View source for Ergot

{{Short description|Group of fungi of the genus Claviceps}}
{{About|the fungi|the part of a horse's hoof|Ergot (horse anatomy)}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Ergot
| image = Claviceps_purpurea_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-185.jpg
| image_caption = ''Claviceps purpurea''
| taxon = Claviceps
| authority = [[Edmond Tulasne|Tul.]], 1853
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = About 50, including:<br/>
''[[Claviceps africana]]''<br/>
''[[Claviceps fusiformis]]''<br/>
''[[Claviceps paspali]]''<br/>
''[[Claviceps purpurea]]''<br/>
''[[Claviceps sorghi]]''<br/>
''[[Claviceps zizaniae]]''<br/>
''Claviceps lutea''
''[[Oryza sativa]]''
| synonyms = {{hidden begin|title = List}} 
* ''Balansiella'' <small>Henn. (1904)</small>
* ''Ergotaetia'' <small>E.J. Quekett (1841)</small>
* ''Kentrosporium'' <small>Wallr. (1844) [1842-44]</small>
* ''Mothesia'' <small>Oddo & Tonolo (1967)</small>
* ''Spermoedia'' <small>Fr. (1822)</small>
* ''Sphacelia'' <small>Lév. (1827)</small>
* ''Ustilaginula'' <small>Clem. (1909)</small>
* ''Ustilagopsis'' <small>Speg. (1880)</small>
{{hidden end}}
}}
'''Ergot''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɜr|g|ə|t}}) or '''ergot fungi''' refers to a group of [[fungus|fungi]] of the genus '''''Claviceps'''''.<ref name="Schardl2006">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63002-2 |title=Ergot Alkaloids – Biology and Molecular Biology |series=The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology |year=2006 |last1=Schardl |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Panaccione |first2=Daniel G. |last3=Tudzynski |first3=Paul |journal=The Alkaloids. Chemistry and Biology |volume=63 |pages=45–86 |pmid=17133714 |isbn=978-0-12-469563-4 }}</ref>

The most prominent member of this group is ''[[Claviceps purpurea]]'' ("rye ergot fungus"). This fungus grows on [[rye]] and related plants, and produces [[alkaloid]]s that can cause [[ergotism]] in humans and other mammals who consume grains contaminated with its fruiting structure (called ''ergot [[sclerotium]]'').<ref>[http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?ergot ergot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201034/http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?ergot |date=2016-03-03 }}, online medical dictionary</ref><ref>[http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/three/000036589.htm ergot] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910032206/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=%2Fppdocs%2Fus%2Fcommon%2Fdorlands%2Fdorland%2Fthree%2F000036589.htm |date=September 10, 2009}}, Dorland's Medical Dictionary</ref>

''Claviceps'' includes about 50 known species, mostly in the tropical regions. Economically significant species include ''C. purpurea'' (parasitic on [[Poaceae|grass]]es and cereals), ''C. fusiformis'' (on [[pearl millet]], [[buffel grass]]), ''[[C. paspali]]'' (on [[dallis grass]]), ''C. africana''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bandyopadhyay |first1=Ranajit |last2=Frederickson |first2=Debra E. |last3=McLaren |first3=Neal W. |last4=Odvody |first4=Gary N. |last5=Ryley |first5=Malcolm J. |title=Ergot: A New Disease Threat to Sorghum in the Americas and Australia |journal=Plant Disease |date=April 1998 |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=356–367 |doi=10.1094/PDIS.1998.82.4.356 |pmid=30856881 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1998PlDis..82..356B }}</ref> (on [[sorghum]]) and ''C. lutea'' (on [[paspalum]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stoll |first=A. |title=Ergot and ergotism |journal=The Science of Nature |date=October 1932 |volume=20 |issue=41 |pages=752–757 |doi=10.1007/BF01493390 |bibcode= 1932NW.....20..752S |s2cid= 29050640 }}</ref> ''C. purpurea'' most commonly affects [[Open pollination|outcrossing]] species such as rye (its most common host), as well as [[triticale]], [[wheat]] and [[barley]]. It affects [[oat]]s only rarely.

''C. purpurea'' has at least three races or varieties, which differ in their host specificity:<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.biomed.cas.cz/~pazouto/purpurea.htm |title= Intraspecific variability of ''C. purpurea'' |last=Pazoutova |first=Sylvie |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060310052745/http://www2.biomed.cas.cz/~pazouto/purpurea.htm |archive-date= 2006-03-10 }}{{self-published inline|date=September 2021}}</ref>
*G1 – land grasses of open meadows and fields;
*G2 – grasses from moist, forest and mountain habitats;
*G3 (''C. purpurea'' var. ''spartinae'') – salt marsh grasses (''Spartina'', ''Distichlis'').

==Life cycle==
An ergot kernel, called a ''sclerotium'', develops when a [[spore]] of fungal species of the genus ''Claviceps'' infects a [[floret]] of flowering grass or cereal. The infection process mimics a [[pollen]] grain growing into an [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]] during [[fertilization]]. Infection requires that the fungal spore have access to the [[Gynoecium|stigma]]; consequently, plants infected by ''Claviceps'' are mainly [[outcrossing]] species with [[Anemophily|open flowers]], such as rye (''[[Secale|Secale cereale]]'') and ryegrasses (genus ''[[Lolium]]''). The proliferating fungal [[mycelium]] then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the [[vascular bundle]] originally intended for [[seed]] nutrition. The first stage of ergot infection manifests itself as a white soft tissue (known as ''[[sphacelia]]'') producing sugary [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]], which often drops out of the infected grass florets. This honeydew contains millions of [[asexual reproduction|asexual]] spores ([[conidia]]), which [[insect]]s disperse to other florets. Later, the sphacelia convert into a hard dry sclerotium inside the husk of the floret. At this stage, [[alkaloid]]s and [[lipid]]s accumulate in the sclerotium.

''Claviceps '' species from tropic and subtropic regions produce macro- and [[microconidia]] in their honeydew. [[Macroconidia]] differ in shape and size between the species, whereas microconidia are rather uniform, oval to globose (5×3 μm). Macroconidia are able to produce secondary conidia. A [[germ tube]] emerges from a macroconidium through the surface of a honeydew drop and a secondary conidium of an oval to pearlike shape is formed, to which the contents of the original macroconidium migrates. Secondary conidia form a white, frost-like surface on honeydew drops and spread via the wind. No such process occurs in ''Claviceps purpurea'', ''Claviceps grohii'', ''Claviceps nigricans'' and ''Claviceps zizaniae'', all from northern temperate regions.

When a mature sclerotium drops to the ground, the fungus remains dormant until proper conditions (such as the onset of spring or a rain period) trigger its fruiting phase. It germinates, forming one or several [[fruiting bodies]] with heads and [[stipe (mycology)|stipes]], variously coloured (resembling a tiny [[mushroom]]). In the head, threadlike [[sexual reproduction|sexual]] spores form, which are ejected simultaneously when suitable grass hosts are flowering.

Ergot infection causes a reduction in the yield and quality of grain and hay, and if livestock eat infected grain or hay it may cause a disease called [[ergotism]]. Black and protruding sclerotia of ''C. purpurea'' are well known. However, many tropical ergots have brown or greyish sclerotia, mimicking the shape of the host seed. For this reason, the infection is often overlooked.

Insects, including flies and moths, carry conidia of ''Claviceps'' species, but it is unknown whether insects play a role in spreading the fungus from infected to healthy plants.<ref name="Butler et al.">{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=M. D. |last2=Alderman |first2=S. C. |last3=Hammond |first3=P. C. |last4=Berry |first4=R. E. |title=Association of Insects and Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) in Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Production Fields |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |date=1 December 2001 |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=1471–1476 |doi=10.1603/0022-0493-94.6.1471 |pmid=11777051 |s2cid=8725020 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Evolution==
Regarding the evolution of plant parasitism in the [[Clavicipitaceae]], an [[Amber#Paleontological significance|amber fossil]] discovered in 2020 preserves a [[Poaceae|grass spikelet]] and an ergot-like parasitic fungus. The fossil shows that the original hosts of the Clavicipitaceae could have been grasses. The discovery also establishes a minimum time for the conceivable presence of [[psychotropic]] compounds in fungi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poinar |first1=George Jr. |last2=Alderman |first2=Stephen |last3=Wunderlich |first3=Joerg |name-list-style=amp |year=2015 |title=One hundred million year old ergot: psychotropic compounds in the Cretaceous? |url=http://www.palaeodiversity.org/pdf/08/02Palaeodiversity_8-15_Poinar-et-al_1.pdf |journal=Palaeodiversity |volume=8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/science-burmese-amber-fungus-infected-grass-02482.html |title= 100-Million-Year-Old Burmese Amber Preserves Fungus-Infected Grass |website=sci-news.com |date=10 February 2020|access-date=7 September 2020}}</ref>
Several evolutionary processes have acted to diversify the array of ergot alkaloids produced by fungi; these differences in enzyme activities are evident at the levels of substrate specificity (LpsA), product specification (EasA, CloA) or both (EasG and possibly CloA).<ref name="Schardl">{{cite journal|last=Schardl|first=Christopher L.|title=Introduction to the Toxins Special Issue on Ergot Alkaloids|journal=Toxins|date=7 October 2015|volume=10|issue=7|pages=4232–4237|doi=10.3390/toxins7104232|pmid=26665699|pmc=4626731|doi-access=free}}</ref> The "old yellow enzyme", EasA, presents an outstanding example. This enzyme catalyzes reduction of the C8=C9 double-bond in chanoclavine I, but EasA isoforms differ in whether they subsequently catalyze reoxidation of C8–C9 after rotation.<ref name="Schardl"/> This difference distinguishes most Clavicipitaceae from Trichocomaceae, but in Clavicipitaceae it is also the key difference dividing the branch of classical ergot alkaloids from dihydroergot alkaloids, the latter often being preferred for pharmaceuticals due to their relatively few side effects.<ref name="Schardl"/>

==Effects on humans, other mammals and LSD==
[[File:Moederkoornpreparaat Methergin.jpg|thumb|Ergot-derived drug to stop postpartum bleeding]]
The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the [[alkaloid]] [[ergotamine]], a complex molecule consisting of a [[tripeptide]]-derived [[cyclol]]-[[lactam]] ring connected via [[amide]] linkage to a [[lysergic acid]] (ergoline) [[moiety (chemistry)|moiety]], and other alkaloids of the [[ergoline]] group that are [[biosynthesis|biosynthesized]] by the fungus.<ref name="Tudzynski">{{cite journal |last1=Tudzynski |first1=P. |last2=Correia |first2=T. |last3=Keller |first3=U. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Biotechnology and genetics of ergot alkaloids |journal=Appl Microbiol Biotechnol |volume=57 |issue=5–6 |pages=4593–4605 |doi=10.1007/s002530100801 |pmid=11778866 |s2cid=847027}}</ref> Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of [[biological activity|biological activities]] including effects on [[circulatory system|circulation]] and [[neurotransmission]].<ref name="Eadie">{{cite journal |last=Eadie |first=Mervyn J |year=2003 |title=Convulsive ergotism: epidemics of the serotonin syndrome? |journal=Lancet Neurol. |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=429–434 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00439-3 |pmid=12849122 |s2cid=12158282}}</ref>

Ergot alkaloids are classified as:
# derivatives of 6,8-dimethylergoline and
# lysergic acid derivatives.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-12-30 |title=Pharmacognosy of Ergot (Argot or St. Anthony's Fire) {{!}} Notes {{!}} PharmaXChange.info |url=https://pharmaxchange.info/2011/12/pharmacognosy-of-ergot-argot-or-st-anthonys-fire/ |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=pharmaxchange.info |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Ergotism]] is the name for sometimes severe pathological syndromes affecting humans or other animals that have ingested plant material containing ergot alkaloid, such as ergot-contaminated grains. 

The [[Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony]], an order of monks established in 1095, specialized in treating ergotism victims<ref name="mia">{{cite book |last1=Heritage |first1=J. |url=https://archive.org/details/microbiologyinac0000heri_p5m3/page/115 |title=Microbiology in Action |last2=Evans |first2=E. G. V. |last3=Killington |first3=R. A. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-62912-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/microbiologyinac0000heri_p5m3/page/115 115] |chapter=5.6.8 What is the role of fungal toxins in food poisoning? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9x6zLqdjOYC&pg=PA115}}</ref> with balms containing tranquilizing and circulation-stimulating plant extracts. The common name for ergotism is "St. Anthony's fire",<ref name=mia/> in reference to this order of monks and the severe burning sensations in the limbs which was one of the symptoms.<ref>{{cite web |title=St. Anthony's Fire — Ergotism |year=2002 |publisher=MedicineNet |url=http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=14891}}</ref> 

There are two types of ergotism. The first is characterized by muscle spasms, fever and [[hallucinations]] and the victims may appear dazed, be unable to speak, become [[Mania|manic]], or have other forms of paralysis or tremors, and suffer from hallucinations and other distorted perceptions.<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing">{{cite journal|last1=Miedaner|first1=Thomas|last2=Geiger|first2=Hartwig H.|title=Biology, Genetics, and Management of Ergot (Claviceps spp.) in Rye, Sorghum, and Pearl Millet|journal=Toxins|date=25 February 2015|volume=7|issue=3|pages=659–678|doi=10.3390/toxins7030659|pmid=25723323|pmc=4379517|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is caused by [[serotonin|serotonergic]] stimulation of the central nervous system by some of the alkaloids.<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/> 

The second type of ergotism is marked by violent burning, absent peripheral pulses and shooting pain of the poorly [[vascularized]] distal organs, such as the fingers and toes,<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/> and are caused by effects of ergot alkaloids on the [[circulatory system|vascular system]] due to [[vasoconstriction]], sometimes leading to [[gangrene]] and loss of limbs due to severely restricted blood circulation.

The [[psychoactive]] properties of the ergot alkaloids may also cause hallucinations and attendant irrational behaviour, convulsions, and even death.<ref name="Tudzynski"/><ref name="Eadie"/> Other symptoms include strong [[uterus|uterine]] contractions, [[nausea]], [[seizure]]s, high fever, vomiting, loss of muscle strength and unconsciousness. 

Since the Middle Ages, controlled doses of ergot were used to induce [[abortion]]s and to stop maternal bleeding after childbirth.<ref name=lfn>{{cite thesis |title=Untersuchungen über das Verhalten der Secalealkaloide bei der Herstellung von Mutterkornextrakten |first=Labib |last=Farid |publisher=Universität Wien |year=1946 |oclc=58399816}}{{page needed|date=July 2014}}</ref> 

Klotz offers a detailed overview of the toxicities in mammalian livestock, stating that the activities are attributable to antagonism or [[Agonist|agonism]] of [[neurotransmitter]]s, including [[dopamine]], [[serotonin]] and [[norepinephrine]]. He also states that the [[adrenergic]] blockage by [[ergopeptine]]s (e.g., [[ergovaline]] or [[ergotamine]]) leads to potent and long-term [[vasoconstriction]], and can result in reduced blood flow resulting in intense burning pain (St. Anthony's fire), [[edema]], [[cyanosis]], [[dry gangrene]] and even loss of hooves in cattle or limbs in humans. Reduced [[prolactin]] due to ergot alkaloid activity on dopamine receptors in the pituitary is also common in livestock. Reduced serum prolactin is associated with various reproductive problems in cattle, and especially in horses, including [[agalactia]] and poor conception, and late-term losses of foals and sometimes mares due to [[dystocia]] and thickened placentas.<ref name="Schardl"/>
Although both gangrenous and convulsive symptoms are seen in naturally occurring ergotism resulting from the ingestion of fungus infected rye, only gangrenous ergotism has been reported following the excessive ingestion of ergotamine tartrate.<ref name="Merhoff and Porter">{{cite journal |last1=Merhoff |first1=GC |last2=Porter |first2=JM |title=Ergot Intoxication: Historical Review and Description of Unusual Clinical Manifestations |journal=Annals of Surgery |date=1 November 1974 |volume=180 |issue=5 |pages=773–779 |pmid=4371616 |pmc=1343691 |doi=10.1097/00000658-197411000-00011}}</ref>

Ergot extract has been used in [[pharmaceutical]] preparations, including ergot alkaloids in products such as [[Cafergot]] (containing [[caffeine]] and [[ergotamine]]<ref name=lfn/> or [[ergoline]]) to treat migraine headaches, and [[ergometrine]], used to induce uterine contractions and to control bleeding after childbirth.<ref name="the_encyclopedia_of_seeds">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofse00mich |title=The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses |publisher=CABI |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-85199-723-0 |editor-last=Black |editor-first=Michael |location=Wallingford, UK |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofse00mich/page/n253 226] |editor-last2=Bewley |editor-first2=J. Derek |editor-last3=Halmer |editor-first3=Peter |url-access=limited |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Clinical ergotism as seen today results almost exclusively from the excessive intake of ergotamine tartrate in the treatment of migraine headache.<ref name="Merhoff and Porter"/>

In addition to ergot alkaloids, ''[[Claviceps paspali]]'' also produces tremorgens (paspalitrem) causing "paspalum staggers" in cattle.<ref name="Paspalum">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cole RJ, Dorner JW, Lansden JA |title=Paspalum staggers: isolation and identification of tremorgenic metabolites from sclerotia of ''Claviceps paspali'' |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=1197–1201 |year=1977 |pmid=893851 |doi=10.1021/jf60213a061|bibcode=1977JAFC...25.1197C |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The fungi of the genera ''[[Penicillium]]'' and ''[[Aspergillus]]'' also produce ergot alkaloids, notably some isolates of the human pathogen ''[[Aspergillus fumigatus]]'',<ref name="Rao">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao KK, Rao S |year=1975 |title=Effect of tweens on the production of ergot alkaloids by ''Aspergillus fumigatus'' |journal= Folia Microbiol. |volume=20 |pages=418–422 |pmid=1104424 |doi=10.1007/BF02877045 |issue=5 |s2cid=31459536}}</ref> and have been isolated from plants in the family [[Convolvulaceae]], of which [[morning glory]] is best known. The causative agents of most ergot poisonings are the ergot alkaloid class of fungal metabolites, though some ergot fungi produce distantly related indole-diterpene alkaloids that are tremorgenic.<ref name="Schardl"/>

Ergot does not contain [[lysergic acid diethylamide]] (LSD) but instead contains [[lysergic acid]] as well as its precursor,<ref name="Correia et al.">{{cite journal |vauthors=Correia T, Grammel N, Ortel I, Keller U, Tudzynski P |year=2001 |title=Molecular cloning and analysis of the ergopeptine assembly system in the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea |journal= Chem. Biol. |volume=10 |pages=1281–1292 |pmid=14700635 |doi=10.1016/j.chembiol.2003.11.013 |issue=12 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[ergotamine]]. Lysergic acid is a precursor for the synthesis of LSD. Their realized and hypothesized medicinal uses have encouraged intensive research since the 1950s culminating on the one hand in development of drugs both legal (e.g., [[bromocriptine]]) and illegal (e.g., LSD), and on the other hand in extensive knowledge of the enzymes, genetics and diversity of ergot alkaloid biosynthetic pathways.<ref name="Schardl"/>

The January 4, 2007 issue of the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' includes a paper that documents a British study of more than 11,000 [[Parkinson's disease]] patients. The study found that two ergot-derived drugs, [[pergolide]] and [[cabergoline]], commonly used to treat Parkinson's Disease may increase the risk of leaky heart valves by up to 700%.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schade R, Andersohn F, Suissa S, Haverkamp W, Garbe E |title=Dopamine agonists and the risk of cardiac-valve regurgitation |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=356 |issue=1 |pages=29–38 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17202453 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa062222|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Ergot01.jpg|thumb|Ergot on wheat heads]]
[[Ergotism]] is the earliest recorded example of ''mycotoxicosis'', or poisoning caused by toxic molds.<ref name="Bennett Bentley 1999 Story Ergot">{{cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=J.W. |last2=Bentley |first2=Ronald |title=Pride and Prejudice: The Story of Ergot |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=333–355 |doi=10.1353/pbm.1999.0026|year=1999 |s2cid=72715889}}</ref>
Early references to ergotism date back as far as 600 BC, an [[Assyria]]n tablet referred to it as a "noxious pustule in the ear of grain."<ref name="Ergot:from witchcraft to biotechnology">{{cite journal |last1=Haarmann |first1=Thomas |last2=Rolke |first2=Yvonne |last3=Giesbert |first3=Sabine |last4=Tudzynski |first4=Paul |title=Ergot:from witchcraft to biotechnology |journal=Molecular Plant Pathology |date=2009 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=563–77 |doi=10.1111/J.1364-3703.2009.00548.X |pmid=19523108 |pmc=6640538|bibcode=2009MolPP..10..563H }}</ref> In 350 BC, the [[Parsis|Parsees]] described "noxious grasses that cause pregnant women to drop the womb and die in childbed."<ref name="Ergot:from witchcraft to biotechnology"/> In [[History of Syria|ancient Syria]], ergot was called "Daughter of Blood."<ref name="Wellcome"/> [[Rodulfus Glaber|Radulf Glaber]] described an ailment he called "hidden fire," or ''ignus ocultus'', in which a burning of the limb is followed by its separation from the body, often consuming the victim in one night.<ref name="Wellcome"/> In 1588, Johannes Thallius wrote that it is called "Mother of Rye," or ''rockenmutter,'' and is used to halt bleeding.<ref name="Wellcome"/>

Human poisoning due to the consumption of rye bread made from ergot-infected grain was common in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]]. The first mention of a plague of gangrenous ergotism in Europe comes from [[Germany]] in 857; following this, [[France]] and [[Scandinavia]] experienced similar outbreaks;<ref name="De Costa">{{cite journal |last=De Costa |first=Caroline |title=StAnthony's fire and living ligatures: a short history of ergometrine |journal=The Lancet |date=May 18, 2002 |volume=359 |issue=9319 |pages=1768–1770 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08658-0 |pmid=12049883|s2cid=53277037 }}</ref> England is noticeably absent from the historical regions affected by ergotism as its main source of food was wheat, which is resistant to ergot fungi.<ref name="Wellcome">{{cite book |last1=Wellcome |first1=Henry S. |last2=Solomon |first2=Henry |title=From Ergot to Ernutin |date=June 19, 1908 |publisher=Canadian Medical Association |location=Ottawa |isbn=978-1-331-94615-1 |pages=1–60}}</ref> In 994, a massive outbreak potentially attributed to ergotism caused 40,000 deaths in the regions of [[Aquitaine]], [[Limousin]], [[Périgord]] and [[Angoumois]] in France.<ref name="Bennett Bentley 1999 Story Ergot"/> In [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt|Hesse]], in 1596, Wendelin Thelius was one of the first to attribute ergotism poisoning to grain.<ref name="De Costa"/> In 1778, S. Tessier, observing a huge epidemic in [[Sologne]], France, in which more than 8,000 people died, recommended drainage of fields, compulsory cleaning of grain, and the substitution of potatoes for affected grain.<ref name="De Costa"/>

In 1722, the [[Russia]]n [[Tsar]] [[Peter the Great]] was thwarted in his campaign against the [[Ottoman Empire]] as his army, traveling down the [[Terek River|Terek]] steppe, was struck by ergotism and was forced to retreat in order to find edible grains. A diary entry from the time notes that as soon as people ate the poisoned bread, they became dizzy, with such strong nerve contractions that those who did not die on the first day found their hands and feet falling off, akin to [[frostbite]].<ref name="Bennett Bentley 1999 Story Ergot"/> The outbreak was known as Saint Anthony's fire,<ref name="mia"/> or ''ignis sacer''. 

Some historical events, such as the [[Great Fear]] in France at the outset of the [[French Revolution]], have been linked to ergot poisoning.<ref>Matossian, Mary Kilbourne, ''Poisons of the Past: Molds, Epidemics, and History''. New Haven: Yale, 1989 (reedited in 1991) {{ISBN|0-300-05121-2}}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> 

===Saint Anthony's fire and the Antonites===
[[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony]] was a 3rd Century Egyptian ascetic who lived by the [[Red Sea]] and was known for long fasting in which he confronted terrible visions and temptations sent from the [[Devil]].<ref name="De Costa"/> He was credited by two noblemen for assisting them in recovery from the disease; they subsequently founded the [[Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony|Order of St. Anthony]] in his honor.<ref name="Wellcome"/> Anthony was a popular subject for art in the Middle Ages, and his symbol is a large blue "[[Tau|T]]" sewn onto the shoulder of the order's monks, symbolizing the crutch used by the ill and injured.<ref name="Nemes"/>

The Order of St. Anthony, whose members were known as Antonites, grew quickly, and hospitals spread through France, Germany and Scandinavia and gained wealth and power as grateful patrons bestowed money and charitable goods on the hospitals.<ref name="Wellcome"/> By the end of the Middle Ages, there were 396 settlements and 372 hospitals owned by the order,<ref name="Nemes"/> and pilgrimages to such hospitals became popular, as well as the donation of limbs lost to ergotism, which were displayed near shrines to the saint.<ref name="Wellcome"/> These [[Hagiotherapy|hagiotherapeutic]] centers were the first specialized European medical welfare systems, and the friars of the order were knowledgeable about treatment of ergotism and the horrifying effects of the poison.<ref name="Nemes">{{cite journal |last=Nemes |first=C.N. |title=The medical and surgical treatment of the pilgrims of the Jacobean Roads in medieval times Part.1 |journal=International Congress Series |date=1 December 2018 |volume=1242 |pages=31–42 |doi=10.1016/S0531-5131(02)01096-8}}</ref> The sufferers would receive ergot-free meals, wines containing [[Vasodilation|vasodilating]] and analgesic herbs, and applications of Antonites-balsam, which was the first [[transdermal therapeutic system]] (TTS) in medical history.<ref name="Ergot:from witchcraft to biotechnology"/> These medical recipes have been lost to time, though some recorded treatments still remain.<ref name="Nemes"/> After 1130, the monks were no longer permitted to perform operations, and so barber surgeons were employed to remove gangrenous limbs and treat open sores.<ref name="Nemes"/> Three barbers founded a hospital in [[Memmingen]] in 1214 and accepted those who were afflicted with the gangrenous form of ergotism. Patients were fed and housed, with the more able-bodied individuals acting as orderlies and assistants. Patients with the convulsive form of ergotism, or ''ergotismus convulsivus'', were welcomed for only nine days before they were asked to leave, as convulsive ergotism was seen as less detrimental. Though the sufferers often experienced irreversible effects, they most often returned to their families and resumed their livelihoods.<ref name="Nemes"/>

An important aspect to the Order of St. Anthony's treatment practices was the exclusion of rye bread and other ergot-containing edibles, which halted the progression of ergotism.<ref name="Wellcome"/> There was no known cure for ergotism itself; however, there was treatment of the symptoms, which often included blood constriction, nervous disorders and/or hallucinations; if the sufferer survived the initial poisoning, his limbs would often fall off, and he or she would continue to improve in health if he or she halted consumption of ergot.<ref name="De Costa"/> The trunk of the body remained relatively untouched by the disease until its final stages, and the victims, not understanding the cause of their ailment, would continue to imbibe ergot-laden food for weeks until the condition reached their digestive system.<ref name="Nemes"/> It is believed that the peasantry and children were most susceptible to ergotism, though the wealthy were afflicted as well, as, at times, entire villages relied on tainted crops for sustenance, and during times of famine, ergotism reached into every house.<ref name="Ergot:from witchcraft to biotechnology"/> Ergot fungus is impervious to heat and water, and thus it was most often baked into bread through rye flour; though other grasses can be infected, it was uncommon in [[Medieval Europe]] to consume grasses other than rye.<ref name="Wellcome"/> The physiological effects of ergot depended on the concentration and combinations of the ingested ergot metabolites, as well as the age and nutritional status of the afflicted individual.<ref name="Bennett Bentley 1999 Story Ergot"/> The Antonites began to decline after physicians discovered the genesis of ergotism and recommended methods for removing the [[sclerotium]] from the rye crops. In 1776, the cloisters of the Antonites were incorporated into the Maltese [[Knights Hospitaller]], losing much of their medical histories in the process and losing the ergotism cures and recipes due to lack of use and lack of preservation.<ref name="Nemes"/>

===Usage in gynaecology and obstetrics===
Midwives and very few doctors in Europe have used extracts from ergot for centuries: 
# In a [[Nuremberg]] manuscript of 1474, powdered ergot was prescribed together with [[Laurus nobilis#Alternative medicine|Laurel-fruits]] and [[rhizome]]s of [[Polygonatum multiflorum|Solomon's seal]]s to cure ''permutter'' or ''heffmutter,'' which refers to pain in the lower abdomen caused by 'uprising of the womb'<ref>Cod. Pal. germ. 545, Blatt &nbsp;70v [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg545/0144 (Digitalisat)]</ref>
# In a printed book of 1582, the German physician [[Adam Lonicer]] wrote, that three sclerotia of ergot, used several times a day, were used by midwives as a good remedy in case of the "uprising and pain of the womb" (''auffſteigen vnd wehethumb der mutter'')<ref>Adam Lonitzer. Kreuterbuch ... Egenolff, Frankfurt 1582, Blatt CCLXXXVr ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=11200293_00589}}). In the 1578 edition [http://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00086989&pimage=598&v=100&nav=&l=de (Digitalisat)] ergot is not mentioned.</ref>
# [[Joachim Camerarius the Younger]] wrote in 1586, that sclerotia of ergot held under the tongue, would stop bleeding<ref>Herbal of [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli]] enlarged by J. Camerarius. Frankfurt am Main 1586, page 109-, [http://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00091089&pimage=00238&v=100&nav= (Digitalisat)]</ref>

To prove that ergot is a harmless sort of grain, in 1774, the French pharmacist [[Antoine-Augustin Parmentier]] edited a letter he had received from Madame Dupile, a midwife of [[Chaumont-en-Vexin]]. She had told him that if uterine contractions were too weak in the [[Childbirth#Second stage: fetal expulsion|expulsion stage of childbirth]], she and her mother gave peeled ergot in an [[Thimble|amount of the filling of a thimble]] dispersed in water, wine or broth. The administration of ergot was followed by a mild childbirth within 15 minutes.<ref>Journal de Physique, 1774, S. 144–155 [https://archive.org/details/journaldephysiq03unkngoog/page/n157 (Digitalisat)]</ref> The French physician Jean-Baptiste Desgranges (1751–1831) published in 1818, that in 1777 he had met midwives in [[Lyon]], who successfully treated feeble uterine contractions by administering the powder of ergot. Desgranges added this remedy to his therapeutic arsenal. From 1777 to 1804, he was successful in alleviating childbirth for more than twenty women  by the administration of the powder of ergot. He never saw any side-effect of this treatment.<ref>Jean-Baptiste Desgranges (1751–1831). ''Sur la propriété qu'a le Seigle ergoté d'accélérer la marche de l'accouchement, et de hâter sa terminaison''. In: ''Nouveau Journal de Médecine'', Paris, I (1818), S. 54–61 [https://archive.org/details/BIUSante_90147x1818x01/page/n53 (Digitalisat)]</ref>

In the [[United States]], in 1807 Dr. [[John Stearns, 1770|John Stearns]] of [[Saratoga County, New York]] wrote to a friend that he had used, over several years, a ''pulvis parturiens'' with complete success in patients with "lingering [[Uterine contraction#Childbirth|parturitation]]". This ''pulvis parturiens'' consisted of ergot, that he called a "spurious groth of rye". He boiled [[Apothecaries' system#Metrication in countries using the troy and avoirdupois systems|"half a drachm"]] (ca. 2g) of that powder in half a pint of water and gave one third every twenty minutes, till the pains commenced.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=The Medical repository Hexade 2, v. 5 (1808). |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433011578865&view=1up&seq=324 |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=HathiTrust |language=en}}</ref> In 1813, Dr. [[Oliver Prescott#Son|Oliver Prescott]] (1762–1827) of [[Newburyport, Massachusetts]] published a dissertation "on the natural history and medical effects of the secale cornutum", in which he described and analysed the experience he had gathered over five years while using ergot in cases of poor uterine action in the second stage of labour in childbirth.<ref name="auto"/>

The 1836 ''Dispensatory of the United States'' recommended "to a woman in labour fifteen or twenty grains [ca. 1 to 1.3g] of ergot in powder to be repeated every twenty minutes, till its peculiar effects are experienced, or till the amount of a drachm [ca. 3.9g] has been taken".<ref>''The Dispensatory of the United States of America'', third edition Philadelphia 1836, p. 588 [https://archive.org/details/dispensatoryofun00wood/page/588 (Digitalisat)]</ref>

In 1837, the French ''Codex Pharmacopee Francaise'' required ergot to be kept in all pharmacies.<ref>''Codex, pharmacopée française 1837'', p. 215 : ''Poudre de seigle ergoté'' [http://archive.org/details/codexpharmacopef00univ/page/214 (Digitalisat)]
</ref>

Low to very low evidence from clinical trials suggests that prophylactic use of ergot alkaloids, administered by intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) in the third stage of labor, may reduce blood loss and may reduce the risk of moderate to severe hemorrhage following delivery, however this medication may also be associated with higher blood pressure and higher pain.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Liabsuetrakul |first1=Tippawan |last2=Choobun |first2=Thanapan |last3=Peeyananjarassri |first3=Krantarat |last4=Islam |first4=Q. Monir |date=2018 |title=Prophylactic use of ergot alkaloids in the third stage of labour |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2018 |issue=6 |article-number=CD005456 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005456.pub3 |issn=1469-493X |pmc=6513467 |pmid=29879293}}</ref> It is not clear if oral ergot alkaloids are beneficial or harmful as they have not been well studied.<ref name=":0"/> A 2018 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that other medications such as oxytocin, syntometrine and prostaglandins, may be preferred over ergot alkaloids.<ref name=":0"/>

Though ergot was known to cause abortions in [[cattle]] and humans, this was not a recognized use for it as abortion was illegal in most countries, thus evidence for its use in abortion is unknown.<ref name="Bennett Bentley 1999 Story Ergot"/> Most often, ergot was used to speed the process of parturition or delivery, and was not used for the purpose of halting postpartum bleeding, which is a concern of childbirth.<ref name="De Costa"/> However, until [[anesthesia]] became available, there was no antidote or way of controlling the effects of ergot. So if the fetus did not move as expected, the drug could cause the uterus to mold itself around the child, rupturing the uterus and killing the child. [[David Hosack]], an American physician, noted the large number of stillbirths resulting from ergot use and stated that rather than ''pulvis ad partum'', it should be called ''pulvis ad mortem''.<ref name="De Costa"/> He began advocating for its use to halt postpartum bleeding. Eventually, doctors determined that the use of ergot in childbirth without an antidote was too dangerous. They ultimately restricted its use to expelling the [[placenta]] or stopping hemorrhage. Not only did it constrict the uterus, ergot had the ability to increase or decrease blood pressure, induce hypothermia and emesis, and influence pituitary hormone secretions.<ref name="Bennett Bentley 1999 Story Ergot"/> In 1926, Swiss psychiatrist Hans Maier suggested to use ergotamine for the treatment of vascular headaches of the migraine type.<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/>

In the 1930s, [[abortifacient]] drugs were marketed to women by various companies under various names such as Molex pills and Cote pills. Since birth control devices and abortifacients were illegal to market and sell at the time, they were offered to women who were "delayed". The recommended dosage was seven grains of ergotin a day. According to the [[United States]] [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Federal Trade Commission |title=Federal Trade Commission Decisions |journal=Federal Trade Commission Decisions |volume=30 |page=800 |year=1941}}</ref> these pills contained ergotin, aloes, [[Helleborus niger|Black Hellebore]] and other substances. The efficacy and safety of these pills are unknown. The FTC deemed them unsafe and ineffective and demanded that they [[cease and desist]] selling the product. Currently, over a thousand compounds have been derived from ergot ingredients.<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/>

===Speculated cause of hysterics and hallucinations===
It has been posited that [[Kykeon]], the beverage consumed by participants in the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] cult, might have been based on [[hallucinogen]]s from [[ergotamine]], a precursor to the potent hallucinogen LSD, and [[ergonovine]].<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.psychedelic-library.org/Mixing%20the%20Kykeon%20Final%20Draft.pdf |title=Mixing the ''Kykeon'' |journal=ELEUSIS: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds |volume=New Series 4 |year=2000 |access-date=2008-07-31 |archive-date=2019-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720192225/http://www.psychedelic-library.org/Mixing%20the%20Kykeon%20Final%20Draft.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Carod-Artal |first=F. J. |date=2013 |title=Psychoactive plants in ancient Greece |url=https://nah.sen.es/en/130-journals/volume-1/issue-1/241-psychoactive-plants-in-ancient-greece |access-date=2021-02-17 |website=nah.sen.es}}</ref>

An article appearing in the July 23, 1881 edition of ''[[Scientific American]]'' entitled "A New Exhilarating Substance" denotes cases of euphoria upon consuming [[tincture]] of ergot of rye, particularly when mixed with [[Sodium phosphates|phosphate of soda]] and sweetened water. In rainy years, it was thought rye bread exceeded 5% ergot.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIE9AQAAIAAJ |title=Scientific American |date=1881-07-23 |publisher=Munn & Company |page=51 |language=en}}</ref>

British author John Grigsby contends that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so-called 'bog-bodies' ([[Iron Age]] human remains from peat [[bog]]s of northeast Europe, such as the [[Tollund Man]]) is indicative of use of ''[[Claviceps purpurea]]'' in ritual drinks in a prehistoric fertility cult akin to the Greek Eleusinian Mysteries. In his 2005 book ''Beowulf and Grendel'', he argues that the [[Anglo-Saxon]] poem ''[[Beowulf]]'' is based on a memory of the quelling of this fertility cult by followers of [[Odin]]. He writes that Beowulf, which he translates as ''barley-wolf'', suggests a connection to ergot which in German was known as the 'tooth of the wolf'.<ref>{{cite book |last=Grigsby |first=John |title=Beowulf & Grendel: The Truth Behind England's Oldest Legend |year=2005 |publisher=Watkins Publishing |isbn=978-1-84293-153-0}}{{page needed |date=July 2014}}</ref>

[[Linnda R. Caporael]] posited in 1976 that the [[Salem witch trials#Medical theories about the reported afflictions|hysterical symptoms of young women]] that had spurred the [[Salem witch trials]] had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Caporael |first=Linnda R. |author-link=Linnda R. Caporael |date=April 1976 |title=Ergotism: the satan loosed in Salem? |url=http://web.utk.edu/~kstclair/221/ergotism.html |journal=Science |volume=192 |issue=4234 |pages=21–6 |bibcode=1976Sci...192...21C |doi=10.1126/science.769159 |pmid=769159 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511154621/http://web.utk.edu/~kstclair/221/ergotism.html |archive-date=2008-05-11|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence, later disputed her conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Spanos NP, Gottlieb J |s2cid=41615273 |title=Ergotism and the Salem Village witch trials |journal=Science |volume=194 |issue=4272 |pages=1390–4 |date=December 1976 |pmid=795029 |doi=10.1126/science.795029 |bibcode=1976Sci...194.1390S }}</ref> Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism as the cause of the Salem witch trials.<ref name="Woolf">{{cite journal |last=Woolf |first=Alan |year=2000 |title=Witchcraft or mycotoxin? The Salem witch trials |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=457–60 |doi=10.1081/CLT-100100958 |pmid=10930065 |s2cid=10469595}}</ref>

==''Claviceps purpurea''==
{{Main|Claviceps purpurea}}
Mankind has known about ''Claviceps purpurea'' for a long time, and its appearance has been linked to extremely cold winters that were followed by rainy summers.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

The sclerotial stage of ''C. purpurea'' conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Favorable temperatures for growth are in the range of 18–30&nbsp;°C. Temperatures above 37&nbsp;°C cause rapid germination of [[conidia]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the [[mycelium]], with intense coloration.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Cereal mashes and sprouted rye are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

==''Claviceps africana''==
''Claviceps africana'' infects [[sorghum]]. In sorghum and pearl millet, ergot became a problem when growers adopted hybrid technology, which increased host susceptibility.<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/> It only infects unfertilized ovaries, so self-pollination and [[fertilization]] can decrease the presence of the disease, but male-sterile lines are extremely vulnerable to infection.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Symptoms of infection by ''C. africana'' include the secretion of [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] (a fluid with high concentrates of sugar and conidia), which attracts insects like flies, beetles and wasps that feed on it. This helps spread the fungus to uninfected plants.

In Sorghum, this honeydew can be spotted coming out of head flowers. A whitish sticky substance can also be observed on leaves and on the ground.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Plantwise Knowledge Bank {{!}} Ergot sugary disease in sorghum|url=https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/pmdg/20167800135|access-date=2020-06-25|journal=Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank|date=2018 |doi=10.1079/pwkb.20167800135 |last=Bwalya |first=C. |volume=Pest Management Decision Guides |s2cid=253986400 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

''C. africana'' caused ergot disease that caused a famine in 1903–1906 in northern [[Cameroon]], West Africa, and also occurs in eastern and southern Africa, especially [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]]. Male sterile sorghums (also referred to as A-lines) are especially susceptible to infection, as first recognized in the 1960s, and massive losses in seed yield have been noted. Infection is associated with cold night temperatures that are below 12&nbsp;°C occurring two to three weeks before flowering.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

Sorghum ergot caused by ''Claviceps africana'' Frederickson, Mantle and De Milliano is widespread in all sorghum-growing areas, whereas the species was formerly restricted to Africa and Asia where it was first recorded more than 90 years ago, it has been spreading rapidly and by the mid-1990s it reached [[Brazil]], South Africa and [[Australia]]. By 1997, the disease had spread to most South American countries and the Caribbean including [[Mexico]], and by 1997 had reached [[Texas]] in the [[United States]].<ref name="Miedaner and Hartwing"/>

=== Management ===
Partners of the [[CAB International|CABI]]-led programme, [[Plantwise]] (including the [[Ministry of Agriculture (Zambia)|Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock]] in Zambia) have several recommendations for managing the spread of ergot, these include; planting tolerant varieties, disk fields after harvest to prevent sorghum ratoon and volunteer plants from developing, remove any infected plants, and carrying out three-year crop rotations with legumes.<ref name=":1"/>

==Related genus==
[[Periglandula]] are a [[genus]] of [[fungi]] in the family [[Clavicipitaceae]].

''[[Ipomoea asarifolia]]'', and ''[[Ipomoea tricolor]]'' seeds contains LSA and [[Lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide|LSH]] among other alkaloids, due to the presence of the symbiotic fungus ''[[Periglandula ipomoeae]]'', which lives [[symbiosis|symbiotically]] with them as an [[epibiont]] and produces these compounds<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaulieu|first1=Wesley T.|last2=Panaccione|first2=Daniel G.|last3=Quach|first3=Quynh N.|last4=Smoot|first4=Katy L.|last5=Clay|first5=Keith|date=2021-12-06|title=Diversification of ergot alkaloids and heritable fungal symbionts in morning glories|journal=Communications Biology|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|page=1362 |doi=10.1038/s42003-021-02870-z|pmid=34873267 |pmc=8648897 |issn=2399-3642}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.3390/jof8080823 | doi-access = free | title = How and Where Periglandula Fungus Interacts with Different Parts of Ipomoea asarifolia | date = 2022 | last1 = Olaranont | first1 = Yanisa | last2 = Stewart | first2 = Alyssa B. | last3 = Songnuan | first3 = Wisuwat | last4 = Traiperm | first4 = Paweena | journal = Journal of Fungi | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | page = 823 | pmid = 36012811 | pmc = 9409888 }}</ref><ref>Steiner, Ulrike, and Eckhard Leistner. "Ergoline alkaloids in convolvulaceous host plants originate from epibiotic clavicipitaceous fungi of the genus Periglandula." ''Fungal Ecology'' 5.3 (2012): 316-321. Available at: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eckhard-Leistner-My-Name-Is-Not-Leister/publication/251705795_Ergoline_Alkaloids_in_convolvulaceous_host_plants_originate_from_epibiotic_clavicipitaceous_fungi_of_the_genus_Periglandula/links/5af409334585157136c9af32/Ergoline-Alkaloids-in-convolvulaceous-host-plants-originate-from-epibiotic-clavicipitaceous-fungi-of-the-genus-Periglandula.pdf]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Medicinal uses of fungi]]
*[[Dassel History Center & Ergot Museum]]: a major producer of ergot

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = PMDG: Ergot sugary disease in sorghum
| last = Bwalya
| publisher = CABI
| page numbers = 
| source = 
| documentURL = https://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/pmdg/20167800135
| license statement URL = https://www.cabi.org/terms-and-conditions/
| license = CC-BY-SA
| first = Chanda
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=37&z=5 Claviceps purpurea - Ergot Alkaloid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100907065004/http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=37&z=5 |date=2010-09-07 }}
*[http://www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs/plantsci/crops/pp551w.htm Ergot article from North Dakota State University, 2002] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006123223/http://www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs/plantsci/crops/pp551w.htm |date=2008-10-06 }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Panaccione DG, Coyle CM |title=Abundant respirable ergot alkaloids from the common airborne fungus Aspergillus fumigatus |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=3106–11 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15933008 |pmc=1151833 |doi=10.1128/AEM.71.6.3106-3111.2005|bibcode=2005ApEnM..71.3106P }}
*[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/witches-curse/1498/ PBS Secrets of the Dead: "The Witches Curse" (concerning the Salem trials and ergot)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070106040511/http://www.healthday.com/Article.asp?AID=600564 Parkinson's Drugs Can Damage Heart Valves]. [[HealthDay]]. January 3, 2007.
*{{cite journal |last=McCrea |first=Adelia |title=The Reactions of ''Claviceps purpurea'' to Variations of Environment |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=50–78 |date=January 1931 |jstor=2435724 |doi=10.2307/2435724 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/141053/1/ajb209571.pdf |hdl=2027.42/141053 |hdl-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last=Bonns |first=W. W. (Walter Weidenfeld) |title=A Preliminary Study of ''Claviceps purpurea'' in Culture |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=339–353 |date=July 1922 |jstor=2435269 |doi=10.2307/2435269 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/314477}}
*{{cite journal |last=Woodcock |first=EF |title=Observations on the Poisonous Plants of Michigan |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=116–131 |date=February 1925 |jstor=2435398 |doi=10.2307/2435398}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Prom LK, Lopez JD |title=Viability of ''Claviceps africana'' Spores Ingested by Adult Corn Earworm Moths, ''Helicoverpa zea'' (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=764–7 |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/jee/97.3.764|pmid=15279250|s2cid=2871861 }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Pažoutová S, Frederickson DE |title=Genetic diversity of ''Claviceps africana'' on sorghum and Hyparrhenia |journal=Plant Pathology |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=749–763 |date=December 2005 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2005.01255.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2005PPath..54..749P }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Frederickson DE, Mantle PG, De Milliano WA |title=Windborne spread of ergot disease (''Claviceps africana'') in sorghum A-lines in Zimbabwe |journal=Plant Pathology |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=368–377 |date=June 1993 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.1993.tb01514.x|bibcode=1993PPath..42..368F |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/1483/1/Plant_Pathology42%283%29368-377_1993.pdf }}

{{Ergolines}}
{{Psychedelics}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q6445454}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Abortifacients]]
[[Category:Barley diseases]]
[[Category:Cereal diseases]]
[[Category:Fungal plant pathogens and diseases]]
[[Category:Hypocreales]]
[[Category:Medicinal fungi]]
[[Category:Natural sources of lysergamides]]
[[Category:Parasitic fungi]]
[[Category:Psychoactive fungi]]
[[Category:Rye diseases]]
[[Category:Sordariomycetes genera]]
[[Category:Triticale diseases]]
[[Category:Wheat diseases]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Edmond Tulasne]]