400/|access-date=2021-03-29|website=UPI|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Jung|first1=Dietrich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdbYkV0yTMYC&q=4+august+1996+Enver+Pasha+and+Suleyman+demirel&pg=PA175|title=Turkey at the Crossroads: Ottoman Legacies and a Greater Middle East|last2=Piccoli|first2=Wolfango|date=October 2001|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-867-8|pages=175–176|language=en}}</ref> Enver Pasha's image remains controversial in Turkey, since Enver and Atatürk had a personal rivalry at the end of the Ottoman Empire and his memory was cultivated by the [[Kemalism|Kemalists]].<ref name=":0" /> But upon his body's arrival in Turkey, he was rehabilitated by the Turkish President [[Süleyman Demirel]] who held a speech acknowledging his contributions to [[Turkish nationalism]].<ref name=":0" />  Following [[Second Nagorno-Karabakh War|renewed hostilities]] between [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] over the [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Nagorno Karabakh]] region in 2020, Enver Pasha's role during World War I was praised by Turkish President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]] during an Azeri [[Baku Victory Parade of 2020|victory parade]] in [[Baku]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mirror-Spectator|first=The Armenian|date=2020-12-11|title=At Baku Victory Parade, Aliyev Calls Yerevan, Zangezur, Sevan Historical Azerbaijani Lands, Erdogan Praises Enver Pasha|url=http://mirrorspectator.com/2020/12/11/at-baku-victory-parade-with-erdogan-aliyev-calls-yerevan-zangezur-sevan-historical-azerbaijani-lands-erdogan-praises-enver-pasha/|access-date=2021-03-29|website=The Armenian Mirror-Spectator|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2023, Azerbaijani officials issued a map of the formerly Armenian [[Stepanakert]], renaming one of the streets after Enver Pasha.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vincent |first1=Faustine |title=Azerbaijan reissues Nagorno-Karabakh map with street named after Turkish leader of 1915 Armenian genocide |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/10/04/azerbaijan-reissues-map-of-nagorno-karabakh-with-street-named-after-turkish-leader-of-1915-armenian-genocide_6146889_4.html |access-date=5 October 2023 |work=Le Monde.fr |date=4 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004235346/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/10/04/azerbaijan-reissues-map-of-nagorno-karabakh-with-street-named-after-turkish-leader-of-1915-armenian-genocide_6146889_4.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Family==
After Enver's death, three of his four siblings, [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri]] (1889–1949), Mehmed Kamil (1900–62), and Hasene Hanım, adopted the surname "Killigil" after the 1934 [[Surname Law]] required all Turkish citizens to adopt a surname.

Enver's sister Hasene [[Hanım]] married Nazım Bey. Nazım Bey, an aid-de-camp of [[Abdul Hamid II]], survived an assassination attempt by Talaat during the 1908 [[Young Turk Revolution]] of which his brother-in-law Enver was a leader.<ref name="Kedourie2013">{{cite book| first =Sylvia | last = Kedourie |title= Seventy-five Years of the Turkish Republic| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YQHaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |date= 13 September 2013|publisher= Taylor & Francis|isbn= 978-1-135-26705-6 | page =65}}</ref> With Nazım, Hasene gave birth to {{ill|Faruk Kenç|tr}} (1910–2000), who would become a famous Turkish film director and producer.

Enver's other sister, Mediha Hanım (later Mediha Orbay; 1895–1983), married [[Kâzım Orbay]], a prominent Turkish general and politician. On 16 October 1945, their son Haşmet Orbay, Enver's nephew, shot and killed a physician named Neşet Naci Arzan, an event known as the "{{ill|Ankara murder|tr|Ankara cinayeti}}". At the urging of the Governor of Ankara, [[Nevzat Tandoğan]], Haşmet Orbay's friend Reşit Mercan initially took the blame. After a second trial revealed Haşmet Orbay as the perpetrator, however, he was convicted.  The murder became a political scandal in Turkey after the suicide of Tandoğan, the suspicious death of the case's public prosecutor {{ill|Fahrettin Karaoğlan|tr}}, and the resignation of Kâzım Orbay from his position as [[General Staff of the Republic of Turkey|Chief of the General Staff of Turkey]] after his son's conviction.

[[Djevdet Bey]] who was the Vali of [[Van vilayet|Van]] in 1915, was also a brother-in-law of his.''<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Yuhanon |first=B. Beth |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31826/9781463239961-013/pdf |title=Sayfo 1915 |pages=183 |chapter=The Methods of Killing in the Assyrian Genocide|date=30 April 2018 |publisher=Gorgias Press |doi=10.31826/9781463239961-013 |isbn=9781463239961 |s2cid=198820452 }}</ref>''

== Marriage==
Around 1908, Enver Pasha became the subject of gossip about an alleged romance between him and Princess Iffet of Egypt. When this story reached Istanbul, the grand vizier, [[Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha]] decided to exploit Enver's marital eligibility by arranging a rapprochement between the Committee for Union and Progress and the imperial family.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Rorlich |first=Azade-Ayse |title=Enver Pasha and the Bolshevik Revolution |publisher=University of Wisconsin—Madison |year=1972 |pages=Pages=9–10 |language=En}}</ref> After a careful search, the grand vizier chose the twelve-year-old [[Naciye Sultan]], a granddaughter of Sultan [[Abdulmejid I]], as Enver's future bride. Both the grand vizier and Enver's mother then notified him of this decision. Enver had never seen Naciye, and he did not trust his mother's letters, since he suspected her of being enamored with the idea of having a princess as her daughter-in-law.<ref name=":3" />

Therefore, he asked a reliable friend, [[Ahmet Rıza|Ahmed Rıza Bey]], who was president of the Ottoman Parliament to investigate. When the latter reported favorably on the prospective bride's education and beauty, as well as on the prospective dowry, Enver took a practical view of this marriage and accepted the arrangement.{{sfn|Rorlich|1972|pp=10–11}} Naciye had been previously engaged to [[Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Adem|last=Suad|title=100 Meşhur Aşk|publisher=Az Kitap|date=April 6, 2015|isbn=978-6-054-81261-5}}</ref> However, Sultan [[Mehmed V]] broke off the engagement,<ref>{{cite book|first=Meral|last=Altındal|title=Osmanlı'da harem|publisher=Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi|year=1993|page=138}}</ref> and in April 1909,<ref>{{cite book|first=Handan Nezir|last=Akmeşe|title=The Birth of Modern Turkey: The Ottoman Military and the March to WWI|publisher=I.B.Tauris|date=November 12, 2005|page=100|isbn=978-1-850-43797-0}}</ref> when Naciye was just twelve years old, engaged her to Enver, fifteen years older than her. Following the old Ottoman pattern of life and tradition, the engagement ceremony was celebrated in Enver's absence as he remained in Berlin.{{sfn|Rorlich|1972|p=11}}

The marriage took place on 15 May 1911 in the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]], and was performed by [[List of Sheikh-ul-Islams of the Ottoman Empire|Şeyhülislam]] Musa Kazım Efendi. Head clerk of the sultan [[Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil|Halid Ziya Bey]] served as Naciye's deputy, and her witnesses were director of the imperial kitchen Galib Bey, and the personal physician of the sultan Hacı Ahmed Bey. Minister of War Mahmud Şevket Pasha served as Enver's deputy, and his witnesses were aide-de-camp of the sultan Binbaşı Re'fet Bey and chamberlain of the imperial gates Ahsan Bey.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milanlıoğlu |first=Neval |title=Emine Naciye Sultan'ın Hayatı (1896–1957) |publisher=Marmara University Institute of Social Sciences |year=2011 |pages=Pages=30–31 |language=Tr}}</ref> The wedding took place about three years later on 5 March 1914{{sfn|Milanlıoğlu|2011|p=57}} in the Nişantaşı Palace.<ref>{{cite book|first=Benjamin C.|last=Fortna|title=The Circassian: A Life of Eşref Bey, Late Ottoman Insurgent and Special Agent|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|page=293 n. 16|isbn=978-0-190-49244-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Tarih ve toplum: aylık ansiklopedik dergi, Volume 26|publisher=İletişim Yayınları/Perka A. Ş.|year=1934|page=171}}</ref> The couple were given one of the palaces of [[Kuruçeşme]]. The marriage was very happy.<ref>{{cite book|first=Yaver Suphi|last=Bey|title=Enven Paşa'nın Son Günleri|publisher=artcivic|date=November 16, 2011|isbn=978-6-054-33739-2}}</ref>

[[Refik Halit Karay|Refik Halid Karay]] believed Enver went through with the marriage in order to overthrow the [[Ottoman dynasty]] in a coup and have the legitimacy to create his own imperial dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bardakçı |first=Murat |author-link=Murat Bardakçı |title=Şahbaba: Osmanoğulları'nın Son Hükümdarı Vahdettin'in Hayatı, Hatıraları ve Özel Mektupları |publisher=Pan Yayıncılık-İnkılâp Kitabevi |year=1998 |isbn=9751024536}} pp. 53–54</ref>

On 17 May 1917, Naciye gave birth to the couple's eldest child, a daughter, [[Mahpeyker Hanımsultan]]. She was followed by a second daughter, [[Türkan Hanımsultan]], born on 4 July 1919. Both of them were born in Istanbul.<ref name=":4" /> During Enver's stay in Berlin, Naciye and her daughters Mahpeyker and Türkan joined him. When Enver left for [[Russian Soviet Socialist Republic|Russian SSR]] his family remained there.{{sfn|Rorlich|1972|p=79}} His son, [[Sultanzade Ali Bey]] was born in Berlin on 29 September 1921, after Enver's departure and he never saw him.{{sfn|Rorlich|1972|p=79}}<ref name=":4" /> Naciye was widowed at Enver's death on 4 August 1922.<ref name=":4" />

After his death, Naciye [[levirate marriage|remarried his brother]] Mehmed Kamil Killigil (1900–1962) in 1923, and had one other daughter, [[Rana Hanımsultan]].<ref name=":4" />

==Issue ==
By his wife, Enver had two daughters and a son:<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=ADRA |first=Jamil |url=http://archive.org/details/GenealogyOfTheImperialOttomanFamily2005 |title=Genealogy of the Imperial Ottoman Family 2005 |year=2005 |pages=12–13 |language=English}}</ref>
* [[Mahpeyker Hanımsultan]] (17 May 1917 – 3 April 2000). Married once, had a son.
* [[Türkan Hanımsultan]] (4 July 1919 – 25 December 1989). Married once, had a son.
* [[Sultanzade Ali Bey]] (29 September 1921 – 2 December 1971). Married twice, had a daughter.

==In arts and culture==
Enver Pasha plays an important role in ''[[The Golden House of Samarkand]]'', a comic book by [[Hugo Pratt]], from the Italian series ''[[Corto Maltese]]''.

==Works==
* Enver authored a book in German, ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Buch_-_Um_Tripolis_-_1911-1912_-_Enver_Pascha_(1918).pdf Enver Pascha «um Tripolis»],'' which is his diaries during the war in Libya (1911–12).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Un ouvrage d'Enver Pacha|journal=[[Servet-i Fünun|Servet-i-Funoun Partie Française]]|page= 2 | url=https://archives.saltresearch.org/bitstream/123456789/129372/505/PFSIF9180704B002.jpg |date=4 July 1917|issue= 1400}}</ref><!--Yes, Enver wrote it https://www.amazon.com/-/es/Enver-Pascha/dp/1527980227 -->

== See also ==

* [[Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau|Pursuit of ''Goeben'' and ''Breslau'']]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Sources==
* {{citation|last=Fromkin|first=David | author-link = David Fromkin |date=1989|title=A Peace to End All Peace|title-link=A Peace to End All Peace |publisher= Avon Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Kansu|first=Aykut|title=The Revolution of 1908 in Turkey|year=1997|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004107915|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j71caZgTHQC}}
* {{Citation | last = Moorehead | first = Alan | author-link = Alan Moorehead | title = Gallipoli | page = 79 | year = 1997 | publisher = Wordsworth Editions | isbn = 1-85326-675-2}}.
* {{Citation | last = Woodward | first = David R | title = Field Marshal Sir William Robertson | place = Westport, [[Connecticut|CT]] & London | publisher = Praeger | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-275-95422-6}}.

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|last=Haley|first=Charles D. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283613|title=The Desperate Ottoman: Enver Paşa and the German Empire – I|journal=[[Middle Eastern Studies]]|volume=30|issue=1|date=January 1994|pages=1–51|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis, Ltd.]]|doi=10.1080/00263209408700981 |jstor=4283613|url-access=subscription}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Enver Pasha}}
{{Wikiquote|İsmail Enver}}
* [https://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Enver/Enver.html Enver's biography]
* {{Cite EB1922 |wstitle=Enver Pasha |volume=31 |page=5 |short=1}}
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/baku/ch04.htm Enver's declaration at the Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East] 1920
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071031061253/http://www.homepage-link.to/turkey/morgenthau.html Interview with Enver Pasha] by Henry Morgenthau – American Ambassador to Constantinople (Istanbul) 1915
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090817082904/http://www.turkeyswar.com/whoswho/enver/who-enver.htm Biography of Enver Pasha] at Turkey in the First World War website
* [http://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/sanat/enver-pasanin-ozel-esyalari-muzayedede-satilacak,wuZMNf2QYUiwYB3XstE9CA/aIETnRjLzUu8Ciwe6EIepw Personal belongings of Enver Pasha]
* [http://www.greek-genocide.net/index.php/overview/perpetrators/244-ismail-enver-pasha-1881-1922 Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105054742/http://www.greek-genocide.net/index.php/overview/perpetrators/244-ismail-enver-pasha-1881-1922 |date=5 November 2020 }}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/004755}}

{{Turkish nationalism}}
{{Armenian Genocide}}
{{Sayfo}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Enver, Ismail}}
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