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{{Short description|Biblical Jewish queen of Persia and Medes}}
{{About|the heroine of the Book of Esther|the book of Esther|Book of Esther|other uses}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Esther
| native_name        = {{Nobold|{{Script/Hebrew|אֶסְתֵּר}}}}
| native_name_lang   = he
| title              = Queen of [[Persia]] and [[Medes]]
| image              = Esther haram.jpg
| caption            = Queen Esther by [[Edwin Long]] (1878)
| birth_name         = Hadassah ({{Script/Hebrew|הֲדַסָּה}})
| birth_place        = [[Achaemenid Empire]]
| spouse             = [[Ahasuerus#Book of Esther|Ahasuerus of Persia]]
| parents            = {{ubl|
* Abihail (biological father)
* [[Mordecai]] (adoptive father)
}}
}}

'''Esther''' ({{IPAc-en |ˈ|ɛ|s|t|ər|}}; {{Langx|he|{{Script/Hebrew|אֶסְתֵּר}}|translit=ʾEstēr}}), originally '''Hadassah''' ({{IPAc-en |h|ə|'|d|a:|s|ə|}}; {{Langx|he|{{Script/Hebrew|הֲדַסָּה}}|translit=haˈdasa}}), is the eponymous heroine of the [[Book of Esther]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. 

According to the biblical narrative, which is set in the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the Persian king [[Ahasuerus]] falls in love with Esther and marries her.{{sfn|Solle|2006|p=107}} His grand vizier [[Haman]] is offended by Esther's cousin and guardian [[Mordecai]] because of his refusal to [[Proskynesis|bow before him]]; bowing in front of another person was a prominent gesture of respect in Persian society, but deemed unacceptable by Mordecai, who believes that a [[Jews|Jew]] should only express submissiveness to [[God in Judaism|God]]. Consequently, Haman plots to have all of Persia's Jews killed, and eventually convinces Ahasuerus to permit him to do so. However, Esther foils the plan by revealing and decrying Haman's plans to Ahasuerus, who then has Haman executed and grants permission to the Jews to take up arms against their enemies;<ref>{{cite web |title=Esther 7:2 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Esther.7.2 |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> Esther is hailed for her courage and for working to save the [[Iranian Jews#Achaemenid period (550–330 BC)|Jews of Persia]] from eradication.

The Book of Esther's story provides the traditional explanation for [[Purim]], a celebratory [[Jewish holidays|Jewish holiday]] that is observed on the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew date]] on which Haman's order was to go into effect, which is the day that the Jews killed their enemies after Esther exposed Haman's intentions to her husband; scholars have taken a mixed view as to the Book of Esther's historicity, with debates over its genre and the origins of Purim.{{sfn|Kalimi|2023|pp=84–86}}{{Efn|"Because of a lack of substantial relevant contemporaneous extrabiblical historical sources – Persian, Greek, Jewish or other – that could confirm or challenge the reliability of the story as it is presented in the Hebrew Bible, scholars are sharply divided in their opinions on this question. They run from complete acceptance of the book as a historical account, to complete negation of its historical trustworthiness, defining it as fiction." {{harvcol|Kalimi|2023|p=84}} "Some continue to read Esther as a historical account that tells us about persons and events of the past, while others classify the book as a form of historical fiction in which an edifying story is given a realistic historical setting (i.e., as a "novella" or "court tale"). {{harvcol|Hahn|Mitch|2019|p=72}}}}

Two related forms of the Book of Esther exist: a shorter [[Masoretic Text|Biblical Hebrew]]-sourced version found in [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Bibles, and a longer [[Septuagint|Koine Greek]]-sourced version found in [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] Bibles.{{sfn|Hahn|Mitch|2019|p=71}}

== Name==
When she is introduced, in Esther 2:7, she is first referred to by the Hebrew name ''Hadassah'',{{sfn|McKenzie|1995|p=330}} which means "[[myrtle tree]]."<ref>{{Cite web |title=H1919 – hăḏasâ|work=Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (kjv) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001 |access-date=2024-01-30 |via=Blue Letter Bible}}{{failed verification|date=May 2024}}</ref> This name is absent from the early Greek manuscripts, although present in the [[Targum|targumic]] texts, and was probably added to the Hebrew text in the 2nd century CE at the earliest to stress the heroine's Jewishness.{{sfn|Macchi|2019|p=123}} The name "Esther" probably derives from the name of the Babylonian goddess [[Inanna|Ishtar]] or from the Persian word cognate with the English word "star" (implying an association with Ishtar) though some scholars contend it is related to the Persian words for "woman" or "myrtle".{{sfn|Macchi|2019|p=141}}

== Narrative ==
{{Main|Book of Esther}}
[[File:Esther Denouncing Haman.jpg|thumb|''Esther Denouncing Haman'' (1888) by [[Ernest Normand]]]]
{{Wide image|Mordecai and Esther.jpg|300|Early 3rd century CE Roman painting of Esther and Mordechai, [[Dura-Europos synagogue]], [[Syria]].|5=right|alt=3rd century CE Roman fresco of Esther and Mordechai from Dura-Europos Synagogue, Syria}}
[[File:Tomb of Esther and Mordechai exterior.jpg|thumb|The Shrine venerated as the [[Tomb of Esther and Mordechai]] in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]]]]

In the third year of the reign of King [[Ahasuerus]] of Persia, the king banishes his queen, [[Vashti]] for refusing to appear before him as summoned, and seeks a new queen. Beautiful maidens gather together at the [[harem]] in the citadel of [[Susa]] under the authority of the eunuch [[Hegai]].{{sfn|Solle|2006|p=107}}

Esther, a cousin of [[Mordecai]], was a member of the [[Persian Jews|Jewish]] community in the [[Exilic Period]] who claimed as an ancestor [[Kish (Bible)#Other biblical figures named Kish|Kish]], a [[Benjamite]] who had been taken from [[Jerusalem]] into captivity. She was the orphaned daughter of Mordecai's uncle, Abihail, from the tribe of Gad. According to the biblical narrative, she had a lovely figure and was beautiful. Upon the king's orders, Esther is taken to the palace where Hegai prepares her to meet the king. Even as she advances to the highest position of the harem, perfumed with gold and myrrh and allocated certain foods and servants, she is under strict instructions from Mordecai, who meets with her each day, to conceal her Jewish origins. The king falls in love with her and makes her his Queen.{{sfn|Solle|2006|p=107}}

Following Esther's coronation, Mordecai learns of an assassination plot by [[Bigthan and Teresh]] to kill King Ahasuerus. Mordecai tells Esther, who tells the king in the name of Mordecai, and he is saved. This act of great service to the king is recorded in the Annals of the Kingdom.

After Mordecai saves the king's life, [[Haman]] the [[Agagite]] is made Ahasuerus' highest adviser, and orders that everyone [[Proskynesis|bow down]] to him. When Mordecai (who had stationed himself in the street to advise Esther) refuses to bow to him, Haman pays King Ahasuerus 10,000 [[Talent (measurement)|silver talents]] for the right to exterminate all of the Jews in Ahasuerus' kingdom. Haman casts lots, [[Purim]], using supernatural means, and sees that the thirteenth day of the Month of [[Adar]] is a fortunate day for the genocide. Using the seal of the king, in the name of the king, Haman sends an order to the provinces of the kingdom to allow the extermination of the Jews on the thirteenth of Adar. When Mordecai learns of this, he tells Esther to reveal to the king that she is Jewish and ask that he repeal the order. Esther hesitates, saying that she could be put to death if she goes to the king without being summoned; nevertheless, Mordecai urges her to try. Esther asks that the entire Jewish community [[Fast of Esther|fast]] and pray for three days before she goes to see the king; Mordecai agrees.

On the third day, Esther goes to the courtyard in front of the king's palace, and she is welcomed by the king, who stretches out his scepter for her to touch, and offers her anything she wants "up to half of the kingdom". Esther invites the king and Haman to a banquet she has prepared for the next day. She tells the king she will reveal her request at the banquet. During the banquet, the king repeats his offer again, whereupon Esther invites both the king and Haman to a banquet she is making on the following day as well.

Seeing that he is in favor with the king and queen, Haman takes counsel from his wife and friends to build a gallows upon which to hang Mordecai; as he is in their good favors, he believes he will be granted his wish to hang Mordecai the very next day. After building the gallows, Haman goes to the palace in the middle of the night to wait for the earliest moment he can see the king.

That evening, the king, unable to sleep, asks that the Annals of the Kingdom be read to him so that he will become drowsy. The book miraculously opens to the page telling of Mordecai's great service, and the king asks if he had already received a reward. When his attendants answer in the negative, Ahasuerus is suddenly distracted and demands to know who is standing in the palace courtyard in the middle of the night. The attendants answer that it is Haman. Ahasuerus invites Haman into his room. Haman, instead of requesting that Mordecai be hanged, is ordered to take Mordecai through the streets of the capital on the Royal Horse wearing the royal robes. Haman is also instructed to yell, "This is what shall be done to the man whom the king wishes to honor!"

After spending the entire day honoring Mordecai, Haman rushes to Esther's second banquet, where Ahasuerus is already waiting. Ahasuerus repeats his offer to Esther of anything "up to half of the kingdom". Esther tells Ahasuerus that while she appreciates the offer, she must put before him a more basic issue: she explains that there is a person plotting to kill her and her entire people, and that this person's intentions are to harm the king and the kingdom. When Ahasuerus asks who this person is, Esther points to Haman and names him. Upon hearing this, an enraged Ahasuerus goes out to the garden to calm down and consider the situation.

While Ahasuerus is in the garden, Haman throws himself at Esther's feet asking for mercy. Upon returning from the garden, the king is further enraged. As it was the custom to eat on reclining couches, it appears to the king as if Haman is attacking Esther. He orders Haman to be removed from his sight. While Haman is being led out, Harvona, a civil servant, tells the king that Haman had built a gallows for Mordecai, "who had saved the king's life". In response, the king says "Hang him (Haman) on it".

After Haman is put to death, Ahasuerus gives Haman's estate to Esther. Esther tells the king about Mordecai being her relative, and the king makes Mordecai his adviser. When Esther asks the king to revoke the order exterminating the Jews, the king is initially hesitant, saying that an order issued by the king cannot be repealed. Ahasuerus allows Esther and Mordecai to write another order, with the seal of the king and in the name of the king, to allow the Jewish people to defend themselves and fight with their oppressors on the thirteenth day of Adar.

On the thirteenth day of Adar, the same day that Haman had set for them to be killed, the Jews defend themselves in all parts of the kingdom and rest on the fourteenth day of Adar. The fourteenth day of Adar is celebrated with the giving of charity, exchanging foodstuffs, and feasting. In [[Susa]], the Jews of the capital were given another day to kill their oppressors; they rested and celebrated on the fifteenth day of Adar, again giving charity, exchanging foodstuffs, and feasting as well.{{sfn|Hirsch|Prince|Schechter|1936}}

The Jews established an annual feast, the feast of [[Purim]], in memory of their deliverance. Haman having set the date of the thirteenth of [[Adar]] to commence his campaign against the Jews, this determined the date of the festival of Purim.<ref name="Crawford">[[Sidnie White Crawford|Crawford, Sidnie White]]. "[http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/esther-bible Esther: Bible]", [[Jewish Women's Archive]].</ref>

== Historicity ==
Although the details of the setting are entirely plausible and the story may even have some basis in actual events, there is general agreement among scholars that the [[book of Esther]] is likely a work of fiction.{{sfn|Tucker|2004}}{{Efn|"Today there is general agreement that it is essentially a work of fiction, the purpose of which was to justify the Jewish appropriation of an originally non-Jewish holiday. What is not generally agreed upon is the identity or nature of that non-Jewish festival which came to be appropriated by the Jews as Purim, and whose motifs are recapitulated in disguised form in Esther." {{harvcol|Polish|1999}} "The story is fictitious and written to provide an account of the origin of the feast of Purim; the book contains no references to the known historical events of the reign of Xerxes." {{harvcol|Browning|2009}} "Although the details of its setting are entirely plausible and the story may even have some basis in actual events, in terms of literary genre the book is not history." {{harvcol|Tucker|2004}}}} Persian kings did not usually marry outside of the seven Persian noble families, making it unlikely that there was a Jewish queen Esther.{{sfn|Fox|2010|pp=131–140}}{{sfn|Hahn|Mitch|2019|p=72}}{{efn|name="Littman"}} Further, the name ''Ahasuerus'' can be translated to ''Xerxes'', as both derive from the [[Old Persian|Persian]] ''Khshayārsha.''<ref name="Baumgarten">{{cite book |last1= Baumgarten |first1= Albert I. |last2=Sperling |first2=S. David |last3= Sabar |first3=Shalom |editor1-last= Skolnik |editor1-first=Fred |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title= Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd|volume=18 |location= Farmington Hills, MI |publisher=Macmillan Reference |year=2007 |page=216}}</ref><ref name="larkin">{{cite book |first= Katrina J.A. |last=Larkin |title=Ruth and Esther (Old Testament Guides) |location= Sheffield, UK|publisher= Sheffield Academic Press |year= 1996|page= 71}}</ref> Ahasuerus as described in the Book of Esther is usually identified in modern sources to refer to [[Xerxes I]],<ref>{{cite book |first= Sidnie White |last= Crawford|author-link=Sidnie White Crawford|chapter= Esther |editor-first=Carol A. |editor-last=Newsom |editor-first2=Sharon H. |editor-last2=Ringe |title= Women's Bible Commentary| location= Louisville|publisher=Westminster John Knox |year=1998|page=202}}</ref><ref name="Between">{{cite book |first=Jill |last= Middlemas |editor-first=Bob E.J.H. |editor-last= Becking |editor-first2=Lester |editor-last2=Grabbe |title= Between Evidence and Ideology | location=Leiden|publisher= Brill |year=2010|page=145 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DF7RzZJXM-UC&pg=PA145|isbn= 978-9004187375 }}</ref> who ruled between 486 and 465 BCE,<ref name="Baumgarten" /> as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.<ref name="larkin" />{{sfn|Moore|1971|page=xxxv}} However, Xerxes' queen was [[Amestris]] according to Greek histories.{{sfn|Fox|2010|pp=131–140}}{{sfn|Hahn|Mitch|2019|p=71}}{{efn|name="Littman"|"Xerxes could not have wed a Jewess because this was contrary to the practices of Persian monarchs who married only into one of the seven leading Persian families. History records that Xerxes was married to Amestris, not [[Vashti]] or Esther. There is no historical record of a personage known as Esther, or a queen called Vashti or a [[vizier]] [[Haman]], or a high placed courtier [[Mordecai]]. Mordecai was said to have been among the exiles deported from Jerusalem by [[Nebuchadnezzar]], but that deportation occurred 112 years before Xerxes became king." {{harvcol|Littman|1975|p=146}}}} 

Some scholars speculate that the story was created to justify the Jewish appropriation of an originally non-Jewish feast.{{sfn|Macchi|2019|p=40}} The festival which the book explains is [[Purim]], which is explained as meaning "lot", from the Babylonian word ''puru''. One popular theory says the festival has its origins in a historicized Babylonian myth or ritual in which Mordecai and Esther represent the Babylonian gods [[Marduk]] and [[Ishtar]], while others trace the ritual to the Persian New Year, and scholars have surveyed other theories in their works.{{sfn|Johnson|2005|p=20}} Some scholars have defended the story as real history,{{sfn|Kalimi|2023|p=130}} however. 

== Interpretations ==
{{Further|Esther in rabbinic literature}}

The Book of Esther begins by portraying Esther as beautiful and obedient, though a relatively passive figure. Throughout the story, she evolves into a character who takes a decisive role in her own future and that of her people.{{sfn|Coogan|Brettler|Newsom|Perkins|2007}} According to [[Sidnie White Crawford]], "Esther's position in a male court mirrors that of the Jews in a Gentile world, with the threat of danger ever present below the seemingly calm surface."{{sfn|Crawford|2003}} Esther is compared to [[Daniel (biblical figure)|Daniel]] in that both represent a "type" for Jews living in Diaspora, and hoping to live a successful life in an alien environment.

According to [[Susan Zaeske]], by virtue of the fact that Esther used only [[rhetoric]] to convince the king to save her people, the story of Esther is a "rhetoric of exile and empowerment that, for millennia, has notably shaped the discourse of marginalized peoples such as Jews, women, and African Americans", persuading those who have power over them.{{sfn|Zaeske|2000|p=194}}

== Persian culture ==
[[File:Tomb of Esther and Mordechai interior.jpg|thumb|Interior of the structure venerated as the [[tomb of Esther and Mordechai]]|alt=]]

Modern day [[Persian Jews]] are called "Esther's Children". A building venerated as being the [[Tomb of Esther and Mordechai]] is located in [[Hamadan]], Iran,{{sfn|Vahidmanesh|2010}} although the village of [[Kafr Bir'im]] in northern Israel also claims to be the burial place of Queen Esther.{{sfn|Schaalje|2001}}

== Artistic depictions of Esther ==
{{See also|Book of Esther#Modern retelling}}
[[File:The Feast of Esther by Johannes Spilberg the Younger.jpg|thumb|''The Feast of Esther'' by [[Johannes Spilberg|Johannes Spilberg the Younger]], {{Circa|1644}}]]
[[File:Ester y Mardoqueo escribiendo la primera carta del Purim (Ester, 9-20-21) - Aert de GELDER - Google Cultural Institute.jpg|thumbnail|''Esther and Mordecai Writing the First Purim Letter'' by Aert de Gelder, c. 1685]]

Throughout history, many artists have created [[:Category:Paintings of Esther|paintings depicting Esther]]. Notable early portrayals include the Heilspiegel Altarpiece by [[Konrad Witz]]{{sfn|Solle|2006|p=107}} and ''[[Esther Before Ahasuerus (Tintoretto)|Esther Before Ahasuerus]]'' by [[Tintoretto]] (1546–47, [[Royal Collection]]) which show Esther appearing before the king to beg mercy for the Jews, despite the punishment for appearing without being summoned being death. This scene became one of the most commonly depicted parts of the story.

Esther's faint had not often been depicted in art before Tintoretto. It is shown in the series of ''[[cassone]]'' scenes of the ''[[Life of Esther]]'' attributed variously to [[Sandro Botticelli]] and [[Filippino Lippi]] from the 1470s. In other cassone depictions, for example by Filippino Lippi, Esther's readiness to show herself before the court is contrasted to Vashti's refusal to expose herself to the public assembly.{{sfn|Baskins|1995|p=38}}{{sfn|Wind|1940–1941|p=114}}

Esther was regarded in Catholic theology as a [[Typology (theology)|typological]] forerunner{{sfn|Baskins|1995|p=37}} of the [[Virgin Mary]] in her role as intercessor{{sfn|Bergsma|Pitre|2018}} Her regal election parallels Mary's Assumption and as she becomes queen of Persia, Mary becomes queen of heaven; Mary's epithet as 'stella maris' parallels Esther as a 'star' and both figure as sponsors of the humble before the powerful.{{sfn|Baskins|1995|p=40}} Contemporary viewers would likely have recognized a similarity between the faint and the common motif of the [[Swoon of the Virgin]], seen in many depictions of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]].{{sfn|Whitaker|Clayton|2007}} Esther's fainting became a popular subject in the Baroque painting of the following century. A notable Baroque example is ''[[Esther Before Ahasuerus (Artemisia Gentileschi)|Esther Before Ahasuerus]]'' by [[Artemisia Gentileschi]].{{sfn|Metropolitan Museum of Art}}

== In Christianity ==
Esther is commemorated as a matriarch in the [[Liturgical calendar (Lutheran)|Calendar of Saints]] of the [[Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod]] on May 24.

Esther is recognized as a saint in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], commemorated on the Sunday before [[Christmas]]. The Septuagint edition of Esther contains six parts (totaling 107 verses) not found in the Hebrew Bible. Although these interpretations originally may have been composed in Hebrew, they survive only in Greek texts. Because the Hebrew Bible's version of Esther's story contains neither prayers nor even a single reference to God, Greek redactors apparently felt compelled to give the tale a more explicit religious orientation, alluding to "God" or the "Lord" fifty times."{{sfn|Harris|Platzner|2007|p=375}} These additions to Esther in the Apocrypha were added approximately in the second or first century BCE.{{sfn|Vanderkam|Flint|p=182}}

The story of Esther is also referenced in chapter 28 of [[Meqabyan#First Book of Ethiopian Maccabees (1 Meqabyan)|1 Meqabyan]], a book considered [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|canonical]] in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-01-31 |title=Queen Esther: A Heroine of Courage |url=https://israelbylocals.com/queen-esther/ |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=Israel by Locals}}</ref>

== Music ==
* [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]], ''Historia Esther'', H.396, for soloist, chorus, strings and continuo, 1677
* [[Élisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre]], "Esther", for soprano and continuo, in ''Cantates françaises sur des sujets tirés de l'Écriture'', book I, 1708
* [[George Frideric Handel]], ''[[Esther (Handel)|Esther]]'', with a libretto based on a [[Esther (play)|play]] by [[Jean Racine]], 1718 and 1732
* [[Alessandro Stradella]], ''[[Ester (Stradella)|Ester]]'', [[oratorio]], 1673

== See also ==
* [[Esterka]]
* [[Shushandukht]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist|45em}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFWind1940–1941}}
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{Cite book
 | chapter = Typology, sexuality and the Renaissance Esther
 | last = Baskins
 | first = Cristelle L.
 | year = 1995
 | orig-year = First published 1993
 | title = Sexuality and Gender in Early Modern Europe: Institutions, Texts, Images
 | editor-last = Turner
 | editor-first = James
 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NAatfUl1ii4C&pg=PA31
 | pages = 31–54
 | isbn = 978-0-521-44605-1
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = A Catholic Introduction to the Bible: The Old Testament
 | last1 = Bergsma
 | first1 = John
 | last2 = Pitre
 | first2 = Brant
 | author1-link = John Bergsma
 | year = 2018
 | publisher = [[Ignatius Press]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=px5tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT650
 | isbn = 978-1-642-29048-6
 }}
*{{Cite encyclopedia
 | title = Ahasuerus
 | edition = 2nd
 | encyclopedia = A Dictionary of the Bible
 | editor-last = Browning
 | editor-first = W. R. F.
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001/acref-9780199543984-e-56
 | date = 2009
 | doi = 10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001
 | isbn = 978-0-19-954398-4
 | url-access = subscription
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = The New Oxford Annotated Bible
 | last1 = Coogan
 | first1 = Michael David
 | last2 = Brettler
 | first2 = Marc Zvi
 | last3 = Newsom
 | first3 = Carol Ann
 | last4 = Perkins
 | first4 = Pheme
 | year = 2007
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Nc-i_pQsiW8C&pg=PA708
 | isbn = 978-0-19528880-3
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | chapter = Esther
 | last = Crawford
 | first = Sidnie White
 | author-link = Sidnie White Crawford
 | year = 2003
 | title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible
 | editor1-last = Dunn
 | editor1-first = James D. G.
 | editor2-last = Rogerson
 | editor2-first = John William
 | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans
 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA329
 | isbn = 978-0-80283711-0
 }}
*{{cite web
 | title = ''Esther Before Ahasuerus'' (Tintoretto)
 | website = [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
 | url = https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436453.
 | access-date = 22 August 2019
 | ref = {{harvid|Metropolitan Museum of Art}}
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther
 | edition = 2nd
 | last = Fox
 | first = Michael V.
 | year = 2010
 | publisher = [[Wipf and Stock]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=spVMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131
 | isbn = 978-1-608-99495-3
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Tobit, Judith, and Esther
 | last1 = Hahn
 | first1 = Scott
 | last2 = Mitch
 | first2 = Curtis
 | year = 2019
 | publisher = [[Ignatius Press]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AQqqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71
 | isbn = 978-1-621-64185-8
 }}
*{{Cite book| title = The Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
 | last1 = Harris | first1 = Stephen
 | last2 = Platzner | first2 = Robert
 | year = 2007
 | page = 375
 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Education | isbn = 978-0072990515
}}
*{{cite encyclopedia
 | title = Esther (Hebrew, אֶסְתֵּר; Greek, Εσθήρ)
 | last1 = Hirsch
 | first1 = Emil G.
 | last2 = Prince
 | first2 = John Dyneley
 | last3 = Schechter
 | first3 = Solomon
 | encyclopedia = Jewish Encyclopedia
 | publisher = Funk & Wagnalls Co.
 | location = New York
 | url = http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther
 | date = 1936
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | last = Johnson
 | first = Sara Raup
 | title = Historical Fictions and Hellenistic Jewish Identity
 | publisher = University of California Press
 | year = 2005
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mfiJ6foYhMAC&pg=PA20
 | isbn = 9780520928435
 }}
*{{cite book
 | title = The Book of Esther between Judaism and Christianity
 | last = Kalimi
 | first = Isaac
 | year = 2023
 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HvnAEAAAQBAJ
 | isbn = 978-1-009-26612-3
 }}
*{{cite journal | title = The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the ''Book of Esther''
 | last = Littman | first = Robert J.
 | journal = [[The Jewish Quarterly Review]]
 | date = January 1975 | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 145–155
 | doi = 10.2307/1454354 | jstor = 1454354
}}
*{{Cite book
 | last = Macchi
 | first = Jean-Daniel
 | title = Esther
 | year = 2019
 | publisher = [[Kohlhammer Verlag]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AliJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT123
 | isbn = 978-3-170-31028-5
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | last = McKenzie
 | first = John L.
 | title = The Dictionary Of The Bible
 | year = 1995
 | publisher = Simon and Schuster
 | isbn = 9780684819136
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aE7EyQ_HQAMC&pg=PA247
 }}
* {{cite book|last=Moore|first=Carey A.|year=1971|title=Esther|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0385004725|doi=10.1177/030908929902408505|s2cid=143019872|issn=0309-0892}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Polish|first=Daniel F.|date=1999-09-01|title=Aspects of Esther: A Phenomenological Exploration of the Megillah of Esther and the Origins of Purim|journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament|language=en-US|volume=24|issue=85|pages=85–106|doi=10.1177/030908929902408505|s2cid=143019872|issn=0309-0892}}
*{{Cite magazine
 | title = Ancient synagogues in Bar'am and Capernaum
 | last = Schaalje
 | first = Jacqueline
 | magazine = Jewish Magazine
 | url = http://www.jewishmag.com/44mag/synagogues/synagogues.htm
 | date = June 2001
 }}
*{{cite book
 | title = Great Women of the Bible: In Art and Literature
 | last = Solle
 | first = Dorothee
 | publisher = Fortress Press
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn6WXpISp2MC&pg=PA107
 | date = 2006
 | page = 107
 | isbn = 0800635574
 }}
*{{Cite encyclopedia
 | title = Esther, The Book of
 | last = Tucker
 | first = Gene M.
 | orig-year = First published 1993
 | encyclopedia = The Oxford Companion to the Bible
 | editor1-last = Metzger
 | editor1-first = Bruce M.
 | editor2-last = Coogan
 | editor2-first = Michael D.
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046458.001.0001/acref-9780195046458-e-0232
 | date = 2004
 | doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195046458.001.0001
 | isbn = 978-0-19-504645-8
 | url-access = subscription
 }}
*{{Cite news
 | title = Sad Fate of Iran's Jews
 | last = Vahidmanesh
 | first = Parvaneh
 | website = Payvand
 | url = http://www.payvand.com/news/10/may/1135.html
 | date = 5 May 2010
 | access-date = 1 January 2012
 | archive-date = 29 June 2011
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629092156/http://www.payvand.com/news/10/may/1135.html
 | url-status = dead
 }}
*{{Cite book| title = The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls
 | last1 = Vanderkam | first1 = James
 | last2 = Flint | first2 = Peter
 | page = 182
}}
*{{Cite book| title = The Art of Italy in the Royal Collection; Renaissance and Baroque
 | last1 = Whitaker | first1 = Lucy
 | last2 = Clayton | first2 = Martin
 | year = 2007
 | publisher = Royal Collection Publications
 | isbn = 978-1-902163-291
}}
*{{Cite journal | title = The Subject of Botticelli's 'Derelitta'
 | last = Wind | first = Edgar
 | author-link = Edgar Wind
 | journal = [[Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes]]
 | date = October 1940 – January 1941 | volume = 4 | issue = 1/2 | pages = 114–117
 | doi = 10.2307/750127 | jstor = 750127
| s2cid = 192310493 }}
*{{Cite journal | title = Unveiling Esther as a Pragmatic Radical Rhetoric
 | last = Zaeske | first = Susan
 | journal = Philosophy and Rhetoric
 | year = 2000 | volume = 33 | issue = 3 On Feminizing the Philosophy of Rhetoric
 | pages = 193–220 | doi = 10.1353/par.2000.0024 | jstor = 40231721
| s2cid = 171068760 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
*{{Cite journal | title = Has 'Esther' been found at Qumran? 4QProto-Esther and the 'Esther' corpus
 | last = Crawford | first = Sidnie White
 | author-link = Sidnie White Crawford
 | journal = Revue de Qumrân
 | date = November 1996 | volume = 17 | issue = 1/4 | pages = 307–325
 | jstor = 24610146|ref=none
}}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Esther's Revenge at Susa: From Sennacherib to Ahasuerus
 | last = Dalley
 | first = Stephanie
 | author-link = Stephanie Dalley
 | year = 2007
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=G5gSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221
 | isbn = 978-0-199-21663-5|ref=none
 }}
*{{cite book| first=David M. Jr. |last= Howard |title=An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books|publisher= [[Moody Publishers]]|date= 2007 |isbn=978-1-575-67447-6|ref=none}}
*{{Cite book
 | chapter = Appendix 1: Afro-Asiatic
 | last = Huehnergard
 | first = John
 | year = 2008
 | author-link = John Huehnergard
 | title = The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia
 | editor-last = Woodard
 | editor-first = Roger D.
 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
 | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ancient-languages-of-syriapalestine-and-arabia/afroasiatic/52090A4EA262B5236AC49C5E34B5A332
 | pages = 225–246
 | isbn = 978-1-13946934-0|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Esther in Ancient Jewish Thought
 | last = Koller
 | first = Aaron
 | year = 2014
 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=L6z0BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38
 | isbn = 978-1-107-72980-3|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book| title = Women of the Old Testament
 | last = Kuyper | first = Abraham
 | author-link = Abraham Kuyper
 | publisher = [[Zondervan]]
 | year=2010 | pages = 175–176
 | isbn = 978-0-31086487-5|ref=none
}}
*{{Cite book
 | chapter = Esther
 | last = Leith
 | first = Mary Joan Winn
 | year = 2011
 | title = The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Books of the Bible
 | editor-last = Coogan
 | editor-first = Michael D.
 | editor-link = Michael D. Coogan
 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SNFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252
 | pages = 252–261
 | isbn = 978-0-195-37737-8|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | last = Levenson
 | first = Jon D.
 | year = 1997
 | title = Esther: A Commentary
 | publisher = Westminster John Knox
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rJS7BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58
 | isbn = 9780664228873|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority
 | last = McDonald
 | first = Lee Martin
 | year = 2006
 | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker Books]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DXiKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT168
 | isbn = 978-1-441-24164-1|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | chapter = Esther
 | last = Meyers
 | first = Carol
 | year = 2007
 | title = The Oxford Bible Commentary
 | editor1-last = Barton
 | editor1-first = John
 | editor2-last = Muddiman
 | editor2-first = John
 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA324
 | pages = 324–330
 | isbn = 978-0-199-27718-6|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite journal | title = Les modèles Araméens du Livre d'Esther dans la Grotte 4 de Qumrān
 | last = Milik | first = Józef T.
 | author-link = Józef Milik
 | journal = Revue de Qumrân
 | year = 1992 | volume = 15 | issue = 3/59 | pages = 321–406
 | jstor = 24609021|ref=none
}}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Jews and Anti-Judaism in Esther and the Church
 | last = Miller
 | first = Tricia
 | year = 2015
 | publisher = [[Lutterworth Press]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=y9DYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2
 | isbn = 978-0-227-90258-5|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | chapter = Esther 6: Person
 | last = Phillips
 | first = E. A.
 | year = 2008
 | title = Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship
 | editor1-last = Longman
 | editor1-first = Tremper III
 | editor1-link = Tremper Longman
 | editor2-last = Enns
 | editor2-first = Peter
 | publisher = InterVarsity Press
 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kE2k36XAkv4C&pg=PA188
 | pages = 188–193
 | isbn = 978-0-830-81783-2|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | last = Silverstein
 | first = Adam J.
 | year = 2014
 | chapter = The Samaritan Version of the Esther Story
 | title = Islamic Cultures, Islamic Contexts: Essays in Honor of Professor Patricia Crone
 | editor1-last = Ahmed
 | editor1-first = Asad Q.
 | editor2-last = Sadeghi
 | editor2-first = Behnam
 | editor3-last = Hoyland
 | editor3-first = Robert G.
 | editor4-last = Silverstein
 | editor4-first = Adam
 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]
 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7nSjBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA551
 | pages = 551–564
 | isbn = 978-9-004-28171-4|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands
 | last = Silverstein
 | first = Adam J.
 | year = 2018
 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs90DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66
 | isbn = 978-0-192-51773-9|ref=none
 }}
*{{cite book|first=Saba|last=Soomekh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6CYSrc8qHEC&pg=PA38|title=From the Shahs to Los Angeles: Three Generations of Iranian Jewish Women between Religion and Culture|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|date=2012|isbn=978-1-438-44385-0|ref=none}}
*{{Cite journal | title = Semitic Terms for 'Myrtle': A Study in Covert
 | last = Testen | first = David
 | journal = [[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]
 | date = October 1998 | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–290
 | doi = 10.1086/468653 | jstor = 545452
 | s2cid = 161499240|ref=none}}
*{{Cite book
 | title = Esther, a True First Lady: A Post-Feminist Icon in a Secular World
 | last = Tidball
 | first = Dianne
 | publisher = [[Christian Focus Publications]]
 | url = https://archive.org/details/esther00dian_xj2
 | url-access = registration
 | date = 2001
 | isbn = 978-1-85792671-2|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite journal
 | last = Yahuda | first = Abraham
 | author-link = Abraham Yahuda
 | year = 1946
 | title = The Meaning of the Name Esther
 | journal = [[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]]
 | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 174–178
 | doi = 10.1017/S0035869X00100413 | jstor = 25222106
 | s2cid = 163266181|ref=none
}}
*{{Cite book | title = Persia and the Bible
 | last = Yamauchi | first = Edwin
 | year = 1997
 | publisher = Baker Academic
 |isbn=978-0-801-02108-4|ref=none
}}
*{{Cite book
 | last1 = Yamauchi
 | first1 = Edwin
 | last2 = Phillips
 | first2 = Elaine A.
 | author1-link = Edwin M. Yamauchi
 | year = 2017
 | title = Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther
 | publisher = [[Zondervan|Zondervan Academic]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XsESDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT465
 | isbn = 978-0-310-53182-1|ref=none
 }}
*{{Cite journal | title = Historical Background of the Book of Esther
 | last = Zadok | first = Ran
 | journal = Biblische Notizen
 | year = 1984 | volume = 24 | pages = 18–23|ref=none
}}
*{{Cite journal | title = Notes on Esther
 | last = Zadok | first = Ran
 | journal = [[Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft|ZAW]]
 | year = 1986 | volume = 98 | pages = 105–110|ref=none
}}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category inline|Esther (Biblical figure)}}

{{Book of Esther}}
{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Purim Footer}}
{{Portal bar|Bible|Judaism|Christianity}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esther| ]]
[[Category:Book of Esther people]]
[[Category:Christian female saints from the Old Testament]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament]]
[[Category:Heroes in mythology and legend]]
[[Category:Jewish royalty]]
[[Category:Order of the Eastern Star]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:Asian people whose existence is disputed]]
[[Category:Women in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Tribe of Benjamin]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian Hebrews]]