View source for European polecat

{{Short description|Ferret-like mammal species}}
{{About|a species of mammal referred to as "polecat"|other uses|Polecat (disambiguation)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = European polecat
| fossil_range = [[Middle Pleistocene]]&nbsp;– Recent
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Mustela putorius'' |date=2016 |author=Skumatov, D. |author2=Abramov, A.V. |author3=Herrero, J. |author4=Kitchener, A. |author5=Maran, T. |author6=Kranz, A. |author7=Sándor, A. |author8=Saveljev, A. |author9=Savouré-Soubelet, A. |author10=Guinot-Ghestem, M. |author11=Zuberogoitia, I. |author12=Birks, J.D.S. |author13=Weber, A. |author14=Melisch, R. |author15=Ruette, S. |article-number=e.T41658A45214384 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T41658A45214384.en |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = Storm the polecat.jpg
| image_caption = Welsh polecat (''M. p. anglia'') at the [[British Wildlife Centre]], [[Newchapel, Surrey]]
| parent = Putorius
| genus = Mustela
| species = putorius
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| range_map = Mustela putorius distribution.svg
| range_map_caption = Geographic range
}}

The '''European polecat''' ('''''Mustela putorius'''''), also known as the '''common polecat''', '''black polecat''' and '''forest polecat''', is a [[Mustelidae|mustelid]] species occurring in Europe and the [[Rif]] mountains. It is of a generally dark brown colour, with a pale underbelly and a dark mask across the face. Occasionally, colour mutations including [[Albinism|albinos]], [[Leucism|leucists]], [[Isabelline (colour)#In animals|isabellinists]], [[Xanthochromism|xanthochromists]], [[Amelanism|amelanists]], and [[Erythrism|erythrists]] occur.<ref name="s1109"/> It has a shorter, more compact body than other ''[[Mustela]]'' species,<ref name="s1108"/> a more powerfully built skull and dentition,<ref name="s1112"/> is less agile,<ref name="s1130"/> and is well known for having the characteristic ability to secrete a particularly foul-smelling liquid to mark its territory.

It is much less territorial than other mustelids, with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges.<ref name="h480"/> Like other mustelids, the European polecat is polygamous, with pregnancy occurring after mating, following [[Induced ovulation (animals)|induced ovulation]].<ref name="JODVI">{{cite journal|last1=Williams |first1=E. S. |last2=Thorne |first2=E. T. |last3=Kwiatkowski |first3= D. R. |last4=Lutz |first4=K. |last5=Anderson |first5=S. L. |year=1992 |title=Comparative vaginal cytology of the estrous cycle of black-footed ferrets (''Mustela nigripes''), Siberian polecats (''M. eversmanni''), and domestic ferrets (''M. putorius furo'') |journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1177/104063879200400109 |pmid=1554767 |s2cid=11010465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of five to ten kits, which become independent at the age of two to three months. The European polecat feeds on small [[rodent]]s, [[bird]]s, [[amphibian]]s and [[reptile]]s.<ref name="s1127"/> It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its [[brain]] with its teeth and stores it, still living, in its burrow for future consumption.<ref name="h482"/><ref name="j155"/>

The European polecat originated in [[Western Europe]] during the [[Middle Pleistocene]], with its closest living relatives being the [[steppe polecat]], the [[black-footed ferret]] and the [[European mink]]. With the two former species, it can produce fertile offspring,<ref name="davison"/> though hybrids between it and the latter species tend to be sterile, and are distinguished from their parent species by their larger size and more valuable pelts.<ref name="khonorik"/>

The European polecat is thought to be the sole ancestor of the [[ferret]], which was domesticated more than 2,000 years ago for the purpose of [[Pest control#History|hunting vermin]].<ref name="h485"/> The species has otherwise been historically viewed negatively by humans. In Britain especially, the polecat was persecuted by [[Gamekeeping|gamekeepers]], and became synonymous with [[promiscuity]] in early [[English literature]]. During modern times, the polecat is still scantly represented in popular culture when compared to other rare British mammals, and misunderstandings of its behaviour still persist in some rural areas.<ref name="bidder"/> Since 2008, it has been classified as [[Least Concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] due to its wide range and large numbers.<ref name=iucn/>

==Etymology and naming==
The word "polecat" first appeared after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], written (in [[Middle English]]) as ''polcat''. While the second syllable is largely self-explanatory, the origin of the first is unclear. It is possibly derived from the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|poule}}, meaning "[[chicken]]", likely in reference to the species' fondness for poultry, or it may be a variant of the [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|ful}}, meaning "foul". In Middle English, the species was referred to as {{lang|enm|foumart}}, meaning "foul marten", in reference to its strong odour. In [[Old French]], the polecat was called {{lang|fro|fissau}}, which was derived from the [[Low German]] and [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]] verb for "to make a disagreeable smell". This was later corrupted in English as ''fitchew'' or ''fitchet'', which itself became the word "fitch", which is used for the polecat's pelt.<ref name="j154">{{Harvnb|Johnston|1903|p=154}}</ref> The word ''fitchet'' is the [[root word]] for the North American [[fisher (animal)|fisher]], which was named by [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonists in America]] who noted similarities between the two species.<ref name="Powell1">{{cite journal|last=Powell |first=R.A. |year=1981 |title=Mammalian Species: ''Martes pennanti'' |publisher=The American Society of Mammalogists |pages=156:1–6 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-156-01-0001.pdf}}</ref> In some countries such as New Zealand, the term "fitch" has taken on a wider use to refer to related creatures such as ferrets, especially when farmed for their fur.<ref>"[http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/ferrets/docs-work/ DOC's work with ferrets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140421064150/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/ferrets/docs-work/ |date=2014-04-21 }}", New Zealand Department of Conservation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.</ref><ref>"[http://www.wildaboutnz.co.nz/2010/12/ferrets/ Ferrets]", "Wild about New Zealand". Retrieved 20 April 2014.</ref>

A 2002 article in [[The Mammal Society]]'s ''Mammal Review'' contested the European polecat's status as an animal indigenous to Britain on account of a scarce [[fossil record]] and [[linguistics|linguistic]] evidence. Unlike most native British mammals, the polecat's [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name ({{lang|cy|ffwlbart}}, derived from the [[Middle English]] {{lang|enm|foulmart}}) is not of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin, much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the [[European rabbit]] and [[fallow deer]] ({{lang|cy|cwningen}}, derived from the Middle English {{lang|enm|konyng}} and {{lang|enm|danas}}, derived from the [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|dain}}, respectively) are of Middle English or Old French origin. Polecats are not mentioned in [[Anglo-Saxon literature|Anglo-Saxon]] or [[Welsh-language literature|Welsh literature]] prior to the [[Norman conquest of England]] in 1066, with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century's ''[[The Red Book of Hergest|Llyfr Coch Hergest]]'' and in English in [[Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Pardoner's Tale]]'' (1383). In contrast, attestations of the Welsh word for [[pine marten]] ({{lang|cy|bele}}), date back at least to the 10th century [[Cyfraith Hywel|Welsh Law]]s and possibly much earlier in northern England.<ref name="foulmart">Brown, Duncan (2002) [http://www.all-about-ferrets.com/support-files/foulmart.pdf The foulmart: what's in a name?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903182308/http://www.all-about-ferrets.com/support-files/foulmart.pdf |date=2011-09-03 }} ''Mammal Rev.'', Volume 32, No. 2, 145–149</ref>

===Local and indigenous names===
{{See also|Wiktionary:European polecat#Translations}}

====Dialectal English names====
{{Blockquote|Probably no other animal on the British list has had as many colloquial names as the polecat. In southern England it was generally referred to as 'fitchou' whereas in the north it was 'foumat or foumard... However there were a host of others including endless spelling variations: philbert, fulmer, fishock, filibart, poulcat, poll cat, etc. Charles Oldham identified at least 20 different versions of the name in the Hertfordshire/Bedfordshire area alone.|Roger Lovegrove (2007)<ref name="l198">{{Harvnb|Lovegrove|2007|p=198}}</ref>}}
{| class="wikitable collapsed"
|+Indigenous names for ''Mustela putorius''
|-
! Linguistic group or area !! Dialectal name
|-
| <small>[[Anglo-Manx]]</small>|| <small>''Foul-cat''</small><ref>{{cite book |author=Moore, A.W. |year=1924 |title=A vocabulary of the Anglo-Manx dialect |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |page= |chapter=Foul-cat |chapter-url=http://www.isle-of-man.com/manxnotebook/fulltext/am1924/pt_f.htm}}</ref>
|-
| <small>[[Craven in the Domesday Book|Craven]]/[[Leeds]]/South Lancashire</small>|| <small>''Pow-cat''</small><ref>{{cite book |author=Carr, W. |year=1828 |title=The dialect of Craven: in the West-Riding of the county of York |location=London |publisher=W. Crofts |chapter= |chapter-url= |page=56}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Robinson, C.C. |year=1862 |title=The dialect of Leeds and its neighbourhood: illustrated by conversations and tales of common life, etc. To which are added a copious glossary; notices of the various antiquities, manners, and customs, and general folk-lore of the district |location=London |publisher=J.R. Smith |page=388 |chapter= |chapter-url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bobbin, T. |year=1850 |title=The dialect of South Lancashire: or, Tim Bobbin's Tummus and Meary: with his rhymes and an enlarged glossary of words and phrases, chiefly used by the rural population of the manufacturing districts of South Lancashire |location=London |publisher=J.R. Smith |page=185 |chapter= |chapter-url=}}</ref>
|-
| <small>[[Durham, England|Durham]]</small>|| <small>''Foomart''</small><ref>{{cite book |author=Dinsdale, F. |year=1849 |title=A glossary of provincial words used in Teesdale in the County of Durham |location=London |publisher=J.R. Smith |page=48 |chapter=Foomart |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofprovin00dins/page/48/mode/2up}}</ref>
|-
| <small>[[Herefordshire]]</small>|| <small>''Fitchuck''</small><ref>{{cite book |author=Lewis, G.C. |year=1839 |title=A glossary of provincial words used in Herefordshire and some of the adjoining counties |page=41 |chapter=Fitchuck |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/aglossaryprovin01unkngoog/page/n56/mode/2up |location=London |publisher=John Murray}}</ref>
|-
| <small>[[Lancashire dialect and accent|Lancashire]]</small>|| <small>''Foomurt''</small><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mawdesley-village.org.uk/dialect.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510153406/http://www.mawdesley-village.org.uk/dialect.php|title=mawdesley-village.org.uk|archive-date=May 10, 2013|website=www.mawdesley-village.org.uk}}</ref>
|-
| <small>[[Scots language|Scots]]</small>|| <small>''Foumart'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/foumart|title=Dictionaries of the Scots Language:: SND :: foumart}}</ref> ''Thummurt'', ''Thoomurt''</small><ref name="wilson">{{cite book |author=Wilson, J. |year=1923 |title=The dialect of Robert Burns as spoken in central Ayrshire |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=190 |chapter=Thummurt |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dialectofrobertb00wilsuoft/page/190/mode/2up}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Latin name===
As well as the several indigenous names referring to smell (see above), the scientific name ''Mustela putorius'' is also derived from this species' foul smell.  The Latin {{lang|la|putorius}} translates to "stench" or "stink" and is the origin of the English word ''putrid''.

==Evolution==
The earliest true polecat was ''[[Mustela stromeri]]'', which appeared during the late [[Villafranchian]]. It was considerably smaller than the present form, thus indicating polecats evolved at a relatively late period. The oldest modern polecat fossils occur in Germany, Britain and France, and date back to the [[Middle Pleistocene]]. The European polecat's closest relatives are the [[steppe polecat]] and [[black-footed ferret]], with which it is thought to have shared ''Mustela stromeri'' as a [[common ancestor]]. The European polecat is, however, not as maximally adapted in the direction of [[carnivore|carnivory]] as the steppe polecat, being less specialised in skull structure and dentition.<ref name="h480">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=480–481}}</ref><ref name="k98">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=98–100}}</ref><ref name="s1115">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1115–1117}}</ref><ref>Kurtén Björn (1980), ''Pleistocene mammals of North America'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0-231-03733-3}}</ref> The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1.5&nbsp;million years ago based on [[RBP3|IRBP]], though [[cytochrome b]] transversions indicate a younger date of 430,000 years.<ref>Sato, J., T. Hosada, W. Mieczyslaw, K. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamamoto, H. Suzuki. 2003. ''[http://www.fukuyama-u.ac.jp/life/bio/animal/jsato/Sato2003.pdf Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora) based on nucleotide sequences of the nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein and mitochondrial cytochrome b genes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003184324/http://www.fukuyama-u.ac.jp/life/bio/animal/jsato/Sato2003.pdf |date=2011-10-03 }}''. Zoologial Science, 20: 243-264.</ref> It is also closely related to the [[European mink]], with which it can hybridise.<ref name="s1086">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1086–1088}}</ref>

===Domestication===
[[File:Women hunting rabbits with a ferret.jpg|left|thumb|''Women hunting rabbits with a ferret'' in the [[Queen Mary Psalter]]]]
[[Morphology (biology)|Morphological]], [[Cell biology|cytological]] and [[Molecular biology|molecular]] studies confirm the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret, thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat, which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret's creation.<ref name="h485"/> Ferrets were first mentioned by [[Aristophanes]] in 425&nbsp;BC and by [[Aristotle]] in 350&nbsp;BC. [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] writers in the first century AD were the first to attest on the ferret's use in bolting [[rabbit]]s from their burrows. The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from [[Strabo]] during 200&nbsp;AD, when ferrets were released onto the [[Balearic Islands]] to [[Varmint hunting#Targets of varmint hunting|control rabbit populations]]. As the [[European rabbit]] is native to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and northwest [[Africa]], the European polecat likely was first domesticated in these regions.<ref name="l3">{{Harvnb|Lewington|2000|pp=3–5}}</ref>

The ferret and European polecat are similar in both size and portions, to the point that dark-coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins, though the ferret's skull has a smaller cranial volume, and has a narrower postorbital constriction.<ref name="h485">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=485–487}}</ref> Compared to the European polecat, the ferret has a much smaller brain, though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats, from which ferrets likely derive.<ref name="h108">{{Harvnb|Hemmer|1990|p=108}}</ref> The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened because the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies.<ref name="Clutton-Brock">{{cite book |author=Clutton-Brock, J. |title=A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals |year=1987 |page=208 |isbn=0-521-34697-5 |publisher=British Museum (Natural History) |location=London}}</ref> Unlike other subspecies, which are largely solitary, the ferret will readily live in social groups.<ref name="Brown">{{cite web|url=http://www.weaselwords.com/page/ferret_art036.php|title=Inherited behavior traits of the domesticated ferret|last=Brown|first=Susan, A|work=weaselwords.com|date=17 January 2010|access-date=29 January 2010}}</ref> The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat, and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands.<ref name="h86">{{Harvnb|Hemmer|1990|p=86}}</ref> Overall, the ferret represents a [[neoteny|neotenous]] form of polecat.<ref name="l93">{{Harvnb|Lewington|2000|pp=93}}</ref>

===Subspecies===
{{As of|2005}}, seven subspecies are recognised.<ref>{{MSW3 Wozencraft | pages = | id=14001460 |heading=Species ''Mustela putorius''}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible" font="90%"
|- style="background: #115a6c"
!Subspecies
!Trinomial authority
!Description
!Range
! style="width:12em;" | Synonyms
|----
|'''Common polecat'''<br />''M. p. putorius''
([[Nominate subspecies]])
[[File:Polecat in denmark.jpg|150 px]]
|Linnaeus, 1758
|Larger than ''mosquensis'', with darker, fluffier and more lustrous fur<ref name="s1125"/>
|Western [[European Russia]], western [[Belarus]], western [[Ukraine]], [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Western Europe]] and [[Barbary Coast|North Africa]]
|<small>''flavicans'' (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839)</small><br />
<small>''foetens'' (Thunberge, 1789)</small><br />
<small>''foetidus'' (Gray, 1843)</small><br />
<small>''iltis'' (Boddaert, 1785)</small><br />
<small>''infectus'' (Ogérien, 1863)</small><br />
<small>''manium'' (Barrett-Hamilton, 1904)</small><br />
<small>''putorius'' (Blyth, 1842)</small><br />
<small>''verus'' (Brandt in Simashko, 1851)</small><br />
<small>''vison'' (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839)</small><br />
<small>''vulgaris'' (Griffith, 1827)</small>
|----
|'''Welsh polecat'''<br />''M. p. anglia''
[[File:Polecat wildlife centre surrey.jpg|150 px]]
|Pocock, 1936
|
|[[England]] and [[Wales]]
|
|----
|'''Mediterranean polecat'''<br />''M. p. aureola''
[[File:Mustelaputoriusaureola.png|150 px]]
|Barrett-Hamilton, 1904
|A small subspecies with yellowish underfur;<ref name="m425">{{Harvnb|Miller|1912|p=425}}</ref> it may be the ancestral subspecies from which the domestic ferret is derived, based on the characteristics of the teeth.<ref name="h49">{{Harvnb|Hemmer|1990|pp=49–50}}</ref>
|The southern and western portions of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]
|
|----
|[[Extinction|†]]'''Scottish polecat'''<br />''[[Scottish polecat|M. p. caledoniae]]''
[[File:Thorburn Polecat.jpg|150 px]]
|Tetley, 1939
|
|[[Scotland]]
|
|----
|'''Domestic ferret'''<br />''[[Ferret|M. p. furo]]''
[[File:Ferret 2008.png|150 px]]
|Linnaeus, 1758
|A [[Domestication|domesticated]] form, its skull is generally typical in conformation to the nominate subspecies, though with features in common with the steppe polecat.<ref name="s1115"/> Typically, the dark facial fur does not extend to the nose, while the pale cheek patches are very extensive and contrast poorly with the dark mask. One or more paws may be white, with white guard hairs often being well distributed over the body, particularly on the hind quarters.<ref name="kitch">{{cite book |author=Kitchener, A. |year=2002 |title=Polecats and Ferrets: How to tell them apart |publisher=The Vincent Wildlife Trust |isbn=0-946081-47-6 |url=http://www.vwt.org.uk/docs/polecat/polecats-and-ferrets-how-to-tell-them-apart.pdf |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223159/http://www.vwt.org.uk/docs/polecat/polecats-and-ferrets-how-to-tell-them-apart.pdf }}</ref>
|[[Domestic animals|Worldwide in association with humans]]
|<small>''albus'' (Bechstein, 1801)</small><br />
<small>''furoputorius'' (Link, 1795)</small><br />
<small>''subrufo'' (Gray, 1865)</small>
|----
|'''Middle Russian polecat'''<br />''M. p. mosquensis''
|Heptner, 1966
|A small subspecies, with relatively light, slightly fluffy fur with little lustre<ref name="s1125">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1125–1126}}</ref>
|[[European Russia]]
|<small>''orientalis'' (Brauner, 1929)</small><br />
<small>''orientalis'' (Polushina, 1955)</small><br />
<small>''ognevi'' (Kratochvil)</small>
|----
|'''Carpathian polecat'''<br />''M. p. rothschildi''
|Pocock, 1932
|A very lightly coloured subspecies, its fur closely approaches that of the steppe polecat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pocock, R. I. |title=The Polecats of the Genera ''Putorius'' and ''Vormela'' in the British Museum |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=691–724 |year=1936|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1936.tb06282.x }}</ref>
|[[Dobruja]], [[Romania]]
|
|----
|}

==Description==

===Build===
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical  |image1=Description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossiles (Mustela putorius skull).jpg |caption1=Skull |alt1=A sprinting cheetah  |image2=Description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossiles (Mustela putorius).jpg |caption2=Skeleton}}

The appearance of the European polecat is typical of members of the [[genus]] ''[[Mustela]]'', though it is generally more compact in conformation and, although short-legged, has a less elongated body than the [[European mink]] or [[steppe polecat]].<ref name="s1108">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1108}}</ref><ref name="m419">{{Harvnb|Miller|1912|p=419}}</ref> The tail is short, about one-third its body length.<ref name="s1108"/> The eyes are small, with dark brown [[Iris (anatomy)|irises]]. The hind [[toes]] are long and partially webbed, with weakly curved 4&nbsp;mm-long, nonretractable claws. The front claws are strongly curved, partially retractable, and measure 6&nbsp;mm in length.<ref name="h477">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=477}}</ref> The feet are moderately long and more robust than in other members of the genus.<ref name="m419"/> The polecat's skull is relatively coarse and massive, more so than the mink's, with a strong, but short and broad facial region and strongly developed projections. In comparison to other similarly sized mustelids, the polecat's teeth are very strong, large and massive in relation to skull size. [[Sexual dimorphism]] in the skull is apparent in the lighter, narrower skull of the female, which also has weaker projections.<ref name="s1112">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1112–1113}}</ref> The polecat's running gait is not as complex and twisting as that of the mink or [[stoat]], and it is not as fast as the [[mountain weasel]] (''solongoi''), stoat or [[least weasel]], as it can be outrun by a conditioned man. Its [[sensory organs]] are well developed, though it is unable to distinguish between colours.<ref name="s1130">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1130}}</ref>

The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly. The species does not conform to [[Bergmann's rule]], with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east–west axis.<ref name="marinis">{{cite journal |author=De Marinis, A.M. |year=1995 |title=Craniometric variability of polecat ''Mustela putorius'' L. 1758 from North-Central Italy |journal=Hystrix |volume=7 |issue=1–2 |pages=57–68}}</ref> Males measure {{Convert|350-460|mm|abbr=on}} in body length and females are {{Convert|290-394|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. The tail measures 115–167&nbsp;mm in males and 84–150&nbsp;mm in females. Adult males in middle Europe weigh {{Convert|1000-1500|g}} and females {{Convert|650-815|g|sigfig=2}}. [[Gigantism]] is known among polecats, but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat-mink [[hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]].<ref name="s1114">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1114–1115}}</ref>

===Fur===
[[File:European Polecat (Mustela putorius)-8.jpg|thumb|A young [[Erythrism|erythristic]] Welsh polecat at the British Wildlife Centre, [[Surrey]], England]]
The winter fur of the European polecat is brownish black or blackish brown, the intensity of which is determined by the colour of the long guard hairs. On the back and flanks, the dark tone is brightened by bright whitish-yellowish, sometimes yellowish-greyish underfur which shows through. The lightly coloured underfur is not equally visible on different parts of the body. On the back and hindquarters, the underfur is almost completely covered by the dark guard hairs. On the flanks, though, the lightening is well defined, and contrasts sharply with the general tone of the back. The throat, lower neck, chest and abdomen are black or blackish brown. The limbs are pure black or black with brown tints, while the tail is black or blackish brown, completely lacking light underfur. The area around and between the eyes is black-brown, with a longitudinal stripe of similar colour along the top of the nose. The ears are dark brown and edged with white. The summer fur is short, sparse and coarse. It is greyer, duller and lacking in the lustre of the winter fur. The underfur is more weakly developed in the summer fur, and has a brownish-grey or rusty-grey colour.<ref name="s1109">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1109–1111}}</ref> The polecat is a good swimmer,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lodé, T. |year=1999 |title=Comparative measurements of terrestrial and aquatic locomotion in ''Mustela lutreola'' and ''M. putorius'' |journal=Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde |volume=64 |pages=110–115 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Zeitschrift-Saeugetierkunde_64_0110-0115.pdf}}</ref> but its fur is not as well insulated against cold water as the [[American mink]]'s; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of {{cvt|8|C}}, the polecat cools down much faster at 26–28 minutes.<ref name="s1411">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1411}}</ref>

Polecats were found in two major phenotypes a typic one and a dark fur one with no black mask.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lodé, T. |year=2001 |title=Genetic divergence without spatial isolation in polecat ''Mustela putorius'' populations |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00275.x |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230007180|doi-access=free }}</ref> Colour mutations include [[Albinism|albinos]], [[Leucism|leucists]], [[Isabelline (colour)#In animals|isabellinists]], [[Xanthochromism|xanthochromists]], [[Amelanism|amelanists]], and [[erythrism|erythrists]]. In typical erythristic individuals, the underfur is usually bright reddish. The guard hairs on the trunk are bright reddish or reddish brown. Black guard hairs are absent on the lower body and head. In some rare cases, the guard hairs are so light, they are almost indistinguishable from the pale-yellow underfur. These individuals are called "amelanistic". In these cases, the whole animal is a very light golden-yellow colour.<ref name="s1109"/> These individuals are called "isabelline" or "xanthochromistic".

==Behaviour==
[[File:Mustela putorius-1.jpg|thumb|A group of common polecats in Sweden]]

===Social and territorial behaviour===
The European polecat has definite [[home range]]s that vary according to season, habitat, sex and social status.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lode, T. |year=2011 |title=Habitat selection and mating success in a mustelid |journal=International Journal of Zoology |volume= |issue= |page=159462}}</ref> Breeding females settle in discrete areas, whereas breeding males and dispersing juveniles have more fluid home ranges, and are more mobile.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lode, T. |year=2001 |title=Mating system and genetic variance in a polygynous mustelid, the European polecat |journal=Genes and Genetic Systems |volume=76 |issue= 4|pages=221–227 |doi=10.1266/ggs.76.221 |pmid=11732630 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ggs/76/4/76_4_221/_pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref> Both males and females share home ranges with other members of the same sex; males have larger home ranges than females, but evidence of [[territorial marking]] is sparse.<ref name="h480"/>

European polecats use several den sites distributed throughout their home ranges and are often most active around rabbit warrens. Some European polecats use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites in winter.<ref name="h480"/> Occasionally, European polecats use abandoned [[European badger]] or [[red fox]] burrows.<ref name="s1129">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1129}}</ref> Like other mustelids, the polecat is usually a silent animal, though it will growl fiercely when angered, and squeak when distressed. It also emits a low, mewling cry to its mate or offspring.<ref name="j155">{{Harvnb|Johnston|1903|p=155}}</ref>

===Reproduction and development===
The European polecat is a seasonal breeder, with no courtship rituals. During the [[mating season]], the male grabs the female by the neck and drags her about to stimulate [[ovulation]], then copulates for up to an hour. The species is [[Animal sexual behaviour#Polygamy|polygamous]], with each male polecat mating with several females. The [[gestation period]] lasts 40–43 days, with litters usually being born in May-early June. Each litter typically consists of five to ten kits. At birth, the kits weigh {{Convert|9-10|g|abbr=on}} and measure {{Convert|55-70|mm|abbr=on}} in body length; they are blind and deaf. At the age of one week, the kits are covered in silky, white fur, which is replaced with a cinnamon brown-greyish woolly coat at the age of 3–4 wk. [[Weaning]] begins at three weeks of age, while the permanent dentition erupts after 7–8 wk. The kits become independent after two to three months.<ref name="h482">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=482–483}}</ref> Females are very protective of their young, and have even been known to confront humans approaching too closely to their litters.<ref name="b158">{{Harvnb|Brehm|1895|p=158}}</ref>

==Ecology==
[[File:Thorburn polecat rabbit & weasel.png|thumb|Scottish polecat guarding a rabbit carcass from a [[least weasel]], as painted by [[Archibald Thorburn]]]]

===Diet===
[[File:Polecathunting.jpg|thumb|Common polecat attacking a [[grey partridge]], as exhibited at the [[National Museum of Natural History (Bulgaria)|Bulgarian National Museum of Natural History]]]]
The European polecat's diet consists of [[mouse]]-like [[rodent]]s, followed by [[amphibian]]s and [[bird]]s. Its most frequent prey item in the former Soviet Union is the [[common vole]] and rarely the [[Clethrionomys|red-backed vole]]. In large river floodlands, [[European Water Vole|water vole]] are common prey. In spring and winter, amphibians (especially [[Rana (genus)|grass frogs]] and [[European Green Toad|green toads]]) become important food items. Selective predation on male frogs by the polecat decreases the occurrence of polyandry in frog populations.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lodé, T. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Holveck, M.J. |author3=Lesbarreres, D. |author4=Pagano, A. |year=2004 |title=Sex-biased predation by polecats influences the mating system of frogs |journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences|volume=271 |issue=S6 |pages=S399–S401 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2004.0195|pmid=15801586 |pmc=1810108 }}</ref> However, because amphibians have little [[calorific value]], the polecat never grows fat on them, no matter how many it consumes. In Central Europe, the diet in winter months is dominated by [[bird]]s including [[quail]], [[grey partridge]]s, [[grouse]], [[chicken]]s, [[pigeon]]s and [[passerine]]s. Seasonal changes in the activity rhythm is synchronised with the activity of the main prey.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lodé, T. |year=1995 |title=Activity pattern of polecats ''Mustela putorius'' L. in relation to food habits and prey activity |journal=Ethology  |volume=100  |issue= 4|pages=295–308|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1995.tb00334.x |bibcode=1995Ethol.100..295L }}</ref> Some species only rarely preyed upon by the polecat include [[European hedgehog]]s, [[Vipera aspis|asp vipers]], [[grass snake]]s, [[lizards]] and [[insect]]s.<ref name="s1127">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1127–1129}}</ref> In Britain, it commonly kills [[brown rat]]s and [[European rabbit]]s, and is capable of killing larger prey, such as [[geese]] and [[hare]]s.<ref name="h482"/> One polecat was reported to frequently wait at a riverbank and catch eels, which it took back to its burrow.<ref name="l115">{{Harvnb|Lydekker|1896|pp=115}}</ref>
The European polecat hunts its prey by stalking it and seizing it with its [[canine teeth]], killing the animal with a bite to the neck. This killing method is instinctive, but perfected with practice. The polecat sometimes [[cache (biology)|caches]] its food, particularly during seasonal gluts of frogs and toads.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lodé, T. |year=1996  |title=Predation of European polecat upon frog and toad populations at breeding sites in western France |journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution |volume=8 |issue= |pages=115–124 |doi=10.1080/08927014.1996.9522922 |url=}}</ref> Sometimes, the polecat does not kill these, but bites them at the base of the skull, thus paralyzing them and keeping them fresh for later consumption.<ref name="h482"/> Although they are normally shy around humans, naturalist [[Alfred Brehm]] in his ''[[Brehms Tierleben]]'' mentions an exceptional case in which three polecats attacked a baby in [[Hesse]].<ref name="b158"/> During winter, some European polecats raid [[beehive]]s and feed on [[honey]].<ref name="maxwell">{{cite book |author=Maxwell, W.H. |year=1833 |title=The Field Book: Or, Sports and Pastimes of the United Kingdom; Comp. from the Best Authorities, Ancient and Modern |location=London |publisher= E. Wilson |pages= |url= |chapter= |chapter-url=}}</ref>

===Enemies and competitors===
Although the European polecat can coexist with the [[European mink]], it suffers in areas where the invasive [[American mink]] also occurs, as the latter species feeds on the same mammals as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink, and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats.<ref name=sidorovich>{{cite journal |author1=Sidorovich, V.E. |name-list-style=amp |author2=MacDonald, D.W. |author3=Kruuk, H. |author4=Krasko, A. |year=2000 |title=Behavioural interactions between the naturalized American mink ''Mustela vison'' and the native riparian mustelids, NE Belarus, with implications for population changes |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |volume=22 |pages=1–5 |url=http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/5/58/SCC_22_fragmented.pdf |access-date=2011-05-21 |archive-date=2012-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316132159/http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/5/58/SCC_22_fragmented.pdf }}</ref> In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the [[steppe polecat]], the two species overlap greatly in choice of food, though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds, while the latter preys on mammals more frequently.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lanszki, J. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Heltai, M. |year=2007 |title=Diet of the European polecat and the steppe polecat in Hungary |journal=Mammalian Biology - Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=49–53 |doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2006.07.002 |bibcode=2007MamBi..72...49L |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236000967}}</ref> There is at least one record of a [[beech marten]] killing a polecat.<ref name="s902">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=902}}</ref> The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel.<ref name="s992">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=992}}</ref>

==Hybridisation==
{{Main|Polecat–ferret hybrid|Polecat–mink hybrid}}
[[File:Ferret-Polecat-Hybrid.jpg|thumb|Heads of a '''1)''' polecat, '''2)''' ferret and '''3)''' polecat-ferret hybrid]]
In some parts of Britain, the abandonment of domestic [[ferret]]s has led to ferret-polecat crossbreeds living in the wild. Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], or as late as the fourteenth century.<ref name="davison">{{cite journal |author1=Davison, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Birks, J.D. |author3=Griffiths, S.H.I. |author4=Kitchener, A.C. |author5=Biggins, D. |author6=Butlin, R.K. |year=1999 |title=Hybridization and the phylogenetic relationship between polecats and domestic ferrets in Britain |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=87  |issue=2 |pages=155–161 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00067-6|bibcode=1999BCons..87..155D }}</ref> Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch, white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur.<ref name="h485"/> Typically, first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parents' fear of humans if left with their mothers during the critical socialisation period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age.<ref name="poole">{{cite journal |author1=Poole, T.B. |year=1972 |title=Some behavioral differences between European polecat, ''Mustela putorius'', ferret, ''M. furo'', and their hybrids |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=25–35 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1972.tb04073.x |url=}}</ref>

The European polecat can hybridise with the [[European mink]], producing offspring termed ''khor'-tumak'' by Russian furriers<ref name="s1086"/> and ''khonorik'' by fanciers.<ref name="khonorik">{{cite web|url=http://www.ferret.ru/eng/khonorik.html|title=Khonorik: Hybrids between Mustelidae|publisher=Russian Ferret Society|access-date=9 May 2011|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731035535/http://www.ferret.ru/eng/khonorik.html}}</ref> Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild, and typically only occurs where the European mink population is in decline.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lodé, T. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Guiral, G. |author3=Peltier, D. |year=2005 |title=European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process? |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=89–96 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esi021 |pmid=15653561 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A polecat-mink hybrid has a poorly defined facial mask, yellow fur on the ears, grey-yellow underfur and long, dark brown guard hairs. It is fairly large, with a male attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats weighing {{cvt|1120-1746|g|lboz|frac=16}} and measuring {{cvt|41-47|cm|in|frac=2}} in length; a female is much larger than a female European minks weighing {{cvt|742|g|oz|frac=16}} and measuring {{cvt|37|cm|in|frac=2}} in length.<ref name="sidorovich"/> The majority of polecat-mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks; they can swim well and burrow for food like polecats, but are difficult to tame and breed, as males are [[sterility (physiology)|sterile]].<ref name="tumanov">{{cite journal |author1=Tumanov, I.L. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Abramov, A.V. |year=2002 |title=A study of the hybrids between the European Mink ''Mustela lutreola'' and the Polecat ''M. putorius'' |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |volume=27 |pages=29–31 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234842895}}</ref> The first captive polecat-mink hybrid was created in 1978 for fur, but breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased.<ref name="khonorik"/> Studies on the behavioural ecology of free-ranging polecat-mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the [[Lovat River]] indicate that hybrids stray from aquatic habitats more readily than minks, and tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size, especially the male's deters intrusion. During summer, the diets of wild polecat-mink hybrids are more similar to those of minks than to the polecats, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During winter, their diets overlap more with those of polecats, and will eat a larger proportion of [[rodent]]s than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on [[frog]]s and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as polecats do.<ref name="sidorovich"/>

The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian [[steppe polecat]] or the domestic ferret to produce fertile offspring.<ref name="davison"/> European-steppe polecat hybrids are very rare, despite their [[sympatry]] in several areas. Nevertheless, hybrids have been recorded in southern [[Ukraine]], the [[Kursk Oblast|Kursk]] and [[Voronezh Oblast]]s, the Trans-[[Carpathians]] and several other localities.<ref name="s1144">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1144–1145}}</ref>

==Range, history and conservation==
The European polecat is widespread in the western [[Palaearctic]] to the [[Urals]] in the [[Russian Federation]], though it is absent from Ireland, northern [[Scandinavia]], and much of the [[Balkans]] and eastern [[Adriatic]] coast. It occurs only marginally in northern [[Greece]]. It is found in [[Morocco]] in the [[Rif Mountains]], from sea level to {{Convert|2400|m|abbr=on}}. Its domesticated form, the ferret, was introduced in [[Great Britain|Britain]], and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand.<ref name=iucn/>

===Britain===
{{Blockquote|There are ... some extreme examples, but the fact remains that throughout England and Wales polecats were consistently persecuted at a greater intensity than any other species of mustelid. Did this level of persecution have an effect on overall numbers or did it purely satisfy local vengeance? ... The polecat may be the best example of a species for which the level of killing really did make a difference to the population. The developing sporting estates then administered the ''coup de grâce''.|Roger Lovegrove (2007)<ref name="l200">{{Harvnb|Lovegrove|2007|p=200}}</ref>}}
In Britain, the European polecat was regarded as a serious poultry predator prior to the introduction of [[Chain-link fencing|wire netting]], therefore eliminating it was considered the only option to protect stock. This extreme enmity does not appear to have been universal however. Speaking of [[Merioneth]] ([[Gwynedd]]) Peter Hope Jones reported that "for a county supposedly well-placed within the known past distribution of this species, Merioneth has relatively very few records of Polecats amongst its parish bounty payments. Perhaps this animal was not generally considered to be an important pest, but whatever the real reason, in only two parishes are direct references made to this species by the name by which we know it today. In the years from 1729 to 1732 about twenty were killed in Towyn parish, where 2/6 was paid for a full-grown polecat and half this sum for a young 'kittin'. Records for Llanfor.... show that only 42 were killed in the 39-year period from 1720 to 1758, the payment being exactly half the going rate for a fox, i.e. 2/6 for a full-grown polecat, and 1/3 for a young animal".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hope-Jones, P. |year=1974 |title=Wildlife Records from Merioneth Parish Documents |journal=Nature in Wales |volume=14 |pages=35–42 |issue=1 |url=https://journals.library.wales/view/1220475/1223401/34#?xywh=-1602%2C-3%2C5517%2C3638}}</ref>

In [[Kent]], for example, at least 42 [[parish]]es paid bounties for polecats, of which three extended into the 19th century, though by this time only single individuals were recorded, and usually after gaps of many years.<ref name="l198"/> In the [[Kingdom of Scotland]], during the reign of [[David II of Scotland|David II]], an export duty of 4[[Dupondius|d.]] was imposed on each polecat fur trimmer, which was raised to 8d. in 1424. The species held an important place in Scotland's fur markets; the annual Dumfries Fur Fair (1816–1874) sold 400 polecat pelts in 1829 and 600 in 1831. The following year, a contemporary account described polecat skins as "a drug on the market". In 1856, the number of sold pelts decreased to 240, 168 in 1860, 12 in 1866 and none in 1869.<ref name="r162">{{Harvnb|Ritchie|1920|p=162}}</ref> The decline was halted with the decrease in the intensity of gamekeeping during the 20 year interval between the [[First World War|First]] and [[Second World War]]s.<ref name="l275">{{Harvnb|Lovegrove|2007|pp=275–276}}</ref>

The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection; it is listed on Schedule 6 of the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981]] and Regulation 41 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the [[Habitats Directive]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jncc.gov.uk/article17 |publisher=Joint Nature Conservation Committee |year=2007 |title=Second Report by the UK under Article 17 on the implementation of the Habitats, Directive from January 2001 to December 2006 |place=Peterborough}}</ref> A survey carried out by the [[Vincent Wildlife Trust]] in 2015 found that the polecat had spread into areas (such as East Anglia and South Yorkshire) where they had not been seen for 100 years. Naturalist [[Chris Packham]] termed the spread "...one of the great natural recoveries."<ref>{{cite news |author=Morelle, Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Morelle |publisher=BBC News |title=Conservationists: Polecats 'spreading across Britain'|date=2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-35386042|access-date=29 January 2016}}</ref>

The [[New Forest]] in [[Hampshire]] also now has a small polecat population, a fact discovered after scientists set up cameras to film [[European pine marten|pine martens]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-14 |title=Pine martens thriving and breeding in New Forest, conservationists discover |url=https://www.advertiserandtimes.co.uk/news/pine-martens-thriving-and-breeding-in-new-forest-conservati-9348228/ |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=Advertiser and Times |language=en}}</ref>

===France===
The European polecat is present in all of France's territories, excepting [[Corsica]], and has been in a state of decline for several decades.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lodé, T. |year=2006 |title=Can low densities of carnivores result in genetic depletion? An investigation within European polecat populations |journal=Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics |volume=123 |issue=3 |pages=122–158 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0388.2006.00585.x|pmid=16706919 }}</ref> Nevertheless, it is listed as Least Concern on France's Red Data Book. The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or [[département]]s. In the [[Rhone]]-[[Alps]] region, its population has undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s, largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against [[muskrat]]s. A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicated the species has little chance of surviving there. Elsewhere, it is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others. In [[Drôme]], for example, polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975, and have disappeared in 27 communes in [[Isère]]. Its numbers are declining in [[Morvan]] and [[Ariège (department)|Ariège]], and is thinly distributed in [[Brittany]]. Although present in [[Aquitaine]], its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s, and is very rare in the mountain regions. In [[Normandy]], the speed of the polecat's decline has somewhat decreased. In the alpine départements, its range is limited by altitude, as the species relies on more Mediterranean climates to thrive. It is, however, especially abundant in the irrigated [[Crau]], but is absent on the eastern part of the area, apparently being restricted by the valleys of the [[Durance]] and Rhone Rivers. The largest populations occur in Northern France: [[Pas de Calais]], Central France; [[Alsace]], [[Lorraine]] and the areas of the [[Loire]] with the [[Vendée]], which holds the largest record of polecat observations. It is common in all the départements of [[Champagne-Ardenne]].<ref name="putois">{{cite book |author=Soubelet, A. |year=2011 |title=Situation actuelle de la Martre (''Martes martes''), la Belette (''Mustela nivalis'') et du Putois (''Mustela putorius'') en France: Proposition d'une méthode de suivi |location=Paris |publisher=Service du Patrimoine Naturel, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle |language=fr |url=http://www.mnhn.fr/spn/docs/rapports/SPN%202011%20-%201%20-%20Note%20de%20synthese.%20Situation%20actuelle%20de%20la%20Belette%20la%20Martre%20et%20du%20Putois%20en%20France.%20Proposition%20dune%20methode%20de%20suivi.pdf |access-date=2011-06-22 |archive-date=2012-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319203932/http://www.mnhn.fr/spn/docs/rapports/SPN%202011%20-%201%20-%20Note%20de%20synthese.%20Situation%20actuelle%20de%20la%20Belette%20la%20Martre%20et%20du%20Putois%20en%20France.%20Proposition%20dune%20methode%20de%20suivi.pdf }}</ref>

===Former Soviet Union===
The western border of the European polecat's range in the former Soviet Union begins from the mouth of the [[Danube]] in the south approximately to northwest of [[Suoyarvi]], on the Finnish border in the north. In [[Karelia]], its northern border extends from the former point towards the southeast to the Spassk Bay of [[Lake Onega]], thereby passing around the West Karelian uplands from the south and then, passing around these uplands from the east, it suddenly ascends directly to the north passing in particular, near the western shore of [[Lake Segozero|Segozer]] and reaches Rugozer. From there, the border line turns northeast, crossing the [[Lakhtinsky Razliv|Lakhta]] and reaching [[Kem, Russia|Kem]] on the [[White Sea]]. From [[Arkhangelsk]], the border reaches [[Mezen Bay|Mezen]], thus attaining the species' most northerly range. From the [[Mezen River]]'s mouth, the border abruptly returns south, approaching closer to the upper Mezen near 64° lat. From there, the polecat's northern border goes on to the upper [[Vychegda River]], and descends further on southwards and in the [[Urals]]. Its eastern range apparently extends along the Urals, embracing [[Sverdlovsk, Ukraine|Sverdlovsk]] from the west. It is probably absent in the southern Urals, where the steppe polecat occurs. The southern border of the polecat's range starts in the west of the Danube's mouth and extends eastward along the coast of the [[Black Sea]] reaching the mouth of the [[Dnieper|Dnepr]], from which it moves back from the shore of the [[Azov Sea]] and, along it, goes to the mouth of the [[Don River (Russia)|Don]]. From the mouth and lower course of the Don, its range passes into the steppe region of western and middle [[Ciscaucasia]]. The European polecat is absent from the [[Saratov]] steppes of [[Transvolga]], instead being encountered only in the extreme lower [[Bolshoy Irgiz|Bolshoy]] and [[Maly Irgiz River]]s. Further on, the border goes to the north along the [[Volga River]]. It steeply returns east somewhat south at the [[Samara, Russia|Samara]] bend, passing around [[Obshchy Syrt]], reaching the Urals at the latitude of [[Magnitogorsk]]. The range of the polecat within the former Soviet Union has expanded northwards. From 1930 to 1952 for example, the polecat colonised northwestern Karelia and southern Finland.<ref name="s1117">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1117–1122}}</ref>

Prior to the First World War, the [[Russian Empire]] produced more than 50% of global polecat skins. The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the [[October Revolution]], which coincided with Western Europe's decline in polecat numbers. The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War, and their hunting was subsequently discouraged, as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations.<ref name="s1133"/>

==Diseases and parasites==
The European polecat may suffer from [[Canine distemper|distemper]], [[influenza]], the [[common cold]] and [[pneumonia]]. Occasionally, it is affected by malignant [[tumour]]s and [[hydrocephaly]]. It commonly has broken teeth and, on rarer occasions, fatal [[abscess]]es on the jaw, head and neck. In mainland Europe, it is a carrier of [[trichinosis]], [[leptospirosis]], [[toxoplasmosis]] and [[adiaspiromycosis]]. Incidences of polecats carrying [[rabies]] are high in some localized areas.<ref name="h484">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=484}}</ref>

[[Ectoparasite]]s known to infest polecats include [[flea]] species such as ''[[Ctenocephalides felis]]'', ''Archaeospylla erinacei'', ''[[Nosopsyllus fasciatus]]'' and ''Paraceras melis''. The [[tick]] ''[[Ixodes hexagonus]]'' is the polecat's most common ectoparasite, which is sometimes found in large numbers on the neck and behind the ears. Another, less common species to infest polecats is ''I. canisuga''. The biting [[louse]] ''Trichodectes jacobi'' is also known to infest polecats.<ref name="h484"/>

[[Endoparasite]]s carried by polecats include the [[cestode]]s ''Taenia tenuicollis'' and ''T. martis'' and the [[nematode]]s ''Molineus patens'', ''Strongyloides papillosus'', ''Capilliaria putorii'', ''Filaroides martis'' and ''Skjrabingylus nasicola''.<ref name="h484"/>

==Relationships with humans==

===Hunting and fur use===
[[File:Fitch pelts at Copenhagen Fur (2).jpg|left|thumb|Polecat skins (fitch) in [[Copenhagen]]]]
{{Rquote|right|The polecat has earned for itself a most unenviable fame, having been long celebrated as one of the most noxious pests to which the farmyard is liable. Slightly smaller than the marten, and not quite so powerful, it is found to be a more deadly enemy to rabbits, game and poultry, than any other animal its size.|[[John George Wood]]<ref name="wood">Wood, Rev. J. G. (1870) ''Wood's Animal Kingdom''</ref>}}
European polecat hunting was once a favourite sport of the [[Westmorland]] dalesmen and the [[Scottish people|Scots]], who hunted them at night in midwinter. However, the majority of polecat deaths caused by humans have been accidental, having mostly been caused by steel traps set for rabbits.<ref name="l114">{{Harvnb|Lydekker|1896|pp=114}}</ref> Hunting polecats by moonlight was also a popular diversion among midland schoolboys.<ref name="maxwell"/> Until the mid-19th century, polecats in Britain were hunted from early February to late April with mixed packs of [[hunting dog]]s on the Welsh hills and Lakeland fells, though [[otterhound]]s were used on the fells, the [[Border country]] and the [[Scottish Lowlands]].<ref name="perry">Perry, Richard (1978) ''Wildlife in Britain and Ireland'', Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|0-85664-306-8}}</ref> John Tucker Edwardes, the creator of the [[Sealyham terrier]], used captured wild male polecats to test the [[gameness]] of yearling terriers.<ref name="plummer">Plummer, David Brian & Knowleden, Martin (2000) ''Tales of a Rat-Hunting Man'', Coch Y Bonddu Books, {{ISBN|0-9533648-7-9}}</ref> In the former Soviet Union, polecats are hunted chiefly in late autumn and early winter with [[gun]]s and hunting dogs, as well as [[foothold traps]] and wooden [[Animal trapping#Snares|snares]]. However, even in season, hunters rarely catch more than 10–15 polecats. The species does not constitute an important element in former Soviet commercial hunting, and is usually only caught incidentally.<ref name="s1133"/>

The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer, whose pelt (fitch) is more valuable than the steppe polecat's.<ref name="s1133">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1133–1134}}</ref> Its skin is used primarily in the production of [[jacket]]s, [[cape]]s and [[coat (clothing)|coats]]. It is particularly well suited for [[trim (sewing)|trimmings]] for [[women's clothing]]. The tail is sometimes used for the making of [[paintbrush]]es.<ref name="b348">{{Harvnb|Bachrach|1953|pp=348–352}}</ref> One disadvantage of polecat skin, however, is its unpleasant odour, which is difficult to remove.<ref name="b158"/> The European polecat was first commercially farmed for its fur in Great Britain during the 1920s, but was only elevated to economic importance in Finland in 1979. It never became popular in the United States and Canada, due to import laws regarding non-native species. It did gain economic importance in the USSR, though.<ref>Roth, Harald H. ; Merz, Günter (1997) ''Wildlife resources: a global account of economic use'', Springer, {{ISBN|3-540-61357-9}}</ref>
[[File:Polecat feeding geograph.co.uk. 2306329.jpg|thumb|Welsh polecat being fed at the British Wildlife Centre, Newchapel, Surrey]]

===Tameability===
Unlike the [[stoat]] and [[least weasel]], the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity.<ref name="plummer"/> According to [[Aubyn Trevor-Battye]], the European polecat is difficult to tame, but is superior to its domesticated form, the ferret, in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility. It is prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats, but can be easily outrun.<ref name="l116">{{Harvnb|Lydekker|1896|pp=116}}</ref> Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother [[cat]]s.<ref name="b158"/> According to ''Owen's Welsh Dictionary'', the Gwythelians (early [[Irish people|Irish]] settlers in northern Wales) kept polecats as pets.<ref>Sullivan, Jeremiah (1857) ''[https://archive.org/details/cu31924028028532/page/n26 <!-- pg=17 --> Cumberland & Westmorland, ancient & modern: the people, dialect, superstitions and customs]'', Whittaker and co.</ref> Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult's nervous and unsociable disposition. First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets, conceived to improve the latter's bloodlines, produce animals with personalities similar to their wild parent's.<ref name="l93"/>

===In culture===
In Britain, the polecat historically has had a negative reputation. References to the polecat in early [[English literature]] are often vilifying, usually being synonymous with [[prostitute]]s and generally immoral people, as is the case in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'': "Out of my door, you witch, you hag, you baggage, you polecat, you runyon!" In some rural areas, the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping [[sheep]] and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks.<ref name="bidder"/> However, in some regions, it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude, and instead kill vermin. Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms.<ref name="wood"/> In Wales, polecats were widely believed to migrate in large numbers every spring to the great [[peat bog]] of [[Tregaron]] to feed on the breeding frogs there. This was later proven to be incorrect, as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat, and it does not hold large frog populations.<ref name="perry"/> Compared to other British carnivores, such as [[European otter|otters]] and [[European badger|badgers]], the polecat has received little exposure in popular media. A study conducted on rural school children showed only 3.8% of the surveyed children could identify polecats in photographs, whereas 83.7% correctly identified otters.<ref name="bidder">Bidder, Owen (2009), [http://www.nature2010.org.uk/Inspired%20by%20Nature%202.pdf ''The European Polecat: Unsung Species''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119092458/http://www.nature2010.org.uk/Inspired%20by%20Nature%202.pdf |date=2011-11-19 }}, [[Natur Cymru]], Summer/Haf 09</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Buffon putois.png|[[Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon|Buffon]]'s illustration of a polecat in volume 4 of ''Natural history, general and particular''
File:Nigripes & putorius.png|Skulls of a black-footed ferret (1) and European polecat (2), as illustrated in [[Clinton Hart Merriam|Merriam]]'s ''Synopsis of the Weasels of North America''
File:Weasel, stoat & fitch.png|Comparative illustration of a European polecat, least weasel and stoat, as illustrated in Carnegie's ''Practical Game-preserving''
File:Velvet the polecat.jpg|Welsh polecat profile
File:Polecat in the light.jpg|A light-coloured ([[Amelanism|amelanistic]]) morph
</gallery>

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book|last=Bachrach|first=M. |title=Fur: A Practical Treatise |location=New York |publisher=Prentice-Hall |edition=Third|year=1953|oclc=498697660}}
* {{Cite book|last=Batten|first=H. M. |url=https://archive.org/details/habitscharacters00battrich|title=Habits and characters of British wild animals |location=London [etc.] |publisher=W. & R. Chambers, Limited|year=1920}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brehm |first=A. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/brehmslifeofanim00breh|title=Brehm's Life of Animals |location=Chicago |publisher=A. N. Marquis & Company|year=1895}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Harris|first1=S. |name-list-style=amp |last2=Yalden|first2=D. |title=Mammals of the British Isles |publisher=Mammal Society |edition=Fourth Revised |year=2008|isbn=978-0-906282-65-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Johnston|first=H. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/britishmammalsat00john|title=British mammals; an attempt to describe and illustrate the mammalian fauna of the British islands from the commencement of the Pleistocene period down to the present day |location=London |publisher=Hutchinson |year=1903}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hemmer|first=H. |title=Domestication: the decline of environmental appreciation |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990|isbn=0-521-34178-7}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Heptner|first1=V. G.|last2=Sludskii|first2=A. A. |chapter=Forest, or Black, Polecat |pages=1107–1133 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov212001gept/page/1106/mode/2up |title=Mammals of the Soviet Union |volume=((Volume II, part 1b, Carnivores (Mustelidae and Procyonidae) )) |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation |year=2002 |isbn=90-04-08876-8 |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kurtén|first=B. |title=Pleistocene mammals of Europe |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location= |year=1968}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewington|first=J. |title=Ferret husbandry, medicine, and surgery|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2000|isbn=0-7506-4251-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lovegrove|first=R. |title=Silent fields: the long decline of a nation's wildlife|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-852071-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lydekker|first=R. |author-link=Richard Lydekker |pages=111–116 |chapter=''Mustela putorius'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924052094251/page/n149/mode/2up |title=The hand-book to the British Mammalia |location=London |publisher=Edward Lloyd |year=1896}}
* {{Cite book |last=Miller|first=G. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924003031220 |title=Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe (Europe Exclusive of Russia) in the Collection of the British Museum |location=London |publisher=Printed by order of the Trustees |year=1912}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ritchie |first=J. |url=https://archive.org/details/influenceofmanon00ritciala|title=The Influence of Man on Animal Life in Scotland; Study in Faunal Evolution |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1920}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mustela putorius}}
{{Wikispecies|Mustela putorius}}
* [https://evolutionaryecology.fr.gd/The-polecat-project.htm The Polecat Project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080618010743/http://waarneming.nl/soort.php?id=381&wno_datum_van=&wno_datum_tm=&tab=info Pictures, sightings and distribution maps of European polecats in the Netherlands]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100110225033/http://www.arkive.org/european-polecat/mustela-putorius/ European polecat (''Mustela putorius'')]—[[ARKive.org]]

{{Weasels}}
{{Carnivora|M.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q26582}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Carnivorans of Europe]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Europe]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1758]]
[[Category:Mammals of Africa]]
[[Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Weasels]]
[[Category:Habitats Directive species]]