View source for Epirus

{{Short description|Historical region in the Balkans}} 
{{Other uses}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name                    = Epirus
| native_name             = <small>{{langx|el|Ήπειρος}}<br />{{langx|sq|Epir/Epiri}}<br />{{langx|rup|Epiru}}</small>
| native_name_lang        = 
| settlement_type         = [[Historical region]]
| image_map               = Epirus antiquus tabula.jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = Map of ancient Epirus by [[Heinrich Kiepert]], 1902
| coordinates             = 
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = Present status
| subdivision_name        = Divided between [[Greece]] and [[Albania]]
<!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion -->
<!-- for references: use <ref> tags -->
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
<!-- square kilometers -->
| area_total_km2          = 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_footnotes    = 
| population_total        = 
| population_as_of        = 
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_note         = 
| timezone1               = [[Central European Time]]
| timezone2               = [[Eastern European Time]]
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| footnotes               =  
| population_demonym      = Epirote
}}

'''Epirus''' ({{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|p|aɪ|r|ə|s}}) is a [[Region#Geographical regions|geographical]] and [[historical region|historical]] region in [[southeastern Europe]], now shared between [[Greece]] and [[Albania]]. Classical Epirus roughly lay between the [[Pindus Mountains]] in the east and the [[Ionian Sea]] in the west, and between the [[Ceraunian Mountains|Acroceraunian Mountains]] in the north and the [[Ambracian Gulf]] in the south.<ref name="Hammond2012">{{harvnb|Hammond|2012|loc="Epirus", p. 527}}.</ref> It is currently divided between the [[Modern regions of Greece|region]] of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] in northwestern Greece and the counties of [[Gjirokastër County|Gjirokastër]] and [[Vlorë County|Vlorë]] in southern Albania. The largest city and seat of the Greek administrative region of Epirus is [[Ioannina]].

A rugged and mountainous region, in [[classical antiquity]] Epirus was the north-west area of [[ancient Greece]].<ref name="Hammond2012"/> It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the [[Chaonians]], [[Molossians]], and [[Thesprotians]]. It was home to the sanctuary of [[Dodona]], the oldest [[oracle]] in ancient Greece, and the second most prestigious after [[Delphi]]. Unified into a [[Epirus (ancient state)|single state]] in 370 BC by the [[Aeacidae]] dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] who fought the [[Roman Republic]] in [[Pyrrhic War|a series of campaigns]]. Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Republic along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, which was followed by the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Eastern Roman Empire]].

Following the [[sack of Constantinople]] by the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204), Epirus became the center of the [[Despotate of Epirus]], one of the successor states to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. In the 14th century, Epirus was brought under the rule of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologoi|restored Byzantine Empire]], before being briefly conquered by the [[Serbian Empire]]. The region was then divided amongst a number of despotates and political entities, including the Despotate of Epirus, the [[Despotate of Arta]], the [[Zenebishi family]], and the [[Republic of Venice]], before being conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 15th century. Epirus became part of the semi-independent [[Pashalik of Yanina|Pashalik]] governed by the Ottoman [[Albanians|Albanian]] ruler [[Ali Pasha of Ioannina|Ali Pasha]] in the early 19th century, but the [[Sublime Porte]] re-asserted its control in 1821. Following the [[Balkan Wars]] and [[World War I]], southern Epirus became part of Greece, while northern Epirus became part of Albania.

==Name and etymology==
[[File:Epirus234bc.jpg|thumb|right|Coin of the Epirote League, depicting Zeus (left) and a lightning bolt with the word "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" {{gloss|of the Epirotes}} (right)]]

The name ''Epirus'' is the [[Latin]] name of the region, derived from the {{langx|grc|Ἤπειρος|translit=Ḗpeiros}} ({{langx|grc-x-doric|Ἄπειρος|translit=Ápeiros}}), meaning "mainland" or ''[[wikt:terra firma|terra firma]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Liddell|Scott|1940|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2347463 ἤπειρ-ος]}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Filos|2018|loc=p. 215, footnote #1}} It is thought to come from an [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] root ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>apero-'' 'coast',<ref>{{harvnb|Babiniotis|1998}}</ref> and was applied by the Ancient Greeks to the territory opposite [[Corfu]] and the [[Ionian islands]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=David Sacks |author2=Lisa R. Brody |author3=Oswyn Murray |title= Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World |series=Facts on File Library of World History |date=2005 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=0816057222 |page=85 |quote=... in a region of northwest Greece called Epirus.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Winnifrith|2002|p=22}}.</ref> The name first appears in the work of [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] in the 6th century BC and is one of the few Greek names from the view of an external observer with a maritime-geographical perspective. Although a foreign name, it later came to be adopted by the inhabitants of the area,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douzougli |first1=Angelika |last2=Papadopoulos |first2=John |title=Liatovouni: a Molossian cemetery and settlement in Epirus |journal=Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts |date=2010 |volume=125 |url=https://www.academia.edu/24011794 |page=1}}</ref> and it was struck on the coinage of the [[Epirote League|unified Epirote commonwealth]]: "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" ({{langx|grc|Ἀπειρωτᾶν|translit=Āpeirōtân}}, {{langx|grc-x-attic|Ἠπειρωτῶν|translit=Ēpeirōtôn}}, i.e. "of the Epirotes", see adjacent image).

In the [[Middle Ages]], the term was used by the [[Despotate of Epirus]], one of the Greek successor states of the [[Byzantine Empire]] following the dismemberment of the latter in 1204. By the [[Late Middle Ages]], during the period of [[Humanism]] and the [[European Renaissance]], the term was used as a synonym for [[Medieval Albania|Albania]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Demiraj|first=Bardhyl|title=La Maledizione dell'Epirota (1483)|journal=Res Albanicae|volume=I|issue=1|pages=133–149|place=Palermo|year=2012}} pp. 132–133.</ref> During the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman period]] the term was not used. Since the development of the modern [[Greek nationalism]] from the early 19th century onwards, the part of Lower Albania – the southern half of [[Ottoman Albania]] – that fell within the definition of ancient Epirus, has been called by the newly revived name by Greeks ever since.<ref>{{cite book|first=Elias G.|last=Skoulidas|chapter=Identities, Locality and Otherness in Epirus during the Late Ottoman period|title=Identities in the Greek world (from 1204 to the present day)|publisher=European Society of Modern Greek Studies|year=2011|pages=1–3}}</ref> In [[Greece]] the name is used by the administrative region of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]]. The [[Albanian language|Albanian]] name {{lang|sq|Epiri}}, which is derived from the ancient name, is used for the ancient region and not for an administrative one. Similarly, the [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] name {{lang|rup|Epiru}} is derived from the ancient one.

==Boundaries and definitions==
[[File:Epirus landsat.jpg|right|thumb|[[NASA]] satellite image of Epirus]]

Historically, the geographical area of Epirus proper is defined within the lines drawn from [[Cape of Gjuhëz|Cape Gjuhëz]] of the [[Ceraunian Mountains]] in the north-west, to [[Mount Qelqëz]] in the north-east, to [[Mount Gavrovo]] in the south-east, to the mouth of the [[Ambracian Gulf]] in the south-west.<ref>{{harvnb|Suha|2021|p=19}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Greenwalt|2011|p=280}}</ref> The northern boundary of ancient Epirus is alternatively given as the [[Vjosa]] river.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilkes|1995|loc=p. 92 "Appian's description of the Illyrian territories records a southern boundary with Chaonia and Thesprotia, where ancient Epirus began south of the river Aous (Vijosë)."}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C&dq=illyrians%20wilkes&pg=PR20 Map])</ref> Epirus's eastern boundary is defined by the [[Pindus Mountains]], that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and [[Thessaly]].<ref name=Britannica/> To the west, Epirus faces the [[Ionian Sea]]. The island of [[Corfu]] is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus.

The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus. The [[Epirus (region)|region of Epirus]] in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. In Albania, where the concept of Epirus is never used in an official context, classical Epirus comprises parts of the counties of [[Gjirokastër County|Gjirokastër]] and [[Vlorë County|Vlorë]].

==History==
===Early history===
[[File:EpirusMycynaen.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mycenaean civilization|Mycenaean]] sites in the [[Epirus (region)|region of Epirus]]]]
In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by the Mycenaean civilization, suggesting that the founders of [[Mycenae]] may have come from Epirus and central [[Albania]]. Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenaean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer's [[Odyssey]], and the Oracle of [[Zeus]] at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in the Iliad.<ref name=Britannica/>

In the Middle Bronze Age, Epirus was inhabited by the same nomadic Hellenic tribes that went on to settle in the rest of Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Borza|1992|pp=62, 78, 98}}.</ref> Aristotle considered the region around Dodona to have been part of [[Ancient Greece|Hellas]] and the region where the [[Hellenes]] originated.<ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|1986|p=77}}: "The original home of the Hellenes was 'Hellas', the area round Dodona in Epirus, according to Aristotle. In the Iliad it was the home of Achilles' Hellenes."</ref><ref>Aristotle. ''Meteorologica'', [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html 1.14] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061102/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html |date=29 June 2011 }}: "Rather we must take the cause of all these changes to be that, just as winter occurs in the seasons of the year, so in determined periods there comes a great winter of a great year and with it excess of rain. But this excess does not always occur in the same place. The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance, took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous, a river which has often changed its course. Here the Selli dwelt and those who were formerly called Graeci and now Hellenes."</ref> 

According to Bulgarian linguist [[Vladimir I. Georgiev]], Epirus was part of the [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek linguistic area]] during the Late Neolithic period.<ref>{{harvnb|Georgiev|1981|loc=p. 192: "''Late Neolithic Period'': in northwestern Greece the Proto-Greek language had already been formed: this is the original home of the Greeks."}}</ref> By the early 1st millennium BC, all fourteen Epirote tribes including the [[Chaonians]] in northwestern Epirus, the [[Molossians]] in the centre and the [[Thesprotians]] in the south, were speakers of a strong west Greek dialect.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name="Hammond2012"/><ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|1998}}; {{harvnb|Wilkes|1995|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|1994|pp=430, 434}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|1982|p=284}}.</ref>

===Epirus in the Classical and Hellenistic periods===
{{Main|Epirus (ancient state)}}
[[File:D70-0404-dodona.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|The theater of [[Dodona]] with [[Tomaros|Mt. Tomarus]] in the background]]
[[File:Ancient Regions Mainland Greece-es.svg|right|thumb|250px|Regions of mainland Greece and environments in antiquity]]

Geographically on the edge of the Greek world, Epirus remained for the most part outside the limelight of Greek history until relatively late, much like the neighbouring Greek regions of  Macedonia, Aetolia, and Acarnania, with which Epirus had political, cultural, linguistic and economic connections.{{Sfn|Filos|2018|loc=p. 215: "Epirus [...] was geographically placed on the fringe of the Greek world and remained almost until the (early) Hellenistic period on the sidelines of the political, socio-economic and cultural characteristics that characterized the southern Greek city-states and their overseas colonies from as early as the Archaic period. In that respect, Epirus shows clear similarities to neighboring Greek regions, such as Macedonia, Aetolia and Acarnania, which also stayed out of the limelight of Greek history until a relatively late period; [...] Epirus was closely related to those areas, and in fact not only in political and economic terms, but also in a cultural and linguistic manner"}} Unlike most other Greeks of this time, who lived in or around [[city-state]]s, the inhabitants of Epirus lived in small villages and their way of life was foreign to that of the [[polis|poleis]] of southern Greece.<ref name=Britannica/><ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|1967}}.</ref> Their region lay on the periphery of the Greek world<ref name=Britannica/> and was far from peaceful; for many centuries, it remained a [[frontier]] area contested with the [[Illyrian peoples]] to the north. However, Epirus had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to the presence of the shrine and oracle at [[Dodona]] – regarded as second only to the more famous oracle at [[Delphi]].

The Epirotes, speakers of a [[Northwest Greek]] dialect, different from the Doric of the Greek colonies on the Ionian islands, and bearers of mostly Greek names, as evidenced by epigraphy, seem to have been regarded with some disdain by some classical writers. The 5th-century BC Athenian historian [[Thucydides]] describes them as "[[Barbarian#Origin of the term|barbarians]]" in his ''History of the Peloponnesian War'',<ref>Thucydides. ''The History of the Peloponnesian War'', [http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.mb.txt 1.8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805021537/http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.mb.txt |date=5 August 2011 }}.</ref> as does [[Strabo]] in his ''Geography'',<ref>Strabo. ''Geography'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/7G*.html 7.7.1].</ref> although the latter clearly distinguishes them from the neighboring [[Illyrians]].<ref>Strabo. ''Geography'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3Dfragments%3Asection%3D11 7.11]</ref> Other writers, such as [[Herodotus]],<ref>Herodotus. ''Histories'', 6.127.</ref> [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]],<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus. ''Roman Antiquities'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/20*.html 20.10 (19.11)].</ref> [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]],<ref>Pausanias. ''Description of Greece'', [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias1A.html 1.11.7–1.12.2].</ref> and [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]],<ref>Eutropius. ''Abridgment of Roman History'' (Historiae Romanae Breviarium), [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm 2.11.13].</ref> describe them as Greeks. Similarly, Epirote tribes/states are included in the [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argive]] and [[Epidaurus|Epidaurian]] lists of the Greek Thearodokoi (hosts of sacred envoys).{{sfn|Davies|2002|pp=234–258}} [[Plutarch]] mentions an interesting element of Epirote folklore regarding Achilles: In his biography of King [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], he claims that Achilles "had a divine status in Epirus and in the local dialect he was called Aspetos" (meaning ''unspeakable'', ''unspeakably great'', in [[Homeric Greek]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2004|p=141}}: "As for Aspestos, Achilles was honored in Epirus under that name, and the patronymic [Ἀ]σπετίδης is found in a fragmentary poem found on papyrus."</ref><ref>cf. Athenian secretary: Aspetos, son of Demostratos from [[Kytheros (deme)|Kytheros]] c. 340 BC.</ref>

[[File:Greek_Marble_Muse_Terpsichore,_Late_4th_to_Mid_2nd_BC_(10451853483).jpg|thumb|[[Terpsichore statuette from Dodona|Terpsichore of Dodona]], 2nd-century BC Hellenistic statue from Epirus]]

Beginning in 370 BC, the [[Molossian]] [[Aeacidae]] dynasty built a [[Epirus (ancient state)|centralized state in Epirus]] and began expanding their power at the expense of rival tribes.<ref name=Britannica/> The Aeacids allied themselves with the increasingly powerful kingdom of [[Macedon]], in part against the common threat of [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] raids,<ref name="Companion">{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=5}}.</ref> and in 359 BC the Molossian princess [[Olympias]], niece of [[Arybbas of Epirus]], married King [[Philip II of Macedon]].<ref name=Britannica/> She was to become the mother of [[Alexander the Great]].

On the death of Arybbas, [[Alexander of Epirus]] succeeded to the throne and the title [[Epirus (ancient state)|King of Epirus]] in 334 BC. He invaded Italy, but was killed in battle by a [[Lucania]]n in the [[Battle of Pandosia]] against several [[Italic tribes]] 331 BC.<ref name=Britannica/><ref>Livy (1926), 8.24.8–14</ref> [[Aeacides of Epirus]], who succeeded Alexander, espoused the cause of Olympias against [[Cassander]], but was dethroned in 313 BC. The struggle between [[Macedon]]ia and [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] involved the [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[Taulantii]], when the Illyrian king [[Glaukias]] offered asylum to Aeacides' son, [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], after his father was expelled from his kingdom among the [[Molossians]].{{sfn|Zimi|2006|p=377}} In 306 BC Glaukias invaded Epirus and established Pyrrhus on the Epirote throne, where he ruled with Illyrian help until he attended the wedding of one of his adoptive brothers (son of Glaukias) in 302 BC. In Pyrrhus' absence Molossians replaced him with [[Neoptolemus II of Epirus|Neoptolemus]], another member of the Aeacides. Pyrrhus managed to murder Neoptolemus and eventually regained the throne.{{sfn|Greenwalt|2011|p=296}} As king of Epirus, Pyrrhus strengthened his links with the Illyrian tribes by marriage alliances.{{sfn|Zimi|2006|p=377}}{{sfn|Greenwalt|2011|pp=296–297}} For six years Pyrrhus fought against the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] and [[Carthage (state)|Carthaginians]] in southern [[Italy]] and [[Sicily]]. The high cost of his victories against the Romans gave Epirus a new, but brief, importance, as well as a lasting contribution to the Greek language with the concept of a "[[Pyrrhic victory]]". Pyrrhus nonetheless brought great prosperity to Epirus, building the great theater of [[Dodona]] and a new suburb at [[Ambracia]] (now modern [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]), which he made his capital.<ref name=Britannica/>

The Aeacid dynasty ended in 232 BC, but Epirus remained a substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament, or ''synedrion''.<ref name=Britannica/> However, it was faced with the growing threat of the expansionist [[Roman Republic]], which fought a series of wars against [[Macedon]]. The League steered an uneasy neutral course in the first two Macedonian Wars but split in the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168 BC), with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome.<ref name=Britannica/> The outcome was disastrous for Epirus; Molossia fell to Rome in 167 BC and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved and deported; the central part of Epirus never regained its former prosperity.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name="Hammond1999">{{Cite book |last=Hammond |first=N. G. L. |author-link=N. G. L. Hammond |editor-last=Hornblower |editor-first=Simon |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first2=Antony |entry=Epirus |title=Oxford Classical Dictionary |date=1999 |url=https://ia902909.us.archive.org/2/items/hornblower-simon-spawforth-antony-the-oxford-classical-dictionary-1999/HORNBLOWER%2C%20Simon%3B%20SPAWFORTH%2C%20Antony%20-%20The%20Oxford%20Classical%20Dictionary%20%5B1999%5D.pdf |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-522408-5 |edition=3rd |location=New York |pages=546–547 |language=en}}</ref>

===Roman and Byzantine rule===
====Epirus as a Roman province====
{{main|Epirus (Roman province)}}
Following his victory over [[Cleopatra]] and [[Mark Antony]] at [[Battle of Actium|Actium]], Emperor [[Augustus]] commemorated the triumph by founding a [[Roman colony]] at [[Nicopolis]] ('City of Victory') in 29 BC.<ref name="Hammond1999" /> The region of Epirus was placed under the [[senatorial province]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] in 27 BC, with the exception of its northernmost part, which remained part of the province of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=47}} Under Emperor [[Trajan]], sometime between 103 and 114 AD, Epirus became a separate province, under a ''[[procurator (Roman)|procurator]] [[Augustus (honorific)|Augusti]]''. The new province extended from the Gulf of Aulon ([[Vlorë]]) and the [[Acroceraunian Mountains]] in the north to the lower course of the [[Acheloos River]] in the south, and included the northern Ionian Islands of [[Corfu]], [[Lefkada]], [[Ithaca (island)|Ithaca]], [[Cephallonia]], and [[Zakynthos]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=47}}

====Late Antiquity====
[[File:Moesia - AD 400.png|thumb|The [[Roman province]]s in the Balkans, including ''Epirus Vetus'' and ''Epirus Nova'', ca. 400 AD]]
Sometime during the provincial reorganization by [[Diocletian]] (r. 284–305), the western portion of the province of Macedonia along the Adriatic coast was split off into a new province, called "New Epirus" ({{langx|la|[[Illyris|Epirus Nova]]}}) which roughly corresponded to southern [[Illyria]] proper, historically inhabited by [[Illyrian tribes]]. Epirus proper thereafter became known as "Old Epirus" ({{langx|la|Epirus Vetus}}, {{langx|grc|Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος}}).{{sfn|Shpuza|2014|p=59}}{{sfn|Shpuza|2022|p=553}}

The two Epirote provinces became part of the [[Diocese of Moesia]], until it was divided in ca. 369 into the dioceses of [[Diocese of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Diocese of Dacia|Dacia]], when they became part of the former.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=47–48}} In the 4th century, Epirus was still a stronghold of [[paganism]], and was aided by Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (r. 361–363) and his [[praetorian prefect]] [[Claudius Mamertinus]] through reduction in taxes and the rebuilding of the provincial capital, Nicopolis.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} According to [[Jordanes]], in 380 the [[Visigoths]] raided the area.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} With the division of the Empire on the death of [[Theodosius I]] in 395, Epirus became part of the Eastern Roman or [[Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} In 395–397, the Visigoths under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] plundered Greece. They remained in Epirus for a few years, until 401, and again in 406–407, during Alaric's alliance with the [[Western Roman]] generalissimo [[Stilicho]] in order to wrest the [[Eastern Illyricum]] from the Eastern Empire.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}}

[[File:Butrint-111198.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Buthrotum]]]]
The ''[[Synecdemus]]'' of [[Hierocles (author of Synecdemus)|Hierocles]], composed in ca. 527/8 AD but probably reflecting the situation in the first half of the 5th century, reports 11 cities for Old Epirus ({{langx|grc|Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος}}, {{langx|la|Epirus Vetus}}): the capital Nicopolis, [[Dodona]], [[Euroea in Epiro|Euroea]], [[Dropull|Hadrianopolis]], [[Appon]], [[Phoenice]], [[Anchiasmos]], [[Buthrotum]], [[Photike]], Corfu Island, and Ithaca Island.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=48–49}} New Epirus, with capital at [[Dyrrhachium]], comprised 9 cities.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} From 467 on, the Ionian Islands and the coasts of Epirus became subject to raids by the [[Vandals]], who had taken over the [[North Africa]]n provinces and established their [[Kingdom of the Vandals|own kingdom]] centred on [[Carthage]]. The Vandals notably seized Nicopolis in 474 as a bargaining chip in their negotiations with Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], and plundered Zakynthos, killing many of its inhabitants and ferrying off others into slavery.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} [[Epirus Nova]] became a battleground in the rebellions of the [[Ostrogoths]] after 479.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} In 517, a raid of the [[Getae]] or [[Antae]] reached Greece, including [[Epirus Vetus]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} The claim of [[Procopius of Caesarea]] in his ''Secret History'', that under [[Justinian I]] (r. 527–565) the entirety of the Balkan provinces was raided by barbarians every year, is considered rhetorical hyperbole by modern scholars; only a single Slavic raid to the environs of Dyrrhachium, in 548/9, has been documented.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} Procopius further reports that in 551, in an attempt to interdict the Byzantines' lines of communication with Italy during the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic War]], the Ostrogoth king [[Totila]] sent his fleet to raid the shores of Epirus.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=50}} In response to these raids, and to repair the damage done by two destructive earthquakes in 522, Justinian initiated a wide-ranging programme of reconstruction and re-fortification: Hadrianopolis was rebuilt, albeit in reduced extent, and renamed Justinianopolis, while [[Euroea in Epiro|Euroea]] was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding of [[Ioannina]]), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=50}}

====Epirus from the Slavic invasions until 1204====
In the late 6th century Epirus proper fell under the control of the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and their Slavic allies. This is placed by the ''[[Chronicle of Monemvasia]]'' in the year 587, and is further corroborated by evidence that several sees were abandoned by their bishops by 591. Thus in {{circa|590}} the bishop, clergy and people of Euroea fled their city, carrying with them the relics of their patron saint, [[Donatus of Evorea|St. Donatus]], to Cassiope in Corfu.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=51}}

Of the various Slavic tribes, only the [[Baiounitai]], first attested {{circa|615}}, are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: "[[Vagenetia]]".{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=51}} Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear.<ref name="EllisKlusakova2007">{{harvnb|Osswald|2007|p=128}}.</ref> Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of the [[Gulf of Corinth]], indicative of the fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into the [[Peloponnese]]. With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due to [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgar]] pressure in the northern Balkans.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=51–52}} Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains of [[Labëria]] (on the [[Kurvelesh (region)|Kurvelesh plateau]]), in the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian coast]] where today [[Lab Albanian dialect|Lab Albanian]] villages neighbour with the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] ones, therefore it can be assumed that the expansion of the Slavs had not reached this region.{{sfn|Desnickaja|1973|p=48}} A number of Slavic toponyms in Epirus proper were acquired by Albanian in the earliest phase of contacts between the two languages ([[Early Middle Ages]]), reflecting some of the more archaic phonetic features of Slavic as well as early Albanian phonology.{{sfn|Ylli|1997|p=317}}{{sfn|Ylli|2000|pp=103, 106, 136, 174, 175, 183, 197, 267, 269}}

As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control in {{circa|702}}, when [[Philippicus Bardanes]] was banished there. The gradual restoration of Imperial rule is evidenced further from the participation of local bishops in councils in [[Constantinople]]: whereas only the bishop of Dyrrhachium participated in the Ecumenical Councils of [[Third Council of Constantinople|680/1]] and [[Quinisext Council|692]], a century later the bishops of Dyrrhachium, Nicopolis, Corfu, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos are attested in the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=52}} In about the middle of the 8th century, the [[Theme of Cephallenia]] was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over the Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=52}} Nevertheless, following the onset of the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=53}}

[[File:Byzantine Greece ca 900 AD.svg|thumb|right|Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in ca. 900 AD, with the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Theme (Byzantine district)|themes]] and major settlements.]]
The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in the mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina, [[Naupaktos]], Hadrianopolis, and Vagenetia (evidently by now organized as a ''[[Sklavinia]]'' under imperial rule) in the Ecumenical Councils of [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic)|869/70]] and [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)|879/80]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=53}} The Byzantine recovery resulted in an influx of Greeks from southern Italy and [[Asia Minor]] into the Greek interior, while remaining Slavs were Christianized and [[Hellenization|Hellenized]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=64}} The eventual success of the Hellenization campaign also suggests a continuity of the original Greek population, and that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north, in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=64}} Following the [[Battle of Cephalonia|great naval victory]] of admiral [[Nasar]] in 880, and the beginning of the Byzantine offensive against the Arabs in southern Italy in the 880s, the security situation improved and the [[Theme of Nicopolis]] was established, most likely after 886.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=53}}{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=1485}} As the ancient capital of Epirus had been laid waste by the Slavs, the capital of the new theme became Naupaktos further south. The extent of the new province is unclear, but probably matched the extent of the [[Metropolis of Naupaktos]], established at about the same time, encompassing the sees of Vonditsa, Aetos, Acheloos, [[Rogoi]], Ioannina, Hadrianopolis, Photike, and Buthrotum. Vagenetia notably no longer appears as a bishopric. As the authors of the ''[[Tabula Imperii Byzantini]]'' comment, it appears that "the Byzantine administration had brought the strongly Slavic-settled areas in the mainland somewhat under its control, and a certain Re-Hellenization had set in".{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=53–54}} Further north, the region around [[Dyrrhachium]] existed as the [[Dyrrhachium (theme)|homonymous theme]] possibly as early as the 9th century.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=668}}

During the early 10th century, the themes of Cephallenia and Nicopolis appear mostly as bases for expeditions against southern Italy and Sicily, while [[Mardaites]] from both themes are listed in the large but unsuccessful expedition of 949 against the [[Emirate of Crete]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=54}} In {{circa|930}}, the Theme of Nicopolis was raided by the Bulgarians, who even occupied some parts until driven out or subjugated by the Byzantines years later.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=54}} Only the extreme north of Epirus seems to have remained consistently under Bulgarian rule in the period, but under Tsar [[Samuel of Bulgaria|Samuel]], who moved the centre of Bulgarian power south and west to [[Ohrid]], probably all of Epirus down to the [[Ambracian Gulf]] came under Bulgarian rule.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=55}} This is evidenced from the fact that the territories that were under Bulgarian rule formed part of the [[autocephalous]] [[Archbishopric of Ohrid]] after the [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria]] by Emperor [[Basil II]] in 1018: thus in Epirus the sees of [[Chimara]], Hadrianopolis, Bela, Buthrotum, Ioannina, Kozyle, and Rogoi passed under the jurisdiction of Ohrid, while the Metropolitan of Naupaktos retained only the sees of Bonditza, Aetos, and Acheloos.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=55}} Basil II also established new, smaller themes in the region: [[Kolonje|Koloneia]], and [[Dryinopolis]] (Hadrianopolis).{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=55}}

The region joined the [[uprising of Petar Delyan]] in 1040, and suffered in the [[First Norman invasion of the Balkans]]: Dyrrhachium was [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|occupied]] by the [[Normans]] in 1081–1084, [[Arta, Greece|Arta]] was unsuccessfully besieged, and Ioannina was captured by [[Robert Guiscard]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=55–56}} An [[Aromanians|Aromanian]] presence in Epirus is first mentioned in the late 11th century, while Jewish communities are attested throughout the medieval period in Arta and Ioannina.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=129}}

====Despotate of Epirus====
[[File:Epirus 1205-1230-en.svg|thumb|alt=Map of the Balkans, with the original core of Epirus and its conquered territories shown in various shades of green|Expansion of the [[Despotate of Epirus]] in the early 13th century]]
When [[Constantinople]] fell to the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204, the ''[[partitio Romaniae]]'' assigned Epirus to [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], but the Venetians were largely unable to effectively establish their authority, except over Dyrrhachium (the "[[Duchy of Durazzo (Republic of Venice)|Duchy of Durazzo]]"). The Greek noble [[Michael I Komnenos Doukas|Michael Komnenos Doukas]], who had married the daughter of a local magnate, took advantage of this, and within a few years consolidated his control over most of Epirus, first as a Venetian [[vassal]] and eventually as an independent ruler. By the time of his death in 1214/5, Michael had established a strong state, the [[Despotate of Epirus]], with the former theme of Nicopolis at its core and Arta as its capital.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=59–61}}{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=132}} Epirus, and the city of Ioannina in particular, became a haven for Greek refugees from the [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]] for the next half century.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=132}}

The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most of [[Thrace]] following the aggressive expansionism of [[Theodore Komnenos Doukas]], who established the [[Empire of Thessalonica]] in 1224.{{sfn|Nicol|1984|loc="Introduction", pp. 4–5}}{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=133}} During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of the [[Pindus]] mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period.{{sfn|Giakoumis|2002|p=176}} The oldest reference to [[Albanians]] in the area of Epirus proper is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that "the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians".<ref>{{harvnb|Giakoumis|2002|p=176|ps=: "Are we obliged to see in this a possible earlier Albanian immigration in the Epeirote lands, as Kostas Komis did in the case of the etymology of the toponym 'Preveza'? I believe that the use of hypothetical immigrations as a basis to interpret sources that indicate the presence of Albanians in the Epeirote lands prior to the thirteenth-fourteenth century is somewhat arbitrary."}}</ref>

====14th century and Ottoman conquest====
In 1337, Epirus was once again brought under the rule of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologoi|restored Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=133}} In 1348, taking advantage of the [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347|civil war]] between the Byzantine emperors [[John V Palaiologos]] and [[John VI Kantakouzenos]], the Serbian king [[Stefan Uroš IV Dušan]] conquered Epirus, with a number of Albanian mercenaries assisting him.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=135}} The Byzantine authorities in Constantinople soon re-established a measure of control by making the Despotate of Epirus a [[vassal state]], but Albanian clans proceeded to invade and seize most of the region. Under [[Peter Losha|Pjetër Losha]], the Albanian [[Malakasioi|Malakasi]] and [[Mazreku (Epirus)|Mazaraki]] tribes defeated [[Nikephoros II Orsini]] at the [[Battle of Achelous (1359)|Battle of Achelous]] in 1359, which won Pjetër Losha the rule of [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]; Losha then founded the [[Despotate of Arta]] (1358–1416) with the help of the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans.<ref>Epeirotica 2.220; cf. 222 f</ref>

[[File:Map of the southern Balkans, 1410.svg|thumb|right|Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410]]

Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish a single central authority.<ref name="mb">{{harvnb|Fine|1994|pp=348–351}}.</ref> Ioannina became a center of Greek resistance to the Albanian clans. The Greeks of Ioannina offered power to three foreign rulers during this time, beginning with [[Thomas II Preljubović]] (1367–1384), whose rule was marked by hostilities in the region, as Ioannina came under constant siege by the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans under Losha. These tribes would besiege Ioannina a second time in 1374–1375.{{sfn|Sansaridou-Hendrickx|2017|p=294}}{{sfn|Nicol|1984|pp=142–145}}<ref name="Sakellariou1997">{{cite book|author=M. V. Sakellariou|title=Epirus, 4000 years of Greek history and civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UV1oAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Ekdotikē Athēnōn|isbn=978-960-213-371-2|quote=For the Albanian tribes of the Mazarakaioi and the Malakasioi, led by Peter Losha the despot of Arta,}}</ref> A truce was signed when Pjetër's son Gjin was betrothed to Thomas's daughter Irina, but she would soon die in the 1375 plague and hostilities would recommence.{{sfnm|Nicol|1984|1pp=142–145|Fine|1994|2pp=351–352|Sansaridou-Hendrickx|2017|3p=294}} Preljubović attempted to pacify the Albanians of Epirus; however, under [[Gjin Bua Shpata]], the Albanians defeated him.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_VBoAAAAMAAJ Hammond, 1976 & ps]''"The Albanians and in particular the Mazarakii of the Kalamas valley held firm against him. In 1385 he was assassinated by some of his own bodyguards"'' (Epeirotica 2.230), p. 59.</ref>

The reign of [[Esau de' Buondelmonti]] (1385–1411) in Ioannina followed, and with an army that consisted of the Albanian tribes of the Mazaraki and Malakasi, he marched against the [[Principality of Gjirokastër]]. He was defeated and captured by Albanian nobleman [[Gjon Zenebishi]], and ransomed for 10,000 gold pieces on the intervention of the Venetian governor of [[Corfu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Richard Wyatt |title=The Lord of Patras |date=1956 |publisher=A.G. Kalokairinos |page=343 |url=https://ir.lib.uth.gr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11615/10744/article.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> At the time the Zenebishi clan controlled the area around Gjirokastër (1386–1411), while only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=134}}

[[Carlo I Tocco]] (1411–1429) then assumed control of Ioannina, commencing heavy conflicts with [[Yaqub Spata|Jakob]] and [[Maurice Spata|Muriq]] Shpata, the Albanian leaders of the [[Despotate of Arta]]. The Shpata were originally defeated by Carlo's brother [[Leonardo II Tocco]] at Mazoma near ancient [[Nicopolis]], but Carlo's son Torno was in turn defeated by the Albanians.{{sfn|PLP|loc=26521. Σπάτας Γιαγούπης}}{{sfn|Nicol|1984|p=186}} After the Tocchi succeeded in capturing Rhiniasa, Leonardo tried to take Rogoi and Carlo attempted to take Arta, but Jakob and Muriq succeeded in defending their capital for the time being. Carlo withdrew to Ioannina, but soon after was able to lure Jakob to an ambush near Vobliana: Jakob was captured and immediately executed (1 October 1416).{{sfn|PLP|loc=26521. Σπάτας Γιαγούπης}}{{sfn|Nicol|1984|p=186}} Carlo had effectively ended the rule of the Albanian clans in southernmost Epirus.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=136}}

Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449, [[Angelokastro, Aetolia-Acarnania|Angelokastro]] in 1460, [[Riniasa Castle]] and its environs (in what is now [[Preveza]]) in 1463,<ref>{{harvnb|Karabelas|2015|pp=972–975}}.</ref> and finally [[Vonitsa]] in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece.

===Ottoman rule===
{{POV section|date=June 2023}}

The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] ruled Epirus for almost 500 years. Their rule in Epirus proved particularly damaging; the region was subjected to deforestation and excessive cultivation, which damaged the soil and drove many Epirotes to emigrate so as to escape the region's pervasive poverty.<ref name=Britannica/> Nonetheless, the Ottomans did not enjoy total control of Epirus. The [[Himara]] and [[Zagori]] regions managed to successfully resist Ottoman rule and maintained a degree of independence throughout this period. The Ottomans expelled the Venetians from almost the whole area in the late 15th century.

Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the city of Ioannina attained great prosperity and became a major center of the [[modern Greek Enlightenment]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sakellariou|1997|p=268}}.</ref><ref name=Fleming>{{harvnb|Fleming|1999|pp=63–66}}.</ref><ref>''[http://www.greece2001.gr/docs/67-132.pdf The Era of Enlightenment (Late 7th century–1821)]''. Εθνικό Kέντρο Bιβλίου, p. 13.</ref><ref>Υπουργείο Εσωτερικών, Αποκέντρωσης και Ηλεκρονικής Διακυβέρνησης [http://www.epirus.gov.gr/portal/index.php/epirus/genika-stoixeia/the-epirus.html Περιφέρεια Ηπείρου]: "Στη δεκαετία του 1790 ο νεοελληνικός διαφωτισμός έφθασε στο κορύφωμά του. Φορέας του πνεύματος στα Ιωάννινα είναι ο Αθανάσιος Ψαλίδας."</ref> Numerous schools were founded, such as the Balaneios, [[Maroutsaia School|Maroutsaia]], [[Kaplaneios School|Kaplaneios]], and [[Zosimaia School|Zosimaia]], teaching subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics and physical sciences. In the 18th century, as the power of the Ottoman Empire declined, the area of Epirus became part of a ''de facto'' independent state, the [[Pashalik of Yanina]], under the rule of [[Ali Pasha of Tepelena]], a Muslim [[Albanians|Albanian]] brigand who rose to become the provincial governor of Ioannina in 1788.<ref name=Britannica/> At the height of his power, he and his sons controlled all [[Southern Albania|southern]] and [[central Albania]]; most of mainland [[Greece]], including [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], [[Thessaly]], [[West Macedonia]], western [[Central Macedonia]], [[Central Greece (geographic region)|Continental Greece]] (excluding [[Attica]]), and the [[Peloponnese]]; and parts of southwestern [[North Macedonia]] around [[Ohrid]] and [[Bitola|Manastir]]. Ali Pasha's campaign to subjugate the confederation of the settlements of [[Souli]] met with fierce resistance by the [[Souliotes|Souliot]] warriors of the mountainous area. After numerous failed attempts to defeat the Souliotes, his troops succeeded in conquering the area in 1803. On the other hand, Ali, who used Greek as official language, witnessed an increase of Greek cultural activity with the establishment of several educational institutions.{{sfn|Fleming|1999|p=64}}

When the [[Greek War of Independence]] broke out, the inhabitants of Epirus contributed greatly. Two of the founding members of the [[Filiki Eteria]] (the secret society of the Greek revolutionaries), [[Nikolaos Skoufas]] and Athanasios Tsakalov, came from the [[Arta (regional unit)|Arta]] area and the city of [[Ioannina]], respectively. Greece's first constitutional prime minister (1844–1847), [[Ioannis Kolettis]], was a native of the village of Syrrako in Epirus and was a former personal physician to Ali Pasha. Ali Pasha tried to use the war as an opportunity to make himself a fully independent ruler, but was assassinated by Ottoman agents in 1822. When Greece became independent in 1830, however, Epirus remained under Ottoman rule. In 1854, during the [[Crimean War]], a major local [[Epirus Revolt of 1854|rebellion broke out]]. Although the newly found Greek state tried tacitly to support it, the rebellion was suppressed by Ottoman forces after a few months.{{sfn|Reid|2000}} Another failed rebellion by local Greeks [[Epirus revolt of 1878|broke out in 1878]]. During this period, the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] managed to shut down the few Albanian schools, considering teaching in Albanian a factor that would diminish its influence and lead to the creation of separate Albanian church, while publications in Albanian were banned by the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=226}}<ref name="Ramet1998">{{harvnb|Ramet|1998|p=205}}.</ref> In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy opened various schools in the regions of [[Ioannina]] and [[Preveza]] in order to influence the local population. These schools began to attract students from the Greek language schools, but were ultimately closed after intervention and harassment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.{{sfn|Blumi|2002|p=57}} Throughout, the late period of Ottoman rule (from the 18th century) Greek and Aromanian population of the region suffered from Albanians raiders, that sporadically continued after Ali Pasha's death, until 1912–1913.{{sfn|Hammond|1976|loc=p. 41: "Throughout this period bands of Albanians raiders pillaged and destroyed the villages of the Vlachs and the Greeks in Epirus, northern Pindus, the lakeland of Prespa and Ochrid, and parts of western Macedonia. One Albanian leader, 'Ali the Lion', emulated the achievements of 'John the Sword' and 'Peter the Pockmark' when he established himself as Ali Pasha, independent ruler of Ioannina. He and his Albanian soldiers, recruited mainly from his homeland in the Kurvelesh and the Drin valley of North Epirus, controlled the whole of Epirus and carried their raids far into western Macedonia and Thessaly. As we have seen, they destroyed the Vlach settlements in the lakeland and weakened those farther south. After the assassination of Ali Pasha in 1822 sporadic raids by bands of Albanians were a feature of life in northern Greece until the liberation of 1912–13"}}

===20th-century Epirus===
{{POV section|date=June 2023}}

While the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] awarded large parts of Epirus to Greece, opposition by the Ottomans and the [[League of Prizren]] resulted in only the region of [[Arta (regional unit)|Arta]] being ceded to Greece in 1881.<ref name="Gawrych2006">{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=68–69}}.</ref> It was only following the [[First Balkan War]] of 1912–1913 and the [[Treaty of London (1913)|Treaty of London]] that the rest of southern Epirus, including [[Ioannina]], was incorporated into Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Clogg|2002|p=105}}: "In February 1913 the Greek Army seized Ioannina, the capital of Epirus. The Turks recognized the gains of the Balkan allies by the Treaty of London, in May 1913."</ref> Greece had also seized northern Epirus during the [[Balkan Wars]], but the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1913)|Treaty of Bucharest]], which concluded the [[Second Balkan War]], assigned [[Northern Epirus]] to Albania.{{sfn|Clogg|2002|loc=p. 105 "The Second Balkan War had short duration and the Bulgarians were soon dragged to the table of negotiations. By the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) Bulgaria was forced to accept a little favourable regulation of the borders, even if she kept a way to the Aegean, in Degeagatch (modern Alexandroupolis). The sovereignty of Greece over Crete was now recognised, but her ambition to annex Northern Epirus with its large Greek population was stopped by the annexation of the area to an independent Albania"}}

This outcome was unpopular among local Greeks, as a substantial Greek population existed on the Albanian side of the border.<ref>{{harvnb|Pettifer|2001|p=4}}.</ref> Among Greeks, [[northern Epirus]] was henceforth regarded as ''[[irredentism|terra irredenta]]''.<ref name="Konidaris">{{harvnb|Konidaris|2013||pp=64–92}}.</ref> Local Greeks in northern Epirus revolted, declared [[Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence|their independence]] and proclaimed the [[Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus]] in February 1914.{{sfn|Winnifrith|2002|p=130}} After fierce guerrilla fighting, they managed to gain full autonomy under the terms of the [[Protocol of Corfu]], signed by Albanian and Northern Epirote representatives and approved by the Great Powers. The signing of the Protocol ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local Greeks and provided self-government under nominal Albanian sovereignty.<ref name="Triadafilopoulos">{{harvnb|Triadafilopoulos|2000|p=152}}.</ref> The Republic, however, was short-lived, as when [[World War I]] broke out, Albania collapsed, and northern Epirus was alternately controlled by Greece, Italy and France at various intervals.<ref name="Konidaris"/><ref name="TuckerRoberts2005">{{harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2005|p=77}}.</ref>

Although the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919 awarded Northern Epirus to Greece, developments such as the Greek defeat in the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]] and, crucially, Italian lobbying in favor of Albania meant that Greece would not keep Northern Epirus. In 1924, the area was again ceded to Albania.<ref name="Miller">{{harvnb|Miller|1966|pp=543–544}}.</ref>

In 1939, Italy [[Italian invasion of Albania|occupied Albania]], and in 1940 [[Greco-Italian War|invaded Greece]]. The Italians were driven back into Albania, however, and Greek forces again took control of northern Epirus. The conflict marked the first tactical victory of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in [[World War II]]. [[Benito Mussolini]] himself supervised the spring counter-offensive of his divisions in spring 1941, only to be repulsed again by the poorly equipped, but determined, Greeks. [[Nazi Germany]] then [[Battle of Greece|intervened]] in April 1941 to avert an Italian defeat. The German military performed rapid military maneuvers through [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and forced the encircled Greek forces of the Epirus front to surrender.

The whole of Epirus was then placed under Italian [[Axis Occupation of Greece|occupation]] until 1943, when the Germans took over following the [[Italian armistice|Italian surrender]] to the Allies. Due to the extensive activity of the anti-Nazi Greek resistance (mainly under [[EDES]]), the Germans carried out large scaled anti-partisan sweeps, making wide use of [[Axis-Cham Albanian collaboration|Nazi-collaborationist bands]] of [[Cham Albanians]], who committed numerous atrocities against the civilian population.{{sfn|Konidaris|2013|p=67}} They fought fiercely against the Greek partisans of the EDES, the latter being ordered by the Allied command to push them out of Greece into Albania. The violent clashes and the reprisals that followed by the Greek guerillas resulted in the [[Expulsion of Cham Albanians|expulsion]] to Albania of almost the entire Cham population.{{sfn|Konidaris|2013|p=67}}

With the liberation of Greece and the start of the first round of the [[Greek Civil War]] at the end of 1944, the highlands of Epirus became a major theater of guerrilla warfare between the leftist [[Greek People's Liberation Army]] (ELAS) and the right-wing [[National Republican Greek League]] (EDES). In subsequent years (1945–1949), the mountains of Epirus also became the scene of some of the fiercest fighting of the second and bloodier round of the Greek Civil War. The final episode of the war took place on [[Gramos|Mount Grammos]] in 1949, ending with the defeat of the Communists. Peace returned to the region in 1949, although because of official Albanian active involvement in the civil war on the side of the communists, the formal state of war between Greece and Albania remained in effect until 1987. Another reason for the continuation of the state of war until 1987 was that during the entire period of Communist rule in Albania, the Greek population of [[Northern Epirus]] experienced forced [[Albanisation]].{{sfn|Pettifer|2001|p=7}} Although a Greek minority was recognized by the [[Hoxha]] regime, this recognition only applied to an "official minority zone" consisting of 99 villages, leaving out important areas of Greek settlement, such as [[Himara]].<ref name="Konidaris"/> People outside the official minority zone received no education in the Greek language, which was prohibited in public.<ref name="Konidaris"/> The Hoxha regime also diluted the ethnic demographics of the region by relocating Greeks living there and settling in their stead Albanians from other parts of the country.<ref name="Konidaris"/> Relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between the two countries.<ref name="Konidaris"/>

==Geography and ecology==
[[File:Smolikas IMG 0118.jpg|right|thumb|[[Smolikas|Mount Smolikas]] (2637m/8652f), the highest point in Epirus]]
[[File:Zagori Vikos gorge Oxia towards Vikos.jpg|right|thumb|[[Vikos Gorge]] in [[Vikos–Aoös National Park]]]]

Epirus is a predominantly rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the [[Pindus Mountains]], a series of parallel [[limestone]] ridges that are a continuation of the [[Dinaric Alps]].<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/190156/Epirus|title=Epirus|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|access-date=16 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bahr|Johnston|Bloomfield|1997|p=389}}.</ref> The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture.<ref name=Britannica/> Altitude increases as one moves east, away from the coast, reaching a maximum of 2,637&nbsp;m at [[Smolikas|Mount Smolikas]], the highest point in Epirus. Other important ranges include [[Tymfi]] (2,496&nbsp;m at Mount Gamila), [[Lygkos]] (2,249&nbsp;m), to the west and east of Smolikas respectively, [[Gramos]] (2,523&nbsp;m) in the northeast, Tzoumerka (2,356&nbsp;m) in the southeast, Tomaros (1,976&nbsp;m) in the southwest, [[Mitsikeli]] near [[Ioannina]] (1,810&nbsp;m), [[Mourgana]] (1,806&nbsp;m), and [[Nemercke|Nemercke/Aeoropos]] (2,485&nbsp;m) on the border between Greece and Albania, and the [[Ceraunian Mountains]] (2,000&nbsp;m) near [[Himara]] in Albania. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece.<ref name=Britannica/>

Significant lowlands are to be found only near the coast, in the southwest near [[Arta, Greece|Arta]] and [[Preveza]], in the Acheron plain between [[Paramythia]] and [[Fanari, Preveza|Fanari]], between [[Igoumenitsa]] and [[Sagiada]], and also near [[Saranda]]. The [[Zagori]] area is a scenic upland plateau surrounded by mountain on all sides.

The main river flowing through Epirus is the [[Vjosë]], which flows in a northwesterly direction from the Pindus mountains in Greece to its mouth north of the [[Bay of Vlorë]] in Albania. Other important rivers include the [[Acheron|Acheron river]], famous for its religious significance in ancient Greece and site of the [[Necromanteion]], the [[Arachthos river]], crossed by the historic [[Bridge of Arta]], the [[Louros (river)|Louros]], the [[Thyamis]] or Kalamas, and the Voidomatis, a tributary of the Vjosë flowing through the [[Vikos Gorge]]. The Vikos Gorge, one of the deepest in the world, forms the centerpiece of the [[Vikos–Aoös National Park]], known for its scenic beauty. The only significant lake in Epirus is [[Lake Pamvotis]], on whose shores lies the city of [[Ioannina]], the region's largest and traditionally most important city.

The climate of Epirus is [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] along the coast and [[Alpine climate|Alpine]] in the interior. Epirus is heavily forested, mainly by coniferous species. The fauna in Epirus is especially rich and features species such as [[bear]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]]es, [[deer]], and [[lynx]]es.

==Economy==
[[File:New port of igoumenitsa.JPG|thumb|right|[[Igoumenitsa]] is the main port in Epirus, and links the region to [[Italy]].]]

A rugged topography, poor soils, and fragmented landholdings have kept agricultural production low and have resulted in a low population density.<ref name=Britannica/> Animal husbandry is the main industry and corn the chief crop.<ref name=Britannica/> Oranges and olives are grown in the western lowlands, while tobacco is grown around Ioannina.<ref name=Britannica/> Epirus has few natural resources and industries, and the population has been depleted by migration.<ref name=Britannica/> The population is centered around Ioannina, which has the largest number of industrial establishments.<ref name=Britannica/>

==Transportation==
Epirus has historically been a remote and isolated region due to its location between the Pindus mountains and the sea. In antiquity, the Roman [[Via Egnatia]] passed through [[Epirus Nova]], which linked Byzantium and Thessalonica to [[Dyrrachium]] on the [[Adriatic Sea]]. The modern ''Egnatia Odos'', the [[A2 motorway (Greece)|A2 motorway]], which links [[Ioannina]] to the Greek province of Macedonia and terminating at [[Igoumenitsa]], is the only highway through the Pindus mountains and has served to greatly reduce the region's isolation from the east, while the [[Ionia Odos|Ionia Odos highway]], connecting Epirus with [[Western Greece]], helped reducing the region's isolation from the south. Also, the [[Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel]] connects the southernmost tip of Epirus, near [[Preveza]], with [[Aetolia-Acarnania]] in western Greece. Ferry services from [[Igoumenitsa]] to the [[Ionian islands]] and [[Italy]] exist. The only airport in Epirus is the [[Ioannina National Airport]], while the [[Aktion National Airport]] is located just south of Preveza in [[Aetolia-Acarnania]]. There are no railroads in Epirus.

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center">
File:Brücke Arta.jpg|The [[Bridge of Arta]]
File:Aetomilitsa-Densko.jpg|The village of Aetomilitsa on Mount [[Gramos]], in the [[Pindus mountains]]
File:Vikos river, Epirus, Greece.jpg|The Vikos river, [[Vikos–Aoös National Park]]
File:Kalaja e Ali Pashe Tepelenes ne Shqiperi.jpg|Aerial view of the castle of [[Ali Pasha of Yanina]], Sarandë municipality
File:Vikos Gorge from Beloe.jpg|The [[Vikos Gorge]]
File:120 2821-Aoos-Onno-Zweers.jpg|The old bridge of [[Konitsa]] over the [[Vjosa|Aoos]] river
File:Zagori Dragonlake and Gamila summit.jpg|The high altitude [[Drakolimni|Lake Drakolimni]] (Dragon Lake), on Mount Gamila in the [[Pindus mountains]]
File:Hills Horë-Vranisht.jpg|Hill formations in [[Horë-Vranisht]].
File:Acherons utsprång, Grekland.JPG|A canyon of the [[Acheron]] river
File:Sirrako Village in Epirus, Greece.jpg|The village of [[Sirako]]
File:CIty of Saranda Albania 2016.jpg|The city of [[Sarandë]]
File:Nicopolis LR wall.jpg|The walls of ancient [[Nicopolis]]
File:Dodona Theatre 1.jpg|The Hellenistic theater of [[Dodona]]
File:Konispol 01.jpg| The village of [[Konispol]]
File:Sheep in shadow, Konitsa, Ioannina prefecture, Greece.jpg|Sheep under the shade of a tree near [[Konitsa]]
File:Përmet.jpg|The city of [[Përmet]]
File:BaiedeParga.jpg|The bay of [[Parga]]
File:Ksamill-1.jpg|Waters of [[Ksamil]]
File:ALB 20070718 img 1368.jpg|The region of [[Himara]] seen from the Llogara pass
File:07Vjosa02.jpg|The [[Vjosa]] river near [[Tepelena]]
File:Libohova.jpg|Main street of [[Libohovë]]
File:A2 Motorway, Greece - Section Paramythia-Igoumenitsa - 16.jpg|Section of the [[A2 motorway (Greece)|A2 motorway]], near [[Igoumenitsa]]
File:Gjirokastra01.jpg|[[Gjirokaster]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
File:Preveza Greece from above dsc06080.jpg|[[Preveza]] seen from the air
File:Butrint Panorama.jpg|View of the [[Butrint Lake]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of cities in ancient Epirus]]
* [[List of Epirotes]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== General and cited sources ===
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFHammond1982 |CITEREFHammond1994}}
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book | last=Anson | first=Edward M. | chapter=Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About | editor-last1=Roisman | editor-first1=Joseph | editor-last2=Worthington | editor-first2=Ian | title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia | pages=3–20 | location=Oxford, Chichester, & Malden | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC }}
*{{cite book | last=Antoniadis | first=Vyron | year=2016 | title=Tabula Imperii Romani : J 34 - Athens : Epirus | location=Athens | publisher=Academy of Athens | isbn=978-960-404-308-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S99NvgAACAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last=Babiniotis | first=Georgios | title=Lexiko tis Neas Ellinikis Glossas | location=Athens, Greece | publisher=Kentro Lexikologias | year=1998 | isbn=960-86190-0-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpJiAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book | last1=Bahr | first1=Lauren S. | last2=Johnston | first2=Bernard | last3=Bloomfield | first3=Louise A. | title=Collier's Encyclopedia | volume=11 | location=New York, NY | publisher=Collier | year=1997 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0EgUAQAAIAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last=Blumi | first=Isa | chapter=The Role of Education in the Albanian Identity and its Myths | pages=49–59 | editor-last1=Schwandner-Sievers | editor-first1=Stephanie | editor-last2=Fischer | editor-first2=Bernd Jürgen | title=Albanian Identities: Myth and History | location=Bloomington, IN | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2002 | isbn=0-253-21570-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RnDeHFOX8yIC }}
*{{cite book | last=Borza | first=Eugene N. | title=In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon | location=Princeton, NJ | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1992 | isbn=0-691-00880-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC | edition=Revised }}
*{{cite book | last=Bowden | first=William | title=Epirus Vetus: The Archaeology of a Late Antique Province | year=2003 | location=London | publisher=Gerald Duckworth & Co. Limited | isbn=0-7156-3116-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ElFoAAAAMAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last=Cameron | first=Alan | title=Greek Mythography in the Roman World | location=New York and Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | isbn=0-19-517121-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3H_51913RkC }}
*{{cite book | last=Clogg | first=Richard | title=A Concise History of Greece | edition=2nd | year=2002 | orig-year=1992 | location=Cambridge and New York | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-52-100479-4 | url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00clog_0 | url-access=registration }}
*{{cite book | last=Davies | first=J. K. | chapter=13. A Wholly Non-Aristotelian Universe: The Molossians as Ethnos, State, and Monarchy | pages=234–258 | editor-last1=Brock | editor-first1=Roger | editor-last2=Hodkinson | editor-first2=Stephen | title=Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of Political Organization and Community in Ancient Greece | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2002 | isbn=0-19-925810-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5Jg8raPTZsC }}
*{{cite journal|last=Desnickaja|first=A. V.|title=Language Interferences and Historical Dialectology|journal=Linguistics|volume=11|number=113|year=1973|doi=10.1515/ling.1973.11.113.41|pages=41–52|s2cid=144569294}}
*{{cite book | last=Fleming | first=Katherine Elizabeth | title=The Muslim Bonaparte: Diplomacy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha's Greece | location=Princeton, NJ | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1999 | isbn=0-691-00194-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZqbA6Jk0uUC }}
*{{cite book | last=Filos | first=Panagiotis | chapter=The Dialectal Variety of Epirus | pages=215–248 | editor1-last=Giannakis | editor1-first=Georgios | editor2-last=Crespo | editor2-first=Emilio | editor3-last=Filos | editor3-first=Panagiotis | title=Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea | year=2018 | location=Berlin and Boston | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | isbn=9783110532135 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UrxGDwAAQBAJ }}
*{{The Early Medieval Balkans}}
*{{The Late Medieval Balkans}}
*{{cite book | last=Gawrych | first=George Walter | title=The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman Rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913 | location=New York and London | publisher=I.B. Tauris | year=2006 | isbn=1-84511-287-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPOtzk-unJgC }}
*{{cite book | last=Georgiev | first=Vladimir Ivanov | title=Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages | year=1981 | location=Sofia | publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences | isbn=9789535172611 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmZiAAAAMAAJ }}
*{{cite journal | last=Giakoumis | first=Kosta | title=Fourteenth-century Albanian migration and the 'relative autochthony' of the Albanians in Epeiros. The case of Gjirokastër | journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies | volume=27 | year=2002 | pages=171–183 | doi=10.1179/byz.2003.27.1.171 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233673710 }}
*{{cite book|last=Greenwalt|first=William S.|editor-last1=Roisman|editor-first1=Joseph|editor-last2=Worthington|editor-first2=Ian|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|chapter=Macedonia, Illyria and Epirus|pages=279–305|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5163-7}}
*{{cite book | last=Hammond | first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière | title=Epirus: The Geography, the Ancient Remains, the History and the Topography of Epirus and Adjacent Areas | location=Oxford | publisher=The Clarendon Press | year=1967 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmKSQgAACAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last=Hammond | first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière | title=Migrations and Invasions in Greece and Adjacent Areas | location=Park Ridge, NJ | publisher=Noyes Press | year=1976 | isbn=0-8155-5047-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VBoAAAAMAAJ }}
*{{Cambridge Ancient History | volume = 3c | last=Hammond | first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière | chapter=ILLYRIS, EPIRUS AND MACEDONIA | pages=261–285 }}
*{{cite book | last=Hammond | first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière | title=A History of Greece to 322 B.C | location=Oxford | publisher=Clarendon Press | year=1986 | isbn=0-19-873096-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwHBQgAACAAJ }}
* {{Cambridge Ancient History | volume = 6 | last=Hammond | first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière | chapter=ILLYRIANS AND NORTH-WEST GREEKS | pages=422–443 }}
*{{cite book | last=Hammond | first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière | title=Philip of Macedon | location=London | publisher=Duckworth | year=1998 | isbn=0-7156-2829-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0XF5OwAACAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last = Hammond | first = NGL | editor-last1=Hornblower | editor-first1=Simon | editor-last2=Spawforth | editor-first2=Antony | editor-last3=Eidinow | editor-first3=Esther | title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary | year=2012 | edition=4th | orig-year=1949 | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ }}
*{{cite book | last1=Jelavich | first1=Charles | last2=Jelavich | first2=Barbara | title=The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920: A History of East Central Europe | volume=VIII | location=Seattle, WA | publisher=University of Washington Press | year=1977 | isbn=0-295-96413-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC }}
*{{cite conference |url=https://www.academia.edu/1478948 |title=The Ottoman Conquest of Preveza and its First Castle |first=Nikos D. |last=Karabelas |year=2015 |conference=XVIth Turkish Congress of History, organised by the Turkish Historical Society, in Ankara, 20–24 September 2010 |series=Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler, Volume 4, Part 2, Osmanli Tarihi |location=Ankara |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |pages=967–998 |isbn=978-975-16-2982-1 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Katona |first1=A. L. |title=Proto-Greeks and the Kurgan Theory |url=http://www.andreas-l-katonis.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/2000_6_Proto-Greeks-and-the-Kurgan-Theory.pdf |journal=The Journal of Indo-European Studies |date=2000 |access-date=2021-01-22 |archive-date=2021-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126204140/http://www.andreas-l-katonis.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/2000_6_Proto-Greeks-and-the-Kurgan-Theory.pdf |url-status=live }}
*{{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium}}<!-- Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). -->
*{{cite book |last=Konidaris |first=Gerasimos |chapter=Examining Policy Responses to Immigration in the Light of Interstate Relations and Foreign Policy Objectives: Greece and Albania |pages=64–92 |editor-last1=King |editor-first1=Russell |editor-last2=Mai |editor-first2=Nicola |editor-last3=Schwandner-Sievers |editor-first3=Stephanie |title=The New Albanian Migration |location=Portland, OR |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |date=2013 |isbn=9781837641932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3LEEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
*{{cite book | last1=Liddell | first1=Henry George | last2=Scott | first2=Robert | title=A Greek-English Lexicon | location=Oxford | publisher=Clarendon Press | year=1940 | url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057 }}
*{{cite book | last=McHenry | first=Robert | title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica | year=2003 | location=Chicago, IL | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | edition=15th | isbn=978-0-85229-961-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rIQxAQAAIAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last=Miller | first=William | title=The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801–1927 | location=New York and London | publisher=Frank Cass | year=1966 | isbn=978-0-7146-1974-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HaA18-u7mMMC }}
*{{cite book | last=Nicol | first=Donald MacGillivray | title=The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece | year=1984 | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-26190-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIj0FfKto9AC }}
*{{cite book | last=Osswald | first=Brendan | chapter=The Ethnic Composition of Medieval Epirus | pages=125–154 | editor1-last=Ellis | editor1-first=Steven G. | editor2-last=Klusáková | editor2-first=Lud'a | title=Imagining Frontiers, Contesting Identities | location=Pisa | publisher=Edizioni Plus – Pisa University Press | year=2007 | isbn=978-88-8492-466-7 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3zXFCs9EfEYC&pg=PA125 }}
*{{cite book | last=Pettifer | first=James | title=The Greek Minority in Albania – In the Aftermath of Communism | location=Camberley, Surrey | publisher=Conflict Studies Research Centre, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst | format=PDF | year=2001 | isbn=1-903584-35-3 | url=http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/balkan/G97 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521003813/http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/balkan/G97 | archive-date=21 May 2010 | df=dmy-all }}
* {{Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit}}
*{{cite book | last=Ramet | first=Sabrina P. | title=Nihil Obstat: Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia | location=Durham, NC | publisher=Duke University Press | year=1998 | isbn=0-8223-2070-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvMi6paTOlcC }}
*{{cite book | last=Reid | first=James J. | title=Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878 | location=Stuttgart | publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag | year=2000 | isbn=3-515-07687-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgg6c_Ndtu4C }}
*{{cite book | last=Ruches | first=Pyrrhus J. | title=Albania's Captives | location=Chicago, IL | publisher=Argonaut Incorporated, Publishers | year=1965 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2k9pAAAAMAAJ }}
*{{cite book | last=Sakellariou | first=M. V. | title=Epirus, 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization | location=Athens, Greece | publisher=Ekdotikē Athēnōn | year=1997 | isbn=960-213-371-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UV1oAAAAMAAJ }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Sansaridou-Hendrickx |first1=Thekla |title=The Albanians in the Chronicle(s) of Ioannina: An Anthropological Approach |journal=Acta Patristica et Byzantina |date=2017 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=287–306 |doi=10.1080/10226486.2010.11879131 |s2cid=163742869 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10226486.2010.11879131|url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book | last=Soteriades | first=Georgios | title=An Ethnological Map Illustrating Hellenism in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor | location=London | publisher=Edward Stanford | year=1918 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m02ZQAAACAAJ }}
*{{Tabula Imperii Byzantini | volume = 3}}
*{{cite journal|last=Shpuza|first=Saimir|title=Le monoptère carré d'Orikos (Albanie)|journal=Revue archéologique|volume=1|year=2014|pages=57–69|doi=10.3917/arch.141.0057 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|last=Shpuza|first=Saimir|chapter=D'un limên à une polis. Orikos aux périodes archaïque et classique|title=Schemata: la città oltre la forma: per una nuova definizione dei paesaggi urbani e delle loro funzioni: urbanizzazione e società nel Mediterraneo pre-classico: età arcaica|editor-last=Brancato|editor-first=Rodolfo|publisher=Edizioni Quasar|year=2022|isbn=9788854912755|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07U5zwEACAAJ}}
*{{cite thesis|last=Suha|first=Mikko|title=Late Classical – Hellenistic Fortifications in Epirus: Fourth to Second Century BC|publisher=Unigrafia, University of Helsinki|year=2021|isbn=978-951-51-7673-8}}
*{{cite book | last=Tandy | first=David W. | title=Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy | location=Montréal, Québec, Canada | publisher=Black Rose Books Limited | year=2001 | isbn=1-55164-188-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiqTCaFkvdYC&q=david+tandy }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Triadafilopoulos |first1=Triadafilos |title=Power politics and nationalist discourse in the struggle for 'Northern Epirus': 1919-1921 |journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans |date=November 2000 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1080/713683343 |s2cid=140687333 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713683343 |access-date=17 June 2023 |language=en |issn=1461-3190|url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book | last1=Tucker | first1=Spencer | last2=Roberts | first2=Priscilla Mary | title=World War I: Encyclopedia | year=2005 | location=Santa Barbara, CA | publisher=ABC-CLIO Incorporated | isbn=1-85109-420-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C }}
*{{cite book | last=Wilkes | first=John J. | title=The Illyrians | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell Publishers Limited | year=1995 | isbn=0-631-19807-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C }}
*{{cite book | last=Winnifrith | first=Tom | title=Badlands, Borderlands: A History of Northern Epirus/Southern Albania | location=London | publisher=Duckworth | year=2002 | isbn=0-7156-3201-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dkRoAAAAMAAJ }}
{{cite encyclopaedia|last=Zimi|first=Eleni|editor-first=Nigel|editor-last=Wilson|encyclopaedia=Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece|entry=Illyrians|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|pages=376–377|isbn=9781136787997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TzjAQAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last=Ylli |first=Xhelal |title=Das slawische Lehngut im Albanischen: Lehnworter |year=1997 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/26220 |isbn=9783954790746 |publisher=Peter Lang International Academic Publishers |hdl=20.500.12657/26220 }}
*{{cite book |last=Ylli |first=Xhelal |title=Das slawische Lehngut im Albanischen: Ortsnamen |year=2000 |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/26167 |isbn=9783954790432 |publisher=Peter Lang International Academic Publishers |hdl=20.500.12657/26167 }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_A163a.html Didrachm of the Epirote League]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040122193906/http://epirus.info/ Epirus Info Guide]}}
*[http://panepirotic.org/ Panepirotic Federation of America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611160243/http://www.panepirotic.org/ |date=11 June 2008 }}
*[http://www.panepirotiki.com/ Panepirotic Federation of Greece]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131126113309/http://www.panipirotikos-kairou.org/greek/ Panepirotic Society of Cairo]
*[https://longreads.com/2018/09/14/the-dead-end-on-my-record-shelf/ Folk music in Epirus] by musicologist Christopher C. King

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Epirus (Region)}}
[[Category:Epirus| ]]
[[Category:Balkans]]
[[Category:Geography of Europe]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Albania]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Greece]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]
[[Category:Traditional geographic divisions of Greece]]