View source for Evolutionary biology

{{Short description|Study of the evolution of life}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2015}}
{{Evolutionary biology}}

'''Evolutionary biology''' is a subfield of [[biology]] that analyzes the four mechanisms of [[evolution]]: [[natural selection]], [[mutation]], [[genetic drift]], and [[gene flow]]. The purpose of evolutionary biology is to observe the [[diversity of life]] on Earth. The idea of natural selection was first researched by [[Charles Darwin]] as he studied bird beaks. The discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what [[Julian Huxley]] called the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]] of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as [[genetics]] and [[ecology]], [[systematics]], and [[paleontology]]. Huxley was able to take what Charles Darwin discovered and elaborate to build on his understandings.

The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the [[genetic architecture]] of [[adaptation]], [[molecular evolution]], and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as [[sexual selection]], [[genetic drift]], and [[biogeography]]. The newer field of [[evolutionary developmental biology]] ("evo-devo") investigates how [[embryogenesis]] is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates [[developmental biology]] with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis.

== Overview ==
Evolutionary biology explains diversity between species by analyzing changes in a few individuals within a population over multiple generations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Olson |first=Mark E. |date=2024-06-01 |title=Is Population Genetics Really Relevant to Evolutionary Biology? |journal=Evolutionary Biology |language=en |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=235–243 |doi=10.1007/s11692-024-09630-x |bibcode=2024EvBio..51..235O |issn=1934-2845|doi-access=free }}</ref> The purpose of this subfield is to determine how genetic variation develops, how it is inherited, and how the evolutionary mechanisms shape a population's genetic composition. Researchers study the traits of organisms to identify which characteristics enhance or reduce survival and reproduction. Advantageous traits tend to be passed on to offspring, contributing to evolutionary change as those traits become more common.

These processes are studied at different levels of complexity from observing features in living or fossilized species to analyzing DNA genomic sequencing between species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Losos |first1=Jonathan B. |last2=Arnold |first2=Stevan J. |last3=Bejerano |first3=Gill |last4=Iii |first4=E. D. Brodie |last5=Hibbett |first5=David |last6=Hoekstra |first6=Hopi E. |last7=Mindell |first7=David P. |last8=Monteiro |first8=Antónia |last9=Moritz |first9=Craig |last10=Orr |first10=H. Allen |last11=Petrov |first11=Dmitri A. |last12=Renner |first12=Susanne S. |last13=Ricklefs |first13=Robert E. |last14=Soltis |first14=Pamela S. |last15=Turner |first15=Thomas L. |date=2013-01-08 |title=Evolutionary Biology for the 21st Century |journal=PLOS Biology |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=e1001466 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001466 |pmid=23319892 |pmc=3539946 |doi-access=free |issn=1545-7885}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of evolutionary thought|Modern synthesis (20th century)}}

The idea of evolution by natural selection was proposed by [[Charles Darwin]] in 1859, but evolutionary biology, as an [[academic discipline]] in its own right, emerged during the period of the [[Modern synthesis (20th century) |modern synthesis]] in the 1930s and 1940s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smocovitis |first=Vassiliki Betty |year=1996 |title=Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–65 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1007/BF01947504 |pmid=11623198 |isbn=0-691-03343-9 |s2cid=189833728 }}</ref> It was not until the 1980s that many universities had departments of evolutionary biology. 

[[Microbiology]] too is becoming an evolutionary discipline now that microbial physiology and [[genomics]] are better understood. The quick [[generation time]] of bacteria and viruses such as [[bacteriophage]]s makes it possible to explore evolutionary questions.

Many biologists have contributed to shaping the modern discipline of evolutionary biology. [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]] and [[E. B. Ford]] established an empirical research programme. [[Ronald Fisher]], [[Sewall Wright]], and [[J. B. S. Haldane]] created a sound theoretical framework. [[Ernst Mayr]] in [[systematics]], [[George Gaylord Simpson]] in paleontology and [[G. Ledyard Stebbins]] in [[botany]] helped to form the modern synthesis. [[James F. Crow |James Crow]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=35885 |title=The Academic Genealogy of Evolutionary Biology: James F. Crow |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120514110553/http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=35885 |archive-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> [[Richard Lewontin]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=13553 |title=The Academic Genealogy of Evolutionary Biology:Richard Lewontin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514111403/http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=13553 |archive-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> [[Dan Hartl]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=35535 |title=The Academic Genealogy of Evolutionary Biology: Daniel Hartl |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514111202/http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=35535 |archive-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> [[Marcus Feldman]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-evo.stanford.edu/alums.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230307015532/http://www-evo.stanford.edu/alums.html |archive-date =7 March 2023 |title=Feldman lab alumni & collaborators}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=35544 |title=The Academic Genealogy of Evolutionary Biology: Marcus Feldman |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120514111000/http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=35544 |archive-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> and [[Brian Charlesworth]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=15532 |title=The Academic Genealogy of Evolutionary Biology: Brian Charlesworth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514110758/http://academictree.org/evolution/tree.php?pid=15532 |archive-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> trained a generation of evolutionary biologists.
== Subfields ==
{{See also|Outline of evolution#Subfields|Outline of evolution#Applications in other disciplines}}

[[Evolution]] is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of [[biological organisation|biological organization]], from [[molecular biology|molecular]] to [[cell biology|cell]], organism to [[population biology|population]]. Another way is by perceived [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic group]], with fields such as [[zoology]], [[botany]], and [[microbiology]], reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, [[theoretical biology]], [[experimental evolution]], and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with evolutionary biology to create subfields like [[evolutionary ecology]] and [[evolutionary developmental biology]].

More recently, the merge between biological science and applied sciences gave birth to new fields that are extensions of evolutionary biology, including [[evolutionary robotics]], [[engineering]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ls.toyaku.ac.jp/~lcb-7/en/keywords/evolutionaryengineering.html |website=Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Department of Applied Life Sciences, Lab. Extremophiles |title=Evolutionary engineering|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216072919/http://www.ls.toyaku.ac.jp/~lcb-7/en/keywords/evolutionaryengineering.html|archive-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> [[evolutionary algorithms|algorithms]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.vu.nl/~gusz/ecbook/Eiben-Smith-Intro2EC-Ch2.pdf|title=What is an Evolutionary Algorithm?|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809084921/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~gusz/ecbook/Eiben-Smith-Intro2EC-Ch2.pdf|archive-date=9 August 2017}}</ref> [[evolutionary economics|economics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/evolute.html|title=What economists can learn from evolutionary theorists|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730010043/http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/evolute.html|archive-date=30 July 2017}}</ref> and architecture.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/j-eaed1/index.html|title=Investigating architecture and design| website=[[IBM]] |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818215737/https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/j-eaed1/index.html|archive-date=18 August 2017|date=24 February 2009}}</ref> The basic mechanisms of evolution are applied directly or indirectly to come up with novel designs or solve problems that are difficult to solve otherwise. The research generated in these applied fields, contribute towards progress, especially from work on evolution in [[computer science]] and engineering fields such as mechanical engineering.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783642072857 |title=Introduction to Evolutionary Computing: A.E. Eiben|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901071418/http://www.springer.com/us/book/9783642072857|archive-date=1 September 2017|isbn=978-3-642-07285-7|publisher=Springer|year=2003|series=Natural Computing Series}}</ref>

In [[evolutionary developmental biology]], scientists look at how the different processes in development play a role in how a specific organism reaches its current body plan. The genetic regulation of ontogeny and the phylogenetic process is what allows for this kind of understanding of biology. By looking at different processes during development, and going through the evolutionary tree, one can determine at which point a specific structure came about.<ref>Ozernyuk, N.D. (2019) "Evolutionary Developmental Biology: the Interaction of Developmental Biology, Evolutionary Biology, Paleontology, and Genomics". Paleontological Journal, Vol. 53, No. 11, pp. 1117–1133. ISSN 0031-0301.</ref><ref>Gilbert, Scott F., Barresi, Michael J.F.(2016). "Developmental Biology" Sinauer Associates, inc.(11th ed.) pp. 785–810. {{ISBN|9781605354705}}.</ref>

== Research topics ==
Research in evolutionary biology covers many topics and incorporates ideas from diverse areas, such as [[molecular genetics]] and [[mathematical and theoretical biology]]. Some fields of evolutionary research try to explain phenomena that were poorly accounted for in the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]]. These include [[speciation]],<ref>{{cite journal |date=2004 |title=What is speciation and how should we study it? |journal=American Naturalist |volume=163 |issue=6 |pages=914–923 |doi=10.1086/386552 |jstor=10.1086/386552 |author=Wiens, J.J. |pmid=15266388 |bibcode=2004ANat..163..914W |s2cid=15042207 }}</ref><ref>Bernstein, H. et al. Sex and the emergence of species. J Theor Biol. 1985 Dec 21;117(4):665-90. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5193(85)80246-0. PMID 4094459.</ref> the [[evolution of sexual reproduction]],<ref>{{cite journal |date=2009 |title=The evolutionary enigma of sex |journal= American Naturalist |volume=174 |issue=s1 |pages=S1–S14 |doi=10.1086/599084 |author=Otto SP |pmid=19441962 |bibcode=2009ANat..174S...1O |s2cid=9250680 }}</ref><ref>Bernstein, H. et al. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363.</ref> the evolution of [[Co-operation (evolution) |cooperation]], the [[evolution of ageing]],<ref>Avise, J.C. Perspective: The evolutionary biology of aging, sexual reproduction, and DNA repair. Evolution. 1993 Oct;47(5):1293–1301. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02155.x. PMID 28564887.</ref> and [[evolvability]].<ref>{{cite journal |date=2007 |title=Evolvability as the proper focus of evolutionary developmental biology |journal=Evolution & Development |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=393–401 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-142X.2007.00176.x |pmid=17651363 |author=Hendrikse, Jesse Love |author2=Parsons, Trish Elizabeth |author3=Hallgrímsson, Benedikt |s2cid=31540737 }}</ref>

Some evolutionary biologists ask the most straightforward evolutionary question: "what happened and when?". This includes fields such as [[paleobiology]], where paleobiologists and evolutionary biologists, including Thomas Halliday and Anjali Goswami, studied the evolution of early mammals going far back in time during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras (between 299 million to 12,000 years ago).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Halliday |first=Thomas |date=29 June 2016 |title=Eutherians experienced elevated evolutionary rates in the immediate aftermath of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene mass extinction |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=283 |issue=1833 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.3026 |pmid=27358361 |pmc=4936024 |s2cid=4920075 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Halliday |first=Thomas |date=28 March 2016 |title=Eutherian morphological disparity across the end-Cretaceous mass extinction |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=152–168 |doi=10.1111/bij.12731 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other fields related to generic exploration of evolution ("what happened and when?" ) include [[systematics]] and [[phylogenetics]].

The modern evolutionary synthesis was devised at a time when the molecular basis of genes was unknown. Today, evolutionary biologists try to determine the [[genetic architecture]] underlying visible evolutionary phenomena such as [[adaptation]] and speciation. They seek answers to questions such as which genes are involved, how interdependent are the effects of different genes, what do the genes do, and what changes happen to them (e.g., [[point mutations]] vs. [[gene duplication]] or even [[polyploidy |genome duplication]]). They try to reconcile the high [[heritability]] seen in [[twin studies]] with the difficulty in finding which genes are responsible for this heritability using [[genome-wide association studies]].<ref>{{cite journal |date=2009 |title=Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases |journal=Nature |volume=461 |issue=7265 |pages=747–753 |doi=10.1038/nature08494 |author=Manolio, T.A. |display-authors=etal |pmid=19812666 |pmc=2831613 |bibcode=2009Natur.461..747M}}</ref> The modern evolutionary synthesis involved agreement about which forces contribute to evolution, but not about their relative importance.<ref>{{cite book |date=1988 | title=Evolutionary progress |chapter=Progress in evolution and meaning in life | pages=49–79 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |author=Provine, W.B.}}</ref>

== Journals ==
Some [[scientific journal]]s specialise exclusively in evolutionary biology as a whole, including the journals ''[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]]'', ''[[Journal of Evolutionary Biology]]'', and ''[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]]''. Some journals cover sub-specialties within evolutionary biology, such as the journals ''[[Systematic Biology]]'', ''[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]]'' and its sister journal ''Genome Biology and Evolution'', and ''[[Cladistics (journal)|Cladistics]]''.

Other journals combine aspects of evolutionary biology with other related fields. For example, ''[[Molecular Ecology]]'', ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society#Proceedings of the Royal Society B|Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B]]'', ''[[The American Naturalist]]'' and ''[[Theoretical Population Biology]]'' have overlap with ecology and other aspects of organismal biology. Overlap with ecology is also prominent in the review journals ''[[Trends in Ecology and Evolution]]'' and ''[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]]''. The journals ''[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]]'' and ''[[PLoS Genetics]]'' overlap with molecular genetics questions that are not obviously evolutionary in nature.

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''
* [[Comparative anatomy]] <!-- OK, but items like this really ought to be woven into the main text above. -->
* [[Computational phylogenetics]]
* [[Evolutionary anachronism]]
* [[Evolutionary computation]]
* [[Evolutionary dynamics]]
* [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]
* [[Evolutionary physiology]]
* [[Macroevolution]]
* [[Phylogenetic comparative methods]]
* [[Quantitative genetics]]
* [[Selective breeding]]
* [[Speculative evolution]]
* [[Taxonomy (biology)]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/Evolution-of-seed-plants-and-plant-communities Evolution and Paleobotany] at the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

{{Evolution}}
{{Branches of biology}}
{{Biology nav}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Portal bar|Biology|Evolutionary biology}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Evolutionary Biology}}

[[Category:Evolutionary biology| ]]
[[Category:Philosophy of biology]]