View source for Exercise

{{Short description|Physical activity that improves health}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{redirect-multi|1|Workout|other uses|Exercise (disambiguation)|and|Workout (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Cycling in Amsterdam (893).jpg|thumb|Cycling is a popular form of exercise.]]
[[File:BCRL.jpg|thumb|[[Weight training]]|220x220px]]

'''Exercise''' or '''working out''' is [[physical activity]] that enhances or maintains [[Physical fitness|fitness]] and overall [[health]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors= Kylasov A, Gavrov S| year = 2011 | title = Diversity Of Sport: non-destructive evaluation| location = Paris| publisher = UNESCO: Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems|pages = 462–91|isbn = 978-5-89317-227-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Exercised |date=2020 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BS6OEAAAQBAJ |last=Liberman |first=Daniel |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0-593-29539-7 |author-link1=Daniel Liberman }}</ref> It is performed for various reasons, including [[weight loss]] or maintenance, to aid growth and improve strength, develop [[muscle]]s and the [[cardiovascular system]], hone [[sport|athletic]] skills, improve health,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/exercise/art-20048389|title=7 great reasons why exercise matters|work=Mayo Clinic|access-date=2 November 2018|language=en}}</ref> or simply for enjoyment. Many people choose to [[Outdoor fitness|exercise outdoors]] where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve [[well-being]] as well as [[mental health]].<ref name="Fitness for Foreigners">{{cite web| vauthors = Bergstrom K, Muse T, Tsai M, Strangio S |date=19 January 2011|title=Fitness for Foreigners |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/fitness/2011/01/fitness_for_foreigners.html|access-date=5 December 2016|work=Slate}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deslandes A, Moraes H, Ferreira C, Veiga H, Silveira H, Mouta R, Pompeu FA, Coutinho ES, Laks J | display-authors = 6 | title = Exercise and mental health: many reasons to move | journal = Neuropsychobiology | volume = 59 | issue = 4 | pages = 191–198 |year = 2009 | pmid = 19521110 | doi = 10.1159/000223730 | s2cid = 14580554 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In terms of health benefits, usually, 150 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes) of moderate-intensity exercise per week is recommended for reducing the risk of health problems.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-01-25 |title=Physical activity guidelines for adults aged 19 to 64 |url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/exercise-guidelines/physical-activity-guidelines-for-adults-aged-19-to-64/ |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=NHS |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-22 |title=How much physical activity do adults need? |url=https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/adults/index.htm |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Physical activity |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=WHO |language=en}}</ref> At the same time, even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none. Only doing an hour and a quarter (11 minutes/day) of exercise could reduce the risk of early death, [[cardiovascular disease]], [[stroke]], and [[cancer]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023-08-14 |title=Small amounts of exercise protect against early death, heart disease and cancer |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/small-amounts-of-exercise-protect-against-early-death-heart-disease-and-cancer/ |journal=NIHR Evidence |type=Plain English summary |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Research |doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_59256|s2cid=260908783 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|display-authors=3 |last1=Garcia |first1=Leandro |last2=Pearce |first2=Matthew |last3=Abbas |first3=Ali |last4=Mok |first4=Alexander |last5=Strain |first5=Tessa |last6=Ali |first6=Sara |last7=Crippa |first7=Alessio |last8=Dempsey |first8=Paddy C |last9=Golubic |first9=Rajna |last10=Kelly |first10=Paul |last11=Laird |first11=Yvonne |last12=McNamara |first12=Eoin |last13=Moore |first13=Samuel |last14=de Sa |first14=Thiago Herick |last15=Smith |first15=Andrea D |date=2023-02-28 |title=Non-occupational physical activity and risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer and mortality outcomes: a dose–response meta-analysis of large prospective studies |journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine |language=en |volume=57 |issue=15 |pages=979–989 |doi=10.1136/bjsports-2022-105669 |issn=0306-3674 |pmc=10423495 |pmid=36854652}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Classification ==

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:<ref name="phy_active">{{Cite web
| author = ((National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute))
| title = Your Guide to Physical Activity and Your Heart
| publisher = U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
| date = June 2006
|url = https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/public/heart/phy_active.pdf}}</ref>
* [[Aerobic exercise]] is any [[physical activity]] that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more [[oxygen]] than it would while resting.<ref name="phy_active" /> The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase [[cardiovascular]] [[endurance]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilmore JH | title = Aerobic exercise and endurance: improving fitness for health benefits | journal = The Physician and Sportsmedicine | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 45–51 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 20086470 | doi = 10.3810/psm.2003.05.367 | s2cid = 2253889 }}</ref> Examples of aerobic exercise include running, cycling, swimming, brisk [[walking]], [[skipping rope]], [[rowing (sports)|rowing]], hiking, dancing, playing tennis, [[continuous training]], and [[long slow distance|long distance]] running.<ref name="phy_active" />
* [[Anaerobic exercise]], which includes [[Strength training|strength]] and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and increase muscle mass, as well as improve bone density, [[Balance (ability)|balance]], and [[Motor coordination|coordination]].<ref name="phy_active" /> Examples of strength exercises are [[push-ups]], [[Pull-up (exercise)|pull-ups]], [[Lunge (exercise)|lunges]], squats, bench press. Anaerobic exercise also includes [[weight training]], [[functional training]], [[Eccentric Training]], [[interval training]], [[Sprint (running)|sprinting]], and [[high-intensity interval training]] which increase short-term muscle strength.<ref name="phy_active" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Vos NJ, Singh NA, Ross DA, Stavrinos TM, Orr R, Fiatarone Singh MA | title = Optimal load for increasing muscle power during explosive resistance training in older adults | journal = The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences | volume = 60 | issue = 5 | pages = 638–647 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15972618 | doi = 10.1093/gerona/60.5.638 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Flexibility (anatomy)|Flexibility]] exercises stretch and lengthen [[muscle]]s.<ref name="phy_active" /> Activities such as [[stretching]] help to improve [[joint]] flexibility and keep muscles limber.<ref name="phy_active" /> The goal is to improve the [[range of motion]] which can reduce the chance of injury.<ref name="phy_active" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Connor DM, Crowe MJ, Spinks WL | title = Effects of static stretching on leg power during cycling | journal = The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 52–56 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16596099 }}</ref>

Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on [[accuracy]], [[Sport agility|agility]], [[human power|power]], and [[speed]].<ref name="crossfit">{{cite web |url = http://library.crossfit.com/free/pdf/CFJ-trial.pdf| access-date = 12 September 2010 | title= What Is Fitness? | page = 4 | date = October 2002 | publisher = The CrossFit Journal}}</ref>

Types of exercise can also be classified as dynamic or static. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the [[diastole|diastolic]] blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the [[systole (medicine)|systolic]] pressure to rise significantly, albeit transiently, during the performance of the exercise.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Souza Nery S, Gomides RS, da Silva GV, de Moraes Forjaz CL, Mion D, Tinucci T | title = Intra-arterial blood pressure response in hypertensive subjects during low- and high-intensity resistance exercise | journal = Clinics | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 271–277 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20360917 | pmc = 2845767 | doi = 10.1590/S1807-59322010000300006 }}</ref>

== Health effects ==
{{Main|Exercise physiology}}
[[File:Effects of exercise on the organ systems of the body (cropped).jpg|thumb|Exercise affects many organs.]]

Physical exercise is important for maintaining [[physical fitness]] and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating the digestive system, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gremeaux V, Gayda M, Lepers R, Sosner P, Juneau M, Nigam A | title = Exercise and longevity | journal = Maturitas | volume = 73 | issue = 4 | pages = 312–317 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23063021 | doi = 10.1016/j.maturitas.2012.09.012 }}</ref> People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Physical Activity and Health|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZZPc1FmL7QC&pg=PA3|journal=United States Department of Health|isbn=978-1-4289-2794-0| author = United States Department Of Health And Human Services |year=1996}}</ref> Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Woods JA, Wilund KR, Martin SA, Kistler BM | title = Exercise, inflammation and aging | journal = Aging and Disease | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 130–140 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22500274 | pmc = 3320801 }}</ref> The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 [[metabolic equivalent]] (MET) minutes per week, with diminishing returns at higher levels of activity.<ref name=BMJ2016 /> For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would ''together'' achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week.<ref name=BMJ2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kyu HH, Bachman VF, Alexander LT, Mumford JE, Afshin A, Estep K, Veerman JL, Delwiche K, Iannarone ML, Moyer ML, Cercy K, Vos T, Murray CJ, Forouzanfar MH | display-authors = 6 | title = Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 | journal = BMJ | volume = 354 | article-number = i3857 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27510511 | pmc = 4979358 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i3857 }}</ref> A lack of [[physical activity]] causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer, and 10% of colon cancer worldwide.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN, Katzmarzyk PT | title = Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9838 | pages = 219–229 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22818936 | pmc = 3645500 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9 }}</ref> Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.<ref name=":2" />

The American-British writer [[Bill Bryson]] wrote: "If someone invented a pill that could do for us all that a moderate amount of exercise achieves, it would instantly become the most successful drug in history."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryson |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Bryson |title=[[The Body: A Guide for Occupants]] |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-85752-240-5}}</ref>

=== Fitness ===
{{Main|Physical fitness}}
Most people can increase fitness by increasing [[physical activity]] levels.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Neil-Sztramko SE, Caldwell H, Dobbins M | title = School-based physical activity programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents aged 6 to 18 | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2021 | issue = 9 | article-number = CD007651 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34555181 | pmc = 8459921 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007651.pub3 }}</ref> Increases in muscle size from resistance training are primarily determined by diet and testosterone.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hubal MJ, Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, Price TB, Hoffman EP, Angelopoulos TJ, Gordon PM, Moyna NM, Pescatello LS, Visich PS, Zoeller RF, Seip RL, Clarkson PM | display-authors = 3 | title = Variability in muscle size and strength gain after unilateral resistance training | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 37 | issue = 6 | pages = 964–972 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15947721 }}</ref> This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brutsaert TD, Parra EJ | title = What makes a champion? Explaining variation in human athletic performance | journal = Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology | volume = 151 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 109–123 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16448865 | doi = 10.1016/j.resp.2005.12.013 | s2cid = 13711090 }}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name="newsci_geddes">{{cite magazine| vauthors = Geddes L | title = Superhuman| pages = 35–41| magazine = New Scientist| date = 28 July 2007}}</ref> There is evidence that exercising in [[middle age]] may lead to better physical ability later in life.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.medicineonline.com/news/12/10297/Being-active-combats-risk-of-functional-problems.html | title=Being active combats risk of functional problems}}</ref>

Early motor skills and development is also related to physical activity and performance later in life. Children who are more proficient with motor skills early on are more inclined to be physically active, and thus tend to perform well in sports and have better fitness levels. Early motor proficiency has a positive correlation to childhood physical activity and fitness levels, while less proficiency in motor skills results in a more sedentary lifestyle.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wrotniak BH, Epstein LH, Dorn JM, Jones KE, Kondilis VA | title = The relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity in children | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 118 | issue = 6 | pages = e1758–e1765 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17142498 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-0742 | s2cid = 41653923 }}</ref>

The type and intensity of physical activity performed may have an effect on a person's fitness level. There is some weak evidence that [[high-intensity interval training]] may improve a person's [[VO2 max]] slightly more than lower intensity endurance training.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Milanović Z, Sporiš G, Weston M | title = Effectiveness of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIT) and Continuous Endurance Training for VO2max Improvements: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Controlled Trials | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 45 | issue = 10 | pages = 1469–1481 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26243014 | doi = 10.1007/s40279-015-0365-0 | s2cid = 41092016 | url = https://research.tees.ac.uk/ws/files/6460688/561180.pdf }}</ref> However, unscientific fitness methods could lead to sports injuries.{{source needed|date=October 2024}}

=== Cardiovascular system ===
{{Main|Cardiovascular fitness}}
[[File:Central (cardiovascular) and peripheral (skeletal muscle) adaptations to exercise training.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Central (cardiovascular) and peripheral (skeletal muscle) adaptations to exercise training]]
The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of [[coronary artery disease]]. Low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS | title = Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence | journal = CMAJ | volume = 174 | issue = 6 | pages = 801–809 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16534088 | pmc = 1402378 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.051351 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="aha2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/PhysicalActivity/FitnessBasics/American-Heart-Association-Recommendations-for-Physical-Activity-in-Adults_UCM_307976_Article.jsp|title=American Heart Association Recommendations for Physical Activity in Adults|publisher=American Heart Association|date=14 December 2017|access-date=5 May 2018}}</ref>

Children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lumeng JC | title = Small-group physical education classes result in important health benefits | journal = The Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 148 | issue = 3 | pages = 418–419 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 17243298 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.02.025 }}</ref> Studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahaneku JE, Nwosu CM, Ahaneku GI | title = Academic stress and cardiovascular health | journal = Academic Medicine | volume = 75 | issue = 6 | pages = 567–568 | date = June 2000 | pmid = 10875499 | doi = 10.1097/00001888-200006000-00002 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

There is a dose-response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately {{nowrap|700–2000}}&nbsp;[[kcal]] of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly men. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is seen in sedentary individuals who become moderately active.

Studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles.

The most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40–60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). After a myocardial infarction, survivors who changed their lifestyle to include regular exercise had higher survival rates. Sedentary people are most at risk for mortality from cardiovascular and all other causes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fletcher GF, Balady G, Blair SN, Blumenthal J, Caspersen C, Chaitman B, Epstein S, Sivarajan Froelicher ES, Froelicher VF, Pina IL, Pollock ML | display-authors = 6 | title = Statement on exercise: benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans. A statement for health professionals by the Committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association | journal = Circulation | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 857–862 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8772712 | doi = 10.1161/01.CIR.94.4.857 | s2cid = 2392781 }}</ref> According to the [[American Heart Association]], exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke.<ref name=aha2017 />

Some have suggested that increases in physical exercise might decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reed JL, Prince SA, Cole CA, Fodor JG, Hiremath S, Mullen KA, Tulloch HE, Wright E, Reid RD | display-authors = 6 | title = Workplace physical activity interventions and moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity levels among working-age women: a systematic review protocol | journal = Systematic Reviews | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | article-number = 147 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25526769 | pmc = 4290810 | doi = 10.1186/2046-4053-3-147 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Immune system ===
Although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the [[immune system]], there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness.<ref name="Gleeson2007" /> [[Epidemiology|Epidemiological]] evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human [[immune system]]; an effect which is modeled in a [[J curve]]. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of [[upper respiratory tract infection]]s (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence.<ref name="Gleeson2007" /> However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. Studies have shown that strenuous stress for long durations, such as training for a marathon, can suppress the immune system by decreasing the concentration of lymphocytes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brolinson PG, Elliott D | title = Exercise and the immune system | journal = Clinics in Sports Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 311–319 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17826186 | doi = 10.1097/01893697-200220010-00013 | s2cid = 91074779 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have a slightly elevated [[natural killer cell]] count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.<ref name=Gleeson2007>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gleeson M | title = Immune function in sport and exercise | journal = Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 103 | issue = 2 | pages = 693–699 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17303714 | doi = 10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007 | s2cid = 18112931 }}</ref>

Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with a lower incidence of [[upper respiratory tract infection]]s in marathon runners.<ref name=Gleeson2007 />

[[Biomarker]]s of [[inflammation]] such as [[C-reactive protein]], which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. In individuals with heart disease, exercise interventions lower blood levels of fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, an important cardiovascular risk marker.<ref name=Swardfager2012>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swardfager W, Herrmann N, Cornish S, Mazereeuw G, Marzolini S, Sham L, Lanctôt KL | title = Exercise intervention and inflammatory markers in coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis | journal = American Heart Journal | volume = 163 | issue = 4 | pages = 666–676 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22520533 | doi = 10.1016/j.ahj.2011.12.017 }}</ref> The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.<ref name=Gleeson2007 />

=== Cancer ===
A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, "[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer–specific, and colon cancer–specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ballard-Barbash R, Friedenreich CM, Courneya KS, Siddiqi SM, McTiernan A, Alfano CM | title = Physical activity, biomarkers, and disease outcomes in cancer survivors: a systematic review | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 104 | issue = 11 | pages = 815–840 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22570317 | pmc = 3465697 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djs207 }}</ref> Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mishra SI, Scherer RW, Geigle PM, Berlanstein DR, Topaloglu O, Gotay CC, Snyder C | title = Exercise interventions on health-related quality of life for cancer survivors | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 8 | article-number = CD007566 | date = August 2012 | volume = 2012 | pmid = 22895961 | pmc = 7387117 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd007566.pub2 }}</ref> For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mishra SI, Scherer RW, Snyder C, Geigle PM, Berlanstein DR, Topaloglu O | title = Exercise interventions on health-related quality of life for people with cancer during active treatment | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 8 | article-number = CD008465 | date = August 2012 | volume = 2012 | pmid = 22895974 | pmc = 7389071 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd008465.pub2 }}</ref> This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise.<ref name=":1" />

Exercise may contribute to a reduction of [[cancer-related fatigue]] in survivors of breast cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meneses-Echávez JF, González-Jiménez E, Ramírez-Vélez R | title = Effects of supervised exercise on cancer-related fatigue in breast cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = BMC Cancer | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | article-number = 77 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25885168 | pmc = 4364505 | doi = 10.1186/s12885-015-1069-4 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with [[cancer cachexia]] are encouraged to engage in physical exercise.<ref name="pmid26401466">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grande AJ, Silva V, Maddocks M | title = Exercise for cancer cachexia in adults: Executive summary of a Cochrane Collaboration systematic review | journal = Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 208–211 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26401466 | pmc = 4575551 | doi = 10.1002/jcsm.12055 }}</ref> Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise.<ref name="pmid29891116">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sadeghi M, Keshavarz-Fathi M, Baracos V, Arends J, Mahmoudi M, Rezaei N | title = Cancer cachexia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment | journal = Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology | volume = 127 | pages = 91–104 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29891116 | doi = 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2018.05.006 | s2cid = 48363786 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29440149" /> [[Compliance (medicine)|Compliance]] with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often have high drop-out rates.<ref name="pmid29891116" /><ref name="pmid29440149">{{cite journal | vauthors = Solheim TS, Laird BJ, Balstad TR, Bye A, Stene G, Baracos V, Strasser F, Griffiths G, Maddocks M, Fallon M, Kaasa S, Fearon K | display-authors = 6 | title = Cancer cachexia: rationale for the MENAC (Multimodal-Exercise, Nutrition and Anti-inflammatory medication for Cachexia) trial | journal = BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 258–265 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29440149 | doi = 10.1136/bmjspcare-2017-001440 | s2cid = 3318359 | url = https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/cancer-cachexia(f73c13f1-e977-4b2a-aba8-37bb16aa4a79).html | hdl = 10852/73081 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

There is low-quality evidence for an effect of aerobic physical exercises on anxiety and serious adverse events in adults with [[Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues|hematological malignancies]].<ref name=":3" /> Aerobic physical exercise may result in little to no difference in the mortality, quality of life, or physical functioning.<ref name=":3" /> These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and reduction in fatigue.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Knips L, Bergenthal N, Streckmann F, Monsef I, Elter T, Skoetz N | title = Aerobic physical exercise for adult patients with haematological malignancies | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | article-number = CD009075 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30702150 | pmc = 6354325 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009075.pub3 | collaboration = Cochrane Hematological Malignancies Group }}</ref>

=== Neurobiological{{anchor|Brain function}} ===
{{Excerpt|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise}}

==== Depression ====
{{Excerpt|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|Major depressive disorder|quote=yes}}

Continuous aerobic exercise can induce a transient state of [[euphoria]], colloquially known as a "runner's high" in [[distance running]] or a "rower's high" in [[Rowing (sport)|crew]], through the increased biosynthesis of at least three [[euphoriant]] neurochemicals: [[anandamide]] (an [[endocannabinoid]]),<ref name="endocannabinoids">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tantimonaco M, Ceci R, Sabatini S, Catani MV, Rossi A, Gasperi V, Maccarrone M | title = Physical activity and the endocannabinoid system: an overview | journal = Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume = 71 | issue = 14 | pages = 2681–2698 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24526057 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-014-1575-6 | s2cid = 14531019 | pmc = 11113821 }}</ref> [[β-endorphin]] (an [[endogenous opioid]]),<ref name="Endorphin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinas PC, Koutedakis Y, Flouris AD | title = Effects of exercise and physical activity on depression | journal = Irish Journal of Medical Science | volume = 180 | issue = 2 | pages = 319–325 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21076975 | doi = 10.1007/s11845-010-0633-9 | s2cid = 40951545 }}</ref> and [[phenethylamine]] (a [[trace amine]] and [[amphetamine]] analog).<ref name="PEA exercise primary">{{cite journal | vauthors = Szabo A, Billett E, Turner J | title = Phenylethylamine, a possible link to the antidepressant effects of exercise? | journal = British Journal of Sports Medicine | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages = 342–343 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11579070 | pmc = 1724404 | doi = 10.1136/bjsm.35.5.342 }}</ref><ref name="Renaissance">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindemann L, Hoener MC | title = A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family | journal = Trends in Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 274–281 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15860375 | doi = 10.1016/j.tips.2005.03.007 }}</ref><ref name="Neuropsychiatric">{{cite journal | vauthors = Berry MD | title = The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases | journal = Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–19 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 18473983 | doi = 10.2174/157488707779318107 | s2cid = 7127324 }}</ref>

==== Concussion ====
Supervised aerobic exercise without a risk of re-injury (falling, getting hit on the head) is prescribed as treatment for acute concussion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=De Luigi |first1=Arthur J. |last2=Bell |first2=Kathleen R. |last3=Bramhall |first3=Joe P. |last4=Choe |first4=Meeryo |last5=Dec |first5=Katherine |last6=Finnoff |first6=Jonathan T. |last7=Halstead |first7=Mark |last8=Herring |first8=Stanley A. |last9=Matuszak |first9=Jason |last10=Raksin |first10=P. B. |last11=Swanson |first11=Jennifer |last12=Millett |first12=Carolyn |date=2023 |title=Consensus statement: An evidence-based review of exercise, rehabilitation, rest, and return to activity protocols for the treatment of concussion and mild traumatic brain injury |journal=PM&R |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1605–1642 |doi=10.1002/pmrj.13070 |issn=1934-1563 |pmid=37794736}}</ref> Some exercise interventions may also prevent sport-related concussion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ivanic |first1=Branimir |last2=Cronström |first2=Anna |last3=Johansson |first3=Kajsa |last4=Ageberg |first4=Eva |date=2024-09-06 |title=Efficacy of exercise interventions on prevention of sport-related concussion and related outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine |volume=58 |issue=23 |pages=bjsports–2024–108260 |doi=10.1136/bjsports-2024-108260 |issn=1473-0480 |pmid=39242177|pmc=11672061 }}</ref>

=== Sleep ===
Preliminary evidence from a 2012 review indicated that physical training for up to four months may increase sleep quality in adults over 40 years of age.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang PY, Ho KH, Chen HC, Chien MY | title = Exercise training improves sleep quality in middle-aged and older adults with sleep problems: a systematic review | journal = Journal of Physiotherapy | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 157–163 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22884182 | doi = 10.1016/S1836-9553(12)70106-6 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2010 review suggested that exercise generally improved [[sleep]] for most people, and may help with [[insomnia]], but there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buman MP, King AC | year = 2010 | title = Exercise as a Treatment to Enhance Sleep | journal = American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine | volume = 31 | issue = 5| page = 514 | doi= 10.1177/1559827610375532 |s2cid=73314918 }}</ref> A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that exercise can improve sleep quality in people with insomnia.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Banno M, Harada Y, Taniguchi M, Tobita R, Tsujimoto H, Tsujimoto Y, Kataoka Y, Noda A | display-authors = 6 | title = Exercise can improve sleep quality: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = PeerJ | volume = 6 | article-number = e5172 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30018855 | pmc = 6045928 | doi = 10.7717/peerj.5172 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Libido ===
One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lorenz TA, Meston CM | title = Acute exercise improves physical sexual arousal in women taking antidepressants | journal = Annals of Behavioral Medicine | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 352–361 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22403029 | pmc = 3422071 | doi = 10.1007/s12160-011-9338-1 }}</ref>

=== Respiratory system ===
People who participate in physical exercise experience increased cardiovascular fitness.{{medical citation needed|date=May 2022}}
There is some level of concern about additional exposure to air pollution when [[Outdoor fitness|exercising outdoors]], especially near traffic.<ref name="Laeremans et al. 2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Laeremans M, Dons E, Avila-Palencia I, Carrasco-Turigas G, Orjuela-Mendoza JP, Anaya-Boig E, Cole-Hunter T, DE Nazelle A, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Standaert A, VAN Poppel M, DE Boever P, Int Panis L | display-authors = 6 | title = Black Carbon Reduces the Beneficial Effect of Physical Activity on Lung Function | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 50 | issue = 9 | pages = 1875–1881 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29634643 | doi = 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001632 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 207183760 | hdl = 10044/1/63478 }}</ref>

== Mechanism of effects ==

=== Skeletal muscle ===
{{main|Skeletal muscle}}
Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes [[muscle hypertrophy]] and gains in [[muscle strength]] by stimulating [[myofibrillar]] muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB).<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Muscle hypertrophy review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips SM | title = A brief review of critical processes in exercise-induced muscular hypertrophy | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 44 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S71–S77 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24791918 | pmc = 4008813 | doi = 10.1007/s40279-014-0152-3 }}</ref> The stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by resistance training occurs via [[phosphorylation]] of the [[mechanistic target of rapamycin]] (mTOR) and subsequent activation of [[mTORC1]], which leads to [[protein biosynthesis]] in cellular [[ribosome]]s via phosphorylation of mTORC1's immediate targets (the [[p70S6 kinase]] and the [[protein translation|translation]] repressor protein [[4EBP1]]).<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Molecular Aspects of Medicine 2016 review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brioche T, Pagano AF, Py G, Chopard A | title = Muscle wasting and aging: Experimental models, fatty infiltrations, and prevention | journal = Molecular Aspects of Medicine | volume = 50 | pages = 56–87 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27106402 | doi = 10.1016/j.mam.2016.04.006 | s2cid = 29717535 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01837630/file/2016_Brioche_MAM_1.pdf }}</ref> The suppression of muscle protein breakdown following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in [[blood plasma|plasma]] [[insulin]].<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="HMB in vivo human pharmacodynamics" /><ref name="Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of HMB-CA in humans in vivo" /> Similarly, increased muscle protein synthesis (via activation of mTORC1) and suppressed muscle protein breakdown (via insulin-independent mechanisms) has also been shown to occur following ingestion of [[β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid]].<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="HMB in vivo human pharmacodynamics">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilkinson DJ, Hossain T, Hill DS, Phillips BE, Crossland H, Williams J, Loughna P, Churchward-Venne TA, Breen L, Phillips SM, Etheridge T, Rathmacher JA, Smith K, Szewczyk NJ, Atherton PJ | display-authors = 3 | title = Effects of leucine and its metabolite β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate on human skeletal muscle protein metabolism | journal = The Journal of Physiology | volume = 591 | issue = 11 | pages = 2911–2923 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23551944 | pmc = 3690694 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.253203 }}</ref><ref name="Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of HMB-CA in humans in vivo">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilkinson DJ, Hossain T, Limb MC, Phillips BE, Lund J, Williams JP, Brook MS, Cegielski J, Philp A, Ashcroft S, Rathmacher JA, Szewczyk NJ, Smith K, Atherton PJ | display-authors = 3 | title = Impact of the calcium form of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate upon human skeletal muscle protein metabolism | journal = Clinical Nutrition | volume = 37 | issue = 6 Pt A | pages = 2068–2075 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 29097038 | pmc = 6295980 | doi = 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.09.024 | quote =}}</ref><ref name="Sarcopenia July 2015 review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips SM | title = Nutritional supplements in support of resistance exercise to counter age-related sarcopenia | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 452–460 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26178029 | pmc = 4496741 | doi = 10.3945/an.115.008367 }}</ref>

Aerobic exercise induces [[mitochondrial biogenesis]] and an increased capacity for [[oxidative phosphorylation]] in the [[mitochondria]] of skeletal muscle, which is one mechanism by which aerobic exercise enhances submaximal endurance performance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wibom R, Hultman E, Johansson M, Matherei K, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Schantz PG | title = Adaptation of mitochondrial ATP production in human skeletal muscle to endurance training and detraining | journal = Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 73 | issue = 5 | pages = 2004–2010 | date = November 1992 | pmid = 1474078 | doi = 10.1152/jappl.1992.73.5.2004 | url = http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:gih:diva-184 }}</ref><ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Aerobic exercise – mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS capacity" /> These effects occur via an exercise-induced increase in the intracellular [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]]:[[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] ratio, thereby triggering the activation of [[AMP-activated protein kinase]] (AMPK) which subsequently phosphorylates [[PGC-1α|peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α]] (PGC-1α), the [[master regulator]] of mitochondrial biogenesis.<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Aerobic exercise – mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS capacity">{{cite journal | vauthors = Boushel R, Lundby C, Qvortrup K, Sahlin K | title = Mitochondrial plasticity with exercise training and extreme environments | journal = Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 169–174 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25062000 | doi = 10.1249/JES.0000000000000025 | s2cid = 39267910 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Mitochondrial biogenesis">{{cite journal | vauthors = Valero T | title = Mitochondrial biogenesis: pharmacological approaches | journal = Current Pharmaceutical Design | volume = 20 | issue = 35 | pages = 5507–5509 |year = 2014 | pmid = 24606795 | doi = 10.2174/138161282035140911142118 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 10454/13341 }}</ref>
{{multiple image
<!-- Layout parameters -->
 | align = center
 | direction = horizontal
 | total_width = 800
<!-- Header -->
 | header_align = <!-- center (default), left, right -->
 | header =
<!--image 1-->
 | image1 = Muscle protein synthesis signaling cascades.jpg
 | alt1 = Signaling cascade diagram
 | width1 = 619
 | height1 = 347
 | caption1 = Diagram of the molecular [[signaling cascade]]s that are involved in [[myofibrillar]] muscle protein synthesis and [[mitochondrial biogenesis]] in response to physical exercise and specific [[amino acid]]s or their derivatives (primarily [[leucine|{{nowrap|{{smallcaps all|L}}-leucine}}]] and [[Beta-Hydroxy beta-methylbutyric acid|HMB]]).<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brook MS, Wilkinson DJ, Phillips BE, Perez-Schindler J, Philp A, Smith K, Atherton PJ | title = Skeletal muscle homeostasis and plasticity in youth and ageing: impact of nutrition and exercise | journal = Acta Physiologica | volume = 216 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–41 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26010896 | pmc = 4843955 | doi = 10.1111/apha.12532 }}</ref> Many amino acids derived from food protein promote the activation of [[mTORC1]] and increase [[protein translation|protein synthesis]] by [[signal transduction|signaling]] through [[Rag GTPase]]s.<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="The neurology of mTOR">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lipton JO, Sahin M | title = The neurology of mTOR | journal = Neuron | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 275–291 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25374355 | pmc = 4223653 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.09.034 }}<br />[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4223653/figure/F2/ Figure 2: The mTOR Signaling Pathway]</ref><br />{{hidden|Abbreviations and representations|{{bull}}PLD: [[phospholipase D]]<br />{{bull}}PA: [[phosphatidic acid]]<br />{{bull}}mTOR: [[mechanistic target of rapamycin]]<br />{{bull}}AMP: [[adenosine monophosphate]]<br />{{bull}}ATP: [[adenosine triphosphate]]<br />{{bull}}AMPK: [[AMP-activated protein kinase]]<br />{{bull}}PGC-1α: [[PGC-1α|peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α]]<br />{{bull}}S6K1: [[p70S6 kinase]]<br />{{bull}}4EBP1: [[EIF4EBP1|eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1]]<br />{{bull}}eIF4E: [[eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E]]<br />{{bull}}RPS6: [[ribosomal protein S6]]<br />{{bull}}eEF2: [[eukaryotic elongation factor 2]]<br />{{bull}}RE: resistance exercise; EE: endurance exercise<br />{{bull}}Myo: [[myofibrillar]]; Mito: [[mitochondria]]l<br />{{bull}}AA: [[amino acid]]s<br />{{bull}}HMB: [[β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid]]<br />{{bull}}↑ represents activation<br />{{bull}}Τ represents inhibition | headerstyle=background:#ccccff | style=text-align:center; }}
<!--image 2-->
 | image2 = Resistance exercise-induced muscle protein synthesis.jpg
 | alt2 = Graph of muscle protein synthesis vs time
 | width2 = 387
 | height2 = 221
 | caption2 = Resistance training stimulates muscle protein synthesis (MPS) for a period of up to 48&nbsp;hours following exercise (shown by dotted line).<ref name="Muscle hypertrophy review" /> Ingestion of a protein-rich meal at any point during this period will augment the exercise-induced increase in muscle protein synthesis (shown by solid lines).<ref name="Muscle hypertrophy review" />
}}

=== Other peripheral organs ===
[[File:Aerobic Anaerobic Exercise Adaptations.jpg|400px|thumb|Summary of long-term adaptations to regular aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise can cause several central cardiovascular adaptations, including an increase in [[stroke volume]] (SV)<ref name=Exercise_SV>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang E, Næss MS, Hoff J, Albert TL, Pham Q, Richardson RS, Helgerud J | title = Exercise-training-induced changes in metabolic capacity with age: the role of central cardiovascular plasticity | journal = Age | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 665–676 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24243396 | pmc = 4039249 | doi = 10.1007/s11357-013-9596-x }}</ref> and maximal aerobic capacity ([[VO2 max|VO<sub>2</sub> max]]),<ref name=Exercise_SV /><ref name=AerobicMotorCapability>{{cite journal | vauthors = Potempa K, Lopez M, Braun LT, Szidon JP, Fogg L, Tincknell T | title = Physiological outcomes of aerobic exercise training in hemiparetic stroke patients | journal = Stroke | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–105 | date = January 1995 | pmid = 7839377 | doi = 10.1161/01.str.26.1.101 }}</ref> as well as a decrease in [[resting heart rate]] (RHR).<ref name=Exercise_RHR1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilmore JH, Stanforth PR, Gagnon J, Leon AS, Rao DC, Skinner JS, Bouchard C | title = Endurance exercise training has a minimal effect on resting heart rate: the Heritage Study | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 28 | issue = 7 | pages = 829–835 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8832536 | doi = 10.1097/00005768-199607000-00009 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=Exercise_RHR2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carter JB, Banister EW, Blaber AP | title = Effect of endurance exercise on autonomic control of heart rate | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–46 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12477376 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-200333010-00003 | s2cid = 40393053 }}</ref><ref name=Exercise_RHR3>{{cite journal| vauthors = Chen CY, Dicarlo SE |title=Endurance exercise training-induced resting Bradycardia: A brief review|journal=Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation|date=January 1998|volume=8|issue=1|pages=37–77|doi=10.1080/15438629709512518}}</ref> Long-term adaptations to resistance training, the most common form of anaerobic exercise, include [[muscular hypertrophy]],<ref name=Exercise_Hypertrophy>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crewther BT, Heke TL, Keogh JW | title = The effects of a resistance-training program on strength, body composition and baseline hormones in male athletes training concurrently for rugby union 7's | journal = The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–41 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23470909 }}</ref><ref name=Exercise_Hypertrophy2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoenfeld BJ | title = Postexercise hypertrophic adaptations: a reexamination of the hormone hypothesis and its applicability to resistance training program design | journal = Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | volume = 27 | issue = 6 | pages = 1720–1730 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23442269 | doi = 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31828ddd53 | s2cid = 25068522 | doi-access = free }}</ref> an increase in the [[physiological cross-sectional area]] (PCSA) of muscle(s), and an increase in [[neural drive]],<ref name=Exercise_Neuraldrive>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dalgas U, Stenager E, Lund C, Rasmussen C, Petersen T, Sørensen H, Ingemann-Hansen T, Overgaard K | display-authors = 6 | title = Neural drive increases following resistance training in patients with multiple sclerosis | journal = Journal of Neurology | volume = 260 | issue = 7 | pages = 1822–1832 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23483214 | doi = 10.1007/s00415-013-6884-4 | s2cid = 848583 }}</ref><ref name=AnaerobicStrength>{{cite journal | vauthors = Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, Fry AC, Gordon SE, Falkel JE, Hagerman FC, Hikida RS | display-authors = 3 | title = Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women | journal = Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 76 | issue = 3 | pages = 1247–1255 | date = March 1994 | pmid = 8005869 | doi = 10.1152/jappl.1994.76.3.1247 | s2cid = 24328546 }}</ref> both of which lead to increased [[muscular strength]].<ref name=Exercise_MuscularStrength>{{cite journal | vauthors = Folland JP, Williams AG | title = The adaptations to strength training: morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–168 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17241104 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-200737020-00004 | s2cid = 9070800 }}</ref> Neural adaptations begin more quickly and plateau prior to the hypertrophic response.<ref name=NeuralvsHypertrophy1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Moritani T, deVries HA | title = Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time course of muscle strength gain | journal = American Journal of Physical Medicine | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 115–130 | date = June 1979 | pmid = 453338 }}</ref><ref name=NeuralvsHypertrophy2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Narici MV, Roi GS, Landoni L, Minetti AE, Cerretelli P | title = Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps | journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology | volume = 59 | issue = 4 | pages = 310–319 | year = 1989 | pmid = 2583179 | doi = 10.1007/bf02388334 | s2cid = 2231992 }}</ref>]]
Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as [[myokine]]s which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pedersen BK | title = Muscle as a secretory organ | journal = Comprehensive Physiology | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 1337–1362 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23897689 | doi = 10.1002/cphy.c120033 | isbn = 978-0-470-65071-4 }}</ref> Exercise reduces levels of [[cortisol]], which causes many health problems, both physical and mental.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen S, Williamson GM | title = Stress and infectious disease in humans | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 109 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–24 | date = January 1991 | pmid = 2006229 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.109.1.5 }}</ref> Endurance exercise before meals lowers [[Blood sugar level|blood glucose]] more than the same exercise after meals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Borer KT, Wuorinen EC, Lukos JR, Denver JW, Porges SW, Burant CF | title = Two bouts of exercise before meals, but not after meals, lower fasting blood glucose | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 41 | issue = 8 | pages = 1606–1614 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19568199 | doi = 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31819dfe14 | s2cid = 207184758 | doi-access = free }}</ref> There is evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of [[VO2 max|VO<sub>2</sub> max]]) induces a greater degree of physiological [[cardiac hypertrophy]] than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO<sub>2</sub> max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wisløff U, Ellingsen Ø, Kemi OJ | title = High-intensity interval training to maximize cardiac benefits of exercise training? | journal = Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 139–146 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19550205 | doi = 10.1097/JES.0b013e3181aa65fc | s2cid = 25057561 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). [[Ventricular hypertrophy]], the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.

=== Central nervous system ===
{{Further|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Neuroplasticity}}
The effects of physical exercise on the [[central nervous system]] may be mediated in part by specific [[neurotrophic factor]] [[myokine|hormones released into the blood by muscles]], including [[brain-derived neurotrophic factor|BDNF]], [[insulin-like growth factor 1|IGF-1]], and [[vascular endothelial growth factor|VEGF]].<ref name="Exercise – neurotrophic factors + basal ganglia">{{cite journal | vauthors = Paillard T, Rolland Y, de Souto Barreto P | title = Protective Effects of Physical Exercise in Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease: A Narrative Review | journal = Journal of Clinical Neurology | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 212–219 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26174783 | pmc = 4507374 | doi = 10.3988/jcn.2015.11.3.212 | quote = }}</ref><ref name="BDNF meta analysis">{{cite journal | vauthors = Szuhany KL, Bugatti M, Otto MW | title = A meta-analytic review of the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor | journal = Journal of Psychiatric Research | volume = 60 | pages = 56–64 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25455510 | pmc = 4314337 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.10.003 | quote =}}</ref><ref name="Cerebral hemodynamics and AD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tarumi T, Zhang R | title = Cerebral hemodynamics of the aging brain: risk of Alzheimer disease and benefit of aerobic exercise | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 5 | page = 6 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24478719 | pmc = 3896879 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2014.00006 | quote = | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== Public health measures ==
Community-wide and school campaigns are often used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. Studies to determine the effectiveness of these types of programs need to be interpreted cautiously as the results vary.<ref name=":0" /> There is some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes for older adults, such as those involving gait, balance, co-ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Howe TE, Rochester L, Neil F, Skelton DA, Ballinger C | title = Exercise for improving balance in older people | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 11 | article-number = CD004963 | date = November 2011 | volume = 2012 | pmid = 22071817 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd004963.pub3 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Ltd | s2cid = 205176433 | pmc = 11493176 }}</ref> Following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu CJ, Latham NK | title = Progressive resistance strength training for improving physical function in older adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 3 | article-number = CD002759 | date = July 2009 | volume = 2009 | pmid = 19588334 | pmc = 4324332 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD002759.pub2 }}</ref> Brief interventions promoting physical activity may be cost-effective, however this evidence is weak and there are variations between studies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gc V, Wilson EC, Suhrcke M, Hardeman W, Sutton S | title = Are brief interventions to increase physical activity cost-effective? A systematic review | journal = British Journal of Sports Medicine | volume = 50 | issue = 7 | pages = 408–417 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26438429 | pmc = 4819643 | doi = 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094655 }}</ref>

Environmental approaches appear promising: signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kahn EB, Ramsey LT, Brownson RC, Heath GW, Howze EH, Powell KE, Stone EJ, Rajab MW, Corso P | display-authors = 6 | title = The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity. A systematic review | journal = American Journal of Preventive Medicine | volume = 22 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = 73–107 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 11985936 | doi = 10.1016/S0749-3797(02)00434-8 }}</ref> The city of [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], for example, blocks off {{convert|113|km|mi|sp=us}} of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. Such [[pedestrian zone]]s are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy [[Body Mass Index|BMI]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paho.org/English/DD/PIN/ePersp001_article01.htm |title=Stopping the rising tide of chronic diseases Everyone's Epidemic | vauthors = Durán VH |work=Pan American Health Organization |publisher=paho.org |access-date=10 January 2009}}</ref>

Parents can promote physical activity by modelling healthy levels of physical activity or by encouraging physical activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu H, Wen LM, Rissel C | title = Associations of parental influences with physical activity and screen time among young children: a systematic review | journal = Journal of Obesity | volume = 2015 | article-number = 546925 | date = 19 March 2015 | pmid = 25874123 | pmc = 4383435 | doi = 10.1155/2015/546925 | doi-access = free }}</ref> According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/guidelines.htm|title=Youth Physical Activity Guidelines|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=23 January 2019}}</ref> Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential.

The [[European Commission]]'s Directorate-General for Education and Culture (DG EAC) has dedicated programs and funds for Health Enhancing Physical Activity (HEPA) projects<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://ec.europa.eu/sport/policy/societal-role/health-participation_en |title = Health and Participation|publisher=European Commission |date = 25 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705033323/https://ec.europa.eu/sport/policy/societal-role/health-participation_en |archive-date=2019-07-05}}</ref> within its [[Horizon 2020]] and [[Erasmus+]] program, as research showed that too many Europeans are not physically active enough. Financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this field across the EU and around the world, the promotion of HEPA in the EU and its partner countries, and the European Sports Week. The DG EAC regularly publishes a [[Eurobarometer]] on sport and physical activity.

== Exercise trends ==
{{Main|Exercise trends}}

Worldwide there has been a large shift toward less physically demanding work.<ref name=WHO2009>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |title=WHO: Obesity and overweight |work=World Health Organization |access-date=10 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218104805/http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=18 December 2008}}</ref> This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the home, and fewer active [[recreational pursuits]].<ref name=WHO2009 /> [[Exercise trends#Solutions to address the lack of exercise|Personal lifestyle changes]], however, can correct the lack of physical exercise.{{medical citation needed|date=May 2022}}

Research published in 2015 suggests that incorporating [[mindfulness]] into physical exercise interventions increases exercise adherence and self-efficacy, and also has positive effects both psychologically and physiologically.<ref name=Kennedy>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kennedy AB, Resnick PB | title = Mindfulness and Physical Activity | journal = American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 3221–3323 | date = May 2015 | doi = 10.1177/1559827614564546 | s2cid = 73116017 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<gallery |gallery="" widths="150px" heights="150px" caption="Sports activities for exercising">
File:Woman running barefoot on beach.jpg|Running helps in achieving [[physical fitness]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/running-and-jogging-health-benefits#goal-setting-for-running-and-jogging |title= Running and jogging - health benefits | work = Better Health | publisher = State of Victoria, Australia }}</ref>
File:Cruising on a Board.jpg|alt=Skateboarding is good for cardiovascular health[better source needed]|[[Skateboarding]] is good for cardiovascular health.<ref>{{cite web |title=5 Reasons Why Skateboarding Is Good Exercise |url=https://longboardingnation.com/reasons-skateboarding-good-exercise/ |website=Longboarding Nation |access-date=6 July 2021 |date=25 January 2019}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2022}}
File:IDHM Wasserspringen 2018-02-18 3m mixed Vorkampf Sprung 3 18.jpg|Swimming as an exercise tones muscles and builds strength.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/swimming-health-benefits#health-benefits-of-swimming |title= Swimming - health benefits | work = Better Health | publisher = State of Victoria, Australia }}</ref>
File:2018 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships (40357948141).jpg|[[Sport of athletics|Athletics]] (ex. [[pole vault]]) as a form of exercise
File:Cristiano Ronaldo Iran vs Portugal.jpg|[[Association football|Football]] as an exercise
</gallery>

=== Social and cultural variation ===
Exercising looks different in every country, as do the motivations behind exercising.<ref name="Fitness for Foreigners" /> In some countries, people exercise primarily indoors (such as at home or [[health club]]s), while in others, people primarily [[Outdoor fitness|exercise outdoors]]. People may exercise for personal enjoyment, health and well-being, social interactions, competition or training, etc. These differences could potentially be attributed to a variety of reasons including geographic location and social tendencies.

In Colombia, for example, citizens value and celebrate the outdoor environments of their country. In many instances, they use outdoor activities as social gatherings to enjoy nature and their communities. In Bogotá, Colombia, a 70-mile stretch of road known as the Ciclovía is shut down each Sunday for bicyclists, runners, rollerbladers, skateboarders and other exercisers to work out and enjoy their surroundings.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Hernández J |title=Car-Free Streets, a Colombian Export, Inspire Debate |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/24/nyregion/24streets.html |work=The New York Times|date=24 June 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210427180825/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/24/nyregion/24streets.html |archive-date=27 April 2021|url-status=live|access-date=1 January 2022}}</ref>

Similarly to Colombia, citizens of [[Cambodia]] tend to exercise socially outside. In this country, public gyms have become quite popular. People will congregate at these outdoor gyms not only to use the public facilities, but also to organize aerobics and dance sessions, which are open to the public.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Sullivan N |title=Gyms |url= https://www.travelfish.org/sight_profile/cambodia/phnom_penh_and_surrounds/phnom_penh/phnom_penh/2235 |website=Travel Fish|access-date=8 December 2016}}</ref>

Sweden has also begun developing outdoor gyms, called ''utegym''. These gyms are free to the public and are often placed in beautiful, picturesque environments. People will swim in rivers, use boats, and run through forests to stay healthy and enjoy the natural world around them. This works particularly well in Sweden due to its geographical location.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Tatlow A |title=When in Sweden...making the most of the great outdoors!|url=http://www.stockholmonashoestring.com/when-in-sweden-making-the-most-of-the-great-outdoors/|website=Stockholm on a Shoestring|access-date=5 December 2016}}</ref>

Exercise in some areas of China, particularly among those who are retired, seems to be socially grounded. In the mornings, [[Square dancing (China)|square dances]] are held in public parks; these gatherings may include Latin dancing, ballroom dancing, tango, or even the jitterbug. Dancing in public allows people to interact with those with whom they would not normally interact, allowing for both health and social benefits.<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Langfitt F |title=Beijing's Other Games: Dancing In The Park |url= https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93503524 |newspaper=NPR.org|publisher=NPR|access-date=5 December 2016}}</ref>

These sociocultural variations in physical exercise show how people in different geographic locations and social climates have varying motivations and methods of exercising. Physical exercise can improve health and well-being, as well as enhance community ties and appreciation of natural beauty.<ref name="Fitness for Foreigners" />

=== Adherence ===
Adhering or staying consistent with an exercise program can be challenging for many people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Christopher |last2=Bennekou |first2=Mia |last3=Midtgaard |first3=Julie |last4=Langberg |first4=Hennig |last5=Lieberman |first5=Daniel |date=2024-11-27 |title=Why exercise may never be effective medicine: an evolutionary perspective on the efficacy versus effectiveness of exercise in treating type 2 diabetes |journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=bjsports–2024–108396 |doi=10.1136/bjsports-2024-108396 |issn=1473-0480 |pmid=39603793}}</ref> Studies have identified many different factors. Some factors include why a person is exercising (e.g, health, social), what types of exercises or how the exercise program is structured, whether or not professionals are involved in the program, education related to exercise and health, monitoring and progress made in exercise program, goals setting, and involved a person is in choosing the exercise program and setting goals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Collado-Mateo |first1=Daniel |last2=Lavín-Pérez |first2=Ana Myriam |last3=Peñacoba |first3=Cecilia |last4=Del Coso |first4=Juan |last5=Leyton-Román |first5=Marta |last6=Luque-Casado |first6=Antonio |last7=Gasque |first7=Pablo |last8=Fernández-Del-Olmo |first8=Miguel Ángel |last9=Amado-Alonso |first9=Diana |date=2021-02-19 |title=Key Factors Associated with Adherence to Physical Exercise in Patients with Chronic Diseases and Older Adults: An Umbrella Review |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=4 |page=2023 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18042023 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7922504 |pmid=33669679}}</ref>

== Nutrition and recovery ==
Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of [[Macronutrient (nutrition)|macronutrients]] while providing ample [[micronutrient]]s, to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kimber NE, Heigenhauser GJ, Spriet LL, Dyck DJ | title = Skeletal muscle fat and carbohydrate metabolism during recovery from glycogen-depleting exercise in humans | journal = The Journal of Physiology | volume = 548 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 919–927 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12651914 | pmc = 2342904 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.2002.031179 }}</ref>

Active recovery is recommended after participating in physical exercise because it removes [[lactic acid|lactate]] from the blood more quickly than inactive recovery. Removing lactate from circulation allows for an easy decline in body temperature, which can also benefit the immune system, as an individual may be vulnerable to minor illnesses if the body temperature drops too abruptly after physical exercise.<ref name="pmid16195010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reilly T, Ekblom B | title = The use of recovery methods post-exercise | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 619–627 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 16195010 | doi = 10.1080/02640410400021302 | s2cid = 27918213 }}</ref> Exercise physiologists recommend the "4-Rs framework":<ref name="Bonilla 2021">{{cite journal |author-last1=Bonilla |author-first1=Diego A. |author-last2=Pérez-Idárraga |author-first2=Alexandra |author-last3=Odriozola-Martínez |author-first3=Adrián |author-last4=Kreider |author-first4=Richard B. |date=2021 |title=The 4R's framework of nutritional strategies for post-exercise Recovery: A review with emphasis on new generation of carbohydrates |journal=[[International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=103 |pmc=7796021 |pmid=33375691 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18010103 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
;Rehydration
:Replacing any fluid and electrolyte deficits
;Refuel
:Consuming carbohydrates to replenish muscle and liver glycogen
;Repair
:Consuming high-quality protein sources with additional supplementation of creatine monohydrate
;Rest
:Getting long and high-quality sleep after exercise, additionally improved by consuming casein proteins, antioxidant-rich fruits, and high-glycemic-index meals

Exercise has an effect on appetite, but whether it increases or decreases appetite varies from individual to individual, and is affected by the intensity and duration of the exercise.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Blundell JE, Gibbons C, Caudwell P, Finlayson G, Hopkins M | title = Appetite control and energy balance: impact of exercise | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 16 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 67–76 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25614205 | doi = 10.1111/obr.12257 | s2cid = 39429480 | url = http://shura.shu.ac.uk/9732/3/Hopkins_Appetite_Control_and_Energy_Balance_Impact_of_Exercise.pdf }}</ref>

== Excessive exercise ==
{{excerpt|Overtraining}}

== History ==
{{missing|times and places when exercise was viewed negatively|date=August 2021}}
{{See also|Aerobic exercise#History|Fitness culture|History of physical training and fitness}}
[[File:Roper's gymnasium, Philadelphia, circa 1831.jpg|thumb|250px|Roper's gymnasium, Philadelphia, US, {{Circa|1831}}]]
The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Dating back to 65 BCE, it was [[Cicero|Marcus Cicero]], Roman politician and lawyer, who stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inspirational-quotes-and-quotations.com/quotes-about-exercise.html |title=Quotes About Exercise Top 10 List }}</ref> Exercise was also seen to be valued later in history during the [[Early Middle Ages]] as a means of survival by the [[Germanic peoples]] of Northern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/history.html|title=History of Fitness|website=unm.edu|access-date=20 September 2017}}</ref>

More recently, exercise was regarded as a beneficial force in the 19th century. In 1858, [[Archibald MacLaren]] opened a gymnasium at the [[University of Oxford]] and instituted a training regimen for Major [[Frederick Hammersley (born 1824)|Frederick Hammersley]] and 12 non-commissioned officers.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/physical-culture#toc249304| title=Physical culture |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=20 September 2017 }}</ref> This regimen was assimilated into the training of the [[British Army]], which formed the [[Royal Army Physical Training Corps|Army Gymnastic Staff]] in 1860 and made sport an important part of military life.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUJHMQAACAAJ|title=Fit to Fight: A History of the Royal Army Physical Training Corps 1860–2015| vauthors = Bogdanovic N |year=2017|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=978-1-4728-2421-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N-m_CwAAQBAJ|title='The Army Isn't All Work': Physical Culture and the Evolution of the British Army, 1860–1920| vauthors = Campbell JD |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-04453-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UuRw08WgowQC|title=Sport and the Military: The British Armed Forces 1880–1960| vauthors = Mason T, Riedi E |year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-78897-7|language=en}}</ref> Several mass exercise movements were started in the early twentieth century as well. The first and most significant of these in the UK was the Women's League of Health and Beauty, founded in 1930 by [[Mary Bagot Stack]], that had 166,000 members in 1937.<ref name=FitnessLeague>{{cite web|title=The Fitness League History |url=http://www.thefitnessleague.com/about-us/the-fitness-league-history |website=The Fitness League |access-date=8 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729135514/http://www.thefitnessleague.com/about-us/the-fitness-league-history |archive-date=29 July 2009 }}</ref>

The link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was further established in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by [[Jerry Morris]].<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Kuper S |title=The man who invented exercise|newspaper=Financial Times|date=11 September 2009|url=https://www.ft.com/content/e6ff90ea-9da2-11de-9f4a-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/e6ff90ea-9da2-11de-9f4a-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|access-date=12 September 2009}}</ref><ref name="Morris1953">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morris JN, Heady JA, Raffle PA, Roberts CG, Parks JW | title = Coronary heart-disease and physical activity of work | journal = Lancet | volume = 262 | issue = 6795 | pages = 1053–1057 | date = November 1953 | pmid = 13110049 | pmc = <!--none--> | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(53)90665-5 }}</ref> Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.<ref name="Morris1953" />

== Other animals ==
Animals like [[chimpanzee]]s, [[orangutan]]s, [[gorilla]]s and [[bonobo]]s, which are closely related to humans, without ill effect engage in considerably less physical activity than is required for human health, raising the question of how this is biochemically possible.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=January 1, 2019 |title=Humans Evolved to Exercise: Unlike our ape cousins, humans require high levels of physical activity to be healthy |author=Herman Pontzer}}</ref>

Studies of animals indicate that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate [[energy homeostasis|energy balance]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu S, Eclarinal J, Baker MS, Li G, Waterland RA | title = Developmental programming of energy balance regulation: is physical activity more 'programmable' than food intake? | journal = The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society | volume = 75 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–77 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26511431 | doi = 10.1017/s0029665115004127 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Mouse|Mice]] having access to [[Hamster wheel|activity wheels]] engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Acosta W, Meek TH, Schutz H, Dlugosz EM, Vu KT, Garland T | title = Effects of early-onset voluntary exercise on adult physical activity and associated phenotypes in mice | journal = Physiology & Behavior | volume = 149 | pages = 279–286 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26079567 | doi = 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.06.020 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Selective breeding|Artificial selection]] of mice exhibited significant [[heredity|heritability]] in voluntary exercise levels,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swallow JG, Carter PA, Garland T | title = Artificial selection for increased wheel-running behavior in house mice | journal = Behavior Genetics | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–237 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9670598 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021479331779 | s2cid = 18336243 }}</ref> with "high-runner" [[breed]]s having enhanced [[VO2 max|aerobic capacity]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swallow JG, Garland T, Carter PA, Zhan WZ, Sieck GC | title = Effects of voluntary activity and genetic selection on aerobic capacity in house mice (Mus domesticus) | journal = Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–76 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9451619 | doi = 10.1152/jappl.1998.84.1.69 }}</ref> [[hippocampus|hippocampal]] [[neurogenesis]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rhodes JS, van Praag H, Jeffrey S, Girard I, Mitchell GS, Garland T, Gage FH | title = Exercise increases hippocampal neurogenesis to high levels but does not improve spatial learning in mice bred for increased voluntary wheel running | journal = Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 117 | issue = 5 | pages = 1006–1016 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14570550 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7044.117.5.1006 }}</ref> and skeletal muscle [[morphology (biology)|morphology]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Garland T, Morgan MT, Swallow JG, Rhodes JS, Girard I, Belter JG, Carter PA | title = Evolution of a small-muscle polymorphism in lines of house mice selected for high activity levels | journal = Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 1267–1275 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12144025 | doi = 10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[1267:EOASMP]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 198158847 }}</ref>

The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. As examples, exercise training of [[salmon]] showed minor improvements of endurance,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gallaugher PE, Thorarensen H, Kiessling A, Farrell AP | title = Effects of high intensity exercise training on cardiovascular function, oxygen uptake, internal oxygen transport and osmotic balance in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during critical speed swimming | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 204 | issue = Pt 16 | pages = 2861–2872 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11683441 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.204.16.2861 | bibcode = 2001JExpB.204.2861G }}</ref> and a forced swimming regimen of [[yellowtail amberjack]] and [[rainbow trout]] accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favorable for sustained swimming.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Palstra AP, Mes D, Kusters K, Roques JA, Flik G, Kloet K, Blonk RJ | title = Forced sustained swimming exercise at optimal speed enhances growth of juvenile yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi) | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 5 | page = 506 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25620933 | pmc = 4287099 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2014.00506 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Magnoni LJ, Crespo D, Ibarz A, Blasco J, Fernández-Borràs J, Planas JV | title = Effects of sustained swimming on the red and white muscle transcriptome of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed a carbohydrate-rich diet | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology | volume = 166 | issue = 3 | pages = 510–521 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 23968867 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.08.005 | hdl = 11336/24277 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Crocodiles, alligators, and ducks showed elevated aerobic capacity following exercise training.<ref name="Owerk_Baud_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Owerkowicz T, Baudinette RV | title = Exercise training enhances aerobic capacity in juvenile estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology | volume = 150 | issue = 2 | pages = 211–216 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18504156 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.04.594 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eme J, Owerkowicz T, Gwalthney J, Blank JM, Rourke BC, Hicks JW | title = Exhaustive exercise training enhances aerobic capacity in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) | journal = Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology | volume = 179 | issue = 8 | pages = 921–931 | date = November 2009 | article-number = 921 | pmid = 19533151 | pmc = 2768110 | doi = 10.1007/s00360-009-0374-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Butler PJ, Turner DL | title = Effect of training on maximal oxygen uptake and aerobic capacity of locomotory muscles in tufted ducks, Aythya fuligula | journal = The Journal of Physiology | volume = 401 | pages = 347–359 | date = July 1988 | pmid = 3171990 | pmc = 1191853 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.1988.sp017166 }}</ref> No effect of endurance training was found in most studies of lizards,<ref name="Owerk_Baud_2008" /><ref name="Garland_et_al_1987">{{cite journal | vauthors = Garland T, Else PL, Hulbert AJ, Tap P | title = Effects of endurance training and captivity on activity metabolism of lizards | journal = The American Journal of Physiology | volume = 252 | issue = 3 Pt 2 | pages = R450–R456 | date = March 1987 | pmid = 3826409 | doi = 10.1152/ajpregu.1987.252.3.R450 | s2cid = 8771310 }}</ref> although one study did report a training effect.<ref name="jeb">{{cite journal | vauthors = Husak JF, Keith AR, Wittry BN | title = Making Olympic lizards: the effects of specialised exercise training on performance | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 218 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 899–906 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25617462 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.114975 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2015JExpB.218..899H }}</ref> In lizards, [[Sprint (running)|sprint training]] had no effect on maximal exercise capacity,<ref name=jeb /> and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise.<ref name="Garland_et_al_1987" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Medicine|Society|Sports}}
{{Main|Outline of exercise}}
{{div col|colwidth=24em}}
<!-- don't add stuff that's already linked or semi-spam (e.g. random companies, random sports, ...) -->
* [[Active living]]
* [[Behavioural change theories]]
* [[Bodybuilding]]
* [[Cyclability]]
* [[Exercise hypertension]]
* [[Exercise intensity]]
* [[Exercise intolerance]]
* [[Exercise-induced anaphylaxis]]
* [[Exercise-induced asthma]]
* [[Exercise-induced nausea]]
* [[Green exercise]]
* [[Kinesiology]]
* [[Metabolic equivalent]]
* [[Neurobiological effects of physical exercise]]
* [[Non-exercise associated thermogenesis]]
* [[Supercompensation]]
* [[Unilateral training]]
* [[Walkability]]
* [[Warming up]]

{{div col end}}{{clear right}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
<!--Sidebar templates-->
{{Sister project links|display=Exercise|commons=Category:Physical exercises|q=Exercise|wikt=exercise|voy=no|n=no|s=no|v=no|species=no|mw=no|m=no|b=no|d=no}}
<!--List of external links-->
* [https://sites.google.com/site/compendiumofphysicalactivities/ Adult Compendium of Physical Activities] – a website containing lists of [[Metabolic Equivalent of Task]] (MET) values for a number of physical activities, based upon {{PMID|8292105|10993420|21681120|leadout=and}}
* [https://www.medlineplus.gov/exerciseandphysicalfitness.html MedLinePlus Topic on Exercise and Physical Fitness]
* [http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/PH8 Physical activity and the environment] – guidance on the promotion and creation of physical environments that support increased levels of physical activity.
* [https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/physical_exercise.htm Science Daily's reference on physical exercise]

{{Physical exercise}}
{{Sport}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Physical exercise| ]]