View source for Fat

{{Short description|Esters of fatty acid or triglycerides}}
{{About|the type of nutrient in food|fat in animals|Adipose tissue|chemistry of fats|triglyceride|other uses|Fat (disambiguation)}}
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[[File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png|thumb|Idealized representation of a molecule of a typical [[triglyceride]], the main type of fat. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.|alt=A space-filling model of an unsaturated triglyceride.]]
[[File:Fat composition in foods.svg|thumb|Composition of fats from various foods, as percentage of their total fat]]
{{Fats}}

In [[Nutritional science|nutrition]], [[biology]], and [[chemistry]], '''fat''' usually means any [[ester]] of [[fatty acid]]s, or a mixture of such [[Chemical compound|compounds]], most commonly those that occur in living beings or in [[food]].<ref name="webster" />

The term often refers specifically to [[triglyceride]]s (triple esters of [[glycerol]]), that are the main components of [[vegetable oil]]s and of [[fatty tissue]] in animals;<ref name="sand2016" /> or, even more narrowly, to triglycerides that are solid or semisolid at room temperature, thus excluding [[oil]]s. The term may also be used more broadly as a synonym of [[lipid]]—any substance of biological relevance, composed of [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], or [[oxygen]], that is insoluble in water but soluble in [[non-polar solvent]]s.<ref name="webster" /> In this sense, besides the triglycerides, the term would include several other types of compounds like [[Monoglyceride|mono-]] and [[diglyceride]]s, [[phospholipid]]s (such as [[lecithin]]), [[sterol]]s (such as [[cholesterol]]), [[wax]]es (such as [[beeswax]]),<ref name="webster" /> and free fatty acids, which are usually present in human diet in smaller amounts.<ref name="sand2016" />

Fats are one of the three main [[macronutrient]] groups in human [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], along with [[carbohydrate]]s and [[protein]]s,<ref name="webster" /><ref name="mckin2014" /> and the main components of common food products like [[milk]], [[butter]], [[tallow]], [[lard]], [[salt pork]], and [[cooking oil]]s. They are a major and dense source of [[food energy]] for many animals and play important structural and [[metabolic]] functions in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and [[thermal insulation]].<ref name="khan0000" /> The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few [[essential fatty acid]]s that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some [[Flavoring|flavor]] and [[aroma]] ingredients and [[vitamin]]s that are [[Lipophilicity|not water-soluble]].<ref name="sand2016" />

{{Toclimit}}

== Biological importance ==
In humans and many animals, fats serve both as energy sources and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately. Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about nine [[food calorie]]s {{nowrap|1=(37 [[Joule|kJ]] = 8.8 [[kcal]])}}.<ref name="uksi1996" />

Fats are also sources of [[essential fatty acid]]s, an important dietary requirement. Vitamins [[Vitamin A|A]], [[Vitamin D|D]], [[Vitamin E|E]], and [[Vitamin K|K]] are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats.

Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy [[skin]] and [[hair]], insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Aijun |last3=Hamilton |first3=Dale J. |last4=Deng |first4=Tuo |year=2017 |title=Epicardial Fat in the Maintenance of Cardiovascular Health |journal=Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=20–24 |doi=10.14797/mdcj-13-1-20 |issn=1947-6094 |pmc=5385790 |pmid=28413578}}</ref> This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as [[excretion]], [[urination]], accidental or intentional [[bloodletting]], [[sebum]] excretion, and hair growth.

===Adipose tissue===
[[File:Fatmouse.jpg|thumb|The [[obese]] mouse (left) has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is also shown (right).]]
In animals, [[adipose tissue]] (fatty tissue) is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. [[Adipocyte]]s (fat cells) store fat derived from the diet and from liver [[metabolism]]. Under energy stress these cells may degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids and also glycerol to the [[Circulatory system|circulation]]. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., [[insulin]], [[glucagon]] and [[epinephrine]]). Adipose tissue also secretes the hormone [[leptin]].<ref name="hprot0000" />

==Production and processing==
A variety of chemical and physical techniques are used for the production and processing of fats, both industrially and in cottage or home settings. They include:
* [[Oil pressing|Pressing]] to extract liquid fats from fruits, seeds, or [[alga]]e, e.g. [[olive oil]] from [[olive]]s
* [[Solvent extraction]] using solvents like [[hexane]] or [[supercritical carbon dioxide]]
* [[Rendering (animal products)|Rendering]] – the melting of fat in adipose tissue, e.g. to produce tallow, lard, [[fish oil]], and [[whale oil]]
* [[Churning (butter)|Churning]] of milk to produce butter
* [[Fat hydrogenation|Hydrogenation]] to increase the degree of saturation of the fatty acids
* [[Interesterification]] – the rearrangement of fatty acids across different triglycerides
* [[Winterization of oil|Winterization]] to remove oil components with higher melting points
* [[Clarified butter|Clarification]] of butter

== Metabolism ==
{{See also|Fatty acid metabolism}}
{{main | Lipid metabolism}}
[[Image:Fat triglyceride shorthand formula.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|300px|Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride. Left part: [[glycerol]], right part from top to bottom: [[palmitic acid]], [[oleic acid]], [[alpha-linolenic acid]]. Chemical formula: C{{sub|55}}H{{sub|98}}O{{sub|6}}]]

The [[pancreatic lipase]] acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and "releasing" the fatty acid. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the [[duodenum]]. Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down.

In the [[intestine]], following the secretion of [[lipase]]s and [[bile]], triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called [[lipolysis]]. They are subsequently moved to absorptive [[enterocyte]] cells lining the intestines. The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with [[cholesterol]] and proteins to form [[chylomicron]]s. These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood. Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy. Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides. When the body requires [[fatty acid]]s as an energy source, the hormone [[glucagon]] signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by [[hormone-sensitive lipase]] to release free fatty acids. As the [[brain]] cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a [[ketone]]),<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1186/cc10020|pmid = 21489321|pmc = 3219306|title = Clinical review: Ketones and brain injury|journal = Critical Care|volume = 15|issue = 2|page = 219|year = 2011|last1 = White|first1 = Hayden|last2 = Venkatesh|first2 = Balasubramanian | doi-access=free}}</ref> the [[glycerol]] component of triglycerides can be converted into [[glucose]], via [[gluconeogenesis]] by conversion into [[dihydroxyacetone phosphate]] and then into [[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]], for brain fuel when it is broken down. Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.

Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely. Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called [[lipoprotein lipase]]s must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via [[fatty acid transport proteins]] (FATPs).

Triglycerides, as major components of [[very-low-density lipoprotein]] (VLDL) and chylomicrons, play an important role in [[metabolism]] as energy sources and transporters of dietary fat. They contain more than twice as much energy (approximately 9{{nbs}}kcal/g or 38{{nbs}}[[Joule|kJ]]/g) as [[carbohydrate]]s (approximately 4{{nbs}}kcal/g or 17{{nbs}}kJ/g).<ref name="drummond">{{cite book|last1=Drummond|first1=K. E.|last2=Brefere|first2=L. M.|year=2014|title=Nutrition for Foodservice and Culinary Professionals|edition=8th|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-05242-6}}</ref>

==Nutritional and health aspects==
The most common type of fat, in human diet and most living beings, is a [[triglyceride]], an ester of the triple [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] [[glycerol]] {{chem|H(–CHOH–)|3|H}} and three fatty acids. The molecule of a triglyceride can be described as resulting from a [[condensation reaction]] (specifically, [[esterification]]) between each of glycerol's –OH groups and the HO– part of the carboxyl group {{chem2|HO(O\d)C\s}} of each fatty acid, forming an [[Ester|ester bridge]] {{chem2|\sO\s(O\d)C\s}} with elimination of a water molecule {{chem|H|2|O}}.

Other less common types of fats include [[diglyceride]]s and [[monoglyceride]]s, where the esterification is limited to two or just one of glycerol's –OH groups. Other alcohols, such as [[cetyl alcohol]] (predominant in [[spermaceti]]), may replace glycerol. In the [[phospholipid]]s, one of the fatty acids is replaced by [[phosphoric acid]] or a monoester thereof.
The benefits and risks of various amounts and types of dietary fats have been the object of much study, and are still highly controversial topics.<ref name="dona2005" /><ref name="fbhu2001" /><ref name="hoop2001" /><ref name="bray2004" />

===Essential fatty acids===
There are two [[essential fatty acid]]s (EFAs) in human nutrition: [[alpha-Linolenic acid]] (an [[omega-3 fatty acid]]) and [[linoleic acid]] (an [[omega-6 fatty acid]]).<ref name="moza2006" /><ref name="uksi1996" /> The adult body can synthesize other lipids that it needs from these two.

==Dietary sources==
{{Vegetable oils, composition}}

==={{anchor|Saturated fat}}{{anchor|Unsaturated fat}}Saturated vs. unsaturated fats===
<!--merged-from|saturated fat-->
<!--Merged from [[unsaturated fat]]-->

Different foods contain different amounts of fat with different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Some animal products, like [[beef]] and [[dairy product]]s made with whole or reduced fat milk like [[yogurt]], [[ice cream]], [[cheese]] and [[butter]] have mostly saturated fatty acids (and some have significant contents of [[dietary cholesterol]]). Other animal products, like [[pork]], [[poultry]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]], and seafood have mostly unsaturated fats. Industrialized [[baked goods]] may use fats with high unsaturated fat contents as well, especially those containing [[partially hydrogenated oil]]s, and [[processed food]]s that are [[deep-fried]] in [[Vegetable oil#Hydrogenation|hydrogenated oil]] are high in saturated fat content.<ref name="aha2014" /><ref name="husp2014" /><ref name="choo2020" />

Plants and fish oil generally contain a higher proportion of unsaturated acids, although there are exceptions such as [[coconut oil]] and [[palm kernel oil]].<ref name="reec2002" /><ref name="choos2015b" /> Foods containing unsaturated fats include [[avocado]], [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[olive oil]]s, and [[vegetable oil]]s such as [[canola]].

Many [[scientific studies]] have found that replacing saturated fats with ''cis'' unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s (CVDs),<ref name="hoop2020e" /> [[diabetes]], or death.<ref name="sacks2017" /> These studies prompted many medical organizations and public health departments, including the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO),<ref name="who2015" /><ref name="who0000" /> to officially issue that advice. Some countries with such recommendations include:

* United Kingdom<ref name="htuk0000xd" /><ref name="nhsuk0000xe" /><ref name="nhsuk2018" /><ref name="nhsuk0000v" /><ref name="bhfuk0000w" />
* United States<ref name="sacks2017" /><ref name="htus2015" /><ref name="usda0000r" /><ref name="cdc2004" /><ref name="USDA2005u" />
* India<ref name="india0000xf" /><ref name="india0000" />
* Canada<ref name="choos2018q" />
* Australia<ref name="ausmd2012" />
* Singapore<ref name="sing0000" />
* New Zealand<ref name="newz0000" />
* Hong Kong<ref name="hong0000" />

A 2004 review concluded that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.<ref name="germ2004" />

This advice is often oversimplified by labeling the two kinds of fats as ''bad fats'' and ''good fats'', respectively. However, since the fats and oils in most natural and traditionally processed foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fatty acids,<ref name="stor1996" /> the complete exclusion of saturated fat is unrealistic and possibly unwise. For instance, some foods rich in saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, are an important source of cheap dietary calories for a large fraction of the population in developing countries.<ref name="who2003s" />

Concerns were also expressed at a 2010 conference of the [[American Dietetic Association]] that a blanket recommendation to avoid saturated fats could drive people to also reduce the amount of polyunsaturated fats, which may have health benefits, and/or replace fats by refined carbohydrates — which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease.<ref name="zelm2011" />

For these reasons, the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]], for example, recommends to consume less than 10% (7% for high-risk groups) of calories from saturated fat, with 15-30% of total calories from all fat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nutrition |first=Center for Food Safety and Applied |date=March 7, 2022 |title=Health Claim Notification for Saturated Fat, Cholesterol, and Trans Fat, and Reduced Risk of Heart Disease |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-labeling-nutrition/health-claim-notification-saturated-fat-cholesterol-and-trans-fat-and-reduced-risk-heart-disease |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926004512/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-labeling-nutrition/health-claim-notification-saturated-fat-cholesterol-and-trans-fat-and-reduced-risk-heart-disease |archive-date=September 26, 2019 |journal=FDA |language=en}}</ref><ref name="who2003s" /> A general 7% limit was recommended also by the [[American Heart Association]] (AHA) in 2006.<ref name="lich2006" /><ref name="smith2004" />

The WHO/FAO report also recommended replacing fats so as to reduce the content of myristic and palmitic acids, specifically.<ref name="who2003s" />

The so-called [[Mediterranean diet]], prevalent in many countries in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] area, includes more total fat than the diet of Northern European countries, but most of it is in the form of unsaturated fatty acids (specifically, monounsaturated and omega-3) from olive oil and fish, vegetables, and certain meats like lamb, while consumption of saturated fat is minimal in comparison.
A 2017 review found evidence that a Mediterranean-style diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, overall cancer incidence, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and mortality rate.<ref name="dinu2017" /> A 2018 review showed that a Mediterranean-like diet may improve overall health status, such as reduced risk of non-communicable diseases. It also may reduce the social and economic costs of diet-related illnesses.<ref name="mart2018xh" />

A small number of contemporary reviews have challenged this negative view of saturated fats. For example, an evaluation of evidence from 1966 to 1973 of the observed health impact of replacing dietary [[saturated fat]] with [[linoleic acid]] found that it ''increased'' rates of death from all causes, coronary heart disease, and cardiovascular disease.<ref name="sydn0000" /> These studies have been disputed by many scientists,<ref name="will2017" /> and the consensus in the medical community is that saturated fat and cardiovascular disease are closely related.<ref name="souza2015" /><ref name="rams2013" /><ref name="rams2016" /> Still, these discordant studies fueled debate over the merits of substituting polyunsaturated fats for saturated fats.<ref name="weyl2015" />

====Cardiovascular disease====
{{Main|Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease}}

The effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease has been extensively studied.<ref name="hoop2020e" /> The general consensus is that there is evidence of moderate-quality of a strong, consistent, and graded relationship between saturated fat intake, [[blood cholesterol]] levels, and the incidence of cardiovascular disease.<ref name="sacks2017" /><ref name="hoop2020e" /> The relationships are accepted as causal,<ref name="grah2007" /><ref name="laba2011" /> including by many government and medical organizations.<ref name="who2003s" /><ref name="kris2007f" /><ref name="bda0000" /><ref name="sacks2017" /><ref name="wohf2017" /><ref name="nhsuk0000" /><ref name="FDA2009h" /><ref name="efsa2010" />

A 2017 review by the AHA estimated that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat in the American diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.<ref name="sacks2017" />

The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for [[dyslipidemia]]—abnormal blood lipid levels, including high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of [[high-density lipoprotein]] (HDL, "good" cholesterol). These parameters in turn are believed to be risk indicators for some types of cardiovascular disease.<ref name="fphuk0000" /><ref name="who2003k" /><ref name="irhf0000" /><ref name="usda2010m" /><ref name="cann2007" /><ref name="wohf2017" /><ref name="cata2011" /><ref name="aha0000xc" /><ref name="merck0000" /> These effects were observed in children too.<ref name="sanch2008" />

Several [[meta-analyses]] (reviews and consolidations of multiple previously published experimental studies) have confirmed a significant relationship between saturated fat and high [[serum cholesterol]] levels,<ref name="sacks2017" /><ref name="clarke1997" /> which in turn have been claimed to have a causal relation with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (the so-called [[lipid hypothesis]]).<ref name="buck1999" /><ref name="lewin2007" /> However, high cholesterol may be caused by many factors. Other indicators, such as high LDL/HDL ratio, have proved to be more predictive.<ref name="lewin2007" /> In a study of [[myocardial infarction]] in 52 countries, the [[ApoB]]/[[ApoA1]] (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors.<ref name="laba2011n" /> There are other pathways involving [[obesity]], [[triglyceride]] levels, [[insulin sensitivity]], [[endothelial function]], and [[thrombogenicity]], among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak [[atherogenic]] effect.<ref name="laba2011p" /> Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.<ref name="thij2005" />

====Cancer====
The evidence for a relation between saturated fat intake and [[cancer]] is significantly weaker, and there does not seem to be a clear medical consensus about it.

* Several reviews of [[case–control studies]] have found that saturated fat intake is associated with increased breast cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dandamudi A, Tommie J, Nommsen-Rivers L, Couch S |year=2018|title=Dietary Patterns and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review|journal=Anticancer Research|volume=38|issue=6|pages=3209–3222|pmid=29848668|doi=10.21873/anticanres.12586|s2cid=44149964|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Xia H, Ma S, Wang S, Sun G |year=2015|title=Meta-Analysis of Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Breast Cancer Risk|journal=Medicine|volume=94|issue=52|article-number=e2391|pmid=26717389|doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000002391|pmc=5291630}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Brennan SF, Woodside JV, Lunny PM, Cardwell CR, Cantwell MM |year=2017|title=Dietary fat and breast cancer mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=57|issue=10|pages=1999–2008|doi=10.1080/10408398.2012.724481|pmid=25692500 |s2cid=34098509 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/dietary-fat-and-breast-cancer-mortality-a-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis(d733bb2c-2e38-494e-bb66-03b38759e0c2).html}}</ref>
* Another review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of [[colorectal cancer]].<ref name="xxxx2009a" />
* Other meta-analyses found evidence for increased risk of [[ovarian cancer]] by high consumption of saturated fat.<ref name="hunch2001" />
* Some studies have indicated that serum [[myristic acid]]<ref name="mann2003" /><ref name="crowe2008" /> and [[palmitic acid]]<ref name="crowe2008" /> and dietary myristic<ref name="kura2008" /> and palmitic<ref name="kura2008" /> saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with [[alpha-tocopherol]] supplementation<ref name="mann2003" /> are associated with increased risk of [[prostate cancer]] in a dose-dependent manner. These associations may, however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and controls, rather than being an actual cause.<ref name="crowe2008" />

====Bones====
Various animal studies have indicated that the intake of saturated fat has a negative effect on the [[Osteoporosis|mineral density of bones]]. One study suggested that men may be particularly vulnerable.<ref name="corw2006" />

====Disposition and overall health====
Studies have shown that substituting monounsaturated fatty acids for saturated ones is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure. More physical activity, less anger, and less irritability were associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a [[palmitic acid]] diet.<ref name="kien2013" />
[[File:Fatchart.svg|thumb|Amounts of fat types in selected foods]]

==={{anchor|Monounsaturated fat}}{{anchor|Polyunsaturated fat}}Monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated fat===
<!--Merged from [[monounsaturated fat]] -->
<!--Merged from [p[olyunsaturated fat]]-->

[[File:Fat triglyceride shorthand formula.PNG|thumb|upright=1.6|Schematic diagram of a triglyceride with a saturated fatty acid (top), a monounsaturated one (middle) and a polyunsaturated one (bottom)]]
The most common fatty acids in human diet are unsaturated or mono-unsaturated. Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red [[meat]], whole milk products, nuts, and high fat fruits such as olives and avocados. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat.<ref name="abdu2017" /> The high oleic variety [[sunflower oil]] contains at least 70% monounsaturated fat.<ref name="huth2015" /> [[Canola oil]] and [[cashew]]s are both about 58% monounsaturated fat.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shute |first=Nancy |date=May 2, 2012 |title=Lard Is Back In The Larder, But Hold The Health Claims |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/05/02/151868208/lard-is-back-in-the-larder-but-hold-the-health-claims |access-date=June 29, 2022}}</ref> [[Tallow]] (beef fat) is about 50% monounsaturated fat,<ref name="nrc1974" /> and [[lard]] is about 40% monounsaturated fat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 13, 2015 |title=Ask the Expert: Concerns about canola oil |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2015/04/13/ask-the-expert-concerns-about-canola-oil/ |access-date=June 29, 2022 |website=The Nutrition Source |language=en-us}}</ref> Other sources include [[hazelnut]], [[avocado oil]], [[macadamia nut oil]], [[grapeseed oil]], groundnut oil ([[peanut oil]]), [[sesame oil]], [[corn oil]], [[popcorn]], [[whole grain]] [[wheat]], [[cereal]], [[oatmeal]], [[almond oil]], [[hemp oil]], and [[tea-oil camellia]].<ref name="aizp2015" />

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and [[oyster]]s.<ref name="osu2014" />

Food sources of polyunsaturated fats include:<ref name="osu2014" /><ref name="usda2011a" />
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Food source (100g) !! Polyunsaturated fat (g)
|-
| [[Walnut]]s || 47
|-
| [[Canola oil]] || 34
|-
| [[Sunflower seed]]s || 33
|-
| [[Sesame seed]]s || 26
|-
| [[Chia seed]]s || 23.7
|-
| Unsalted [[peanut]]s || 16
|-
| [[Peanut butter]] || 14.2
|-
| [[Avocado oil]] || 13.5<ref name="self0000" />
|-
| [[Olive oil]] || 11
|-
| [[Safflower oil]]
|12.82<ref name="usda2015b" />
|-
| [[Seaweed]] || 11
|-
| [[Sardine]]s || 5
|-
| [[Soybean]]s || 7
|-
| [[Tuna]] || 14
|-
| [[Salmon as food|Wild salmon]] || 17.3
|-
| [[Whole grain]] [[wheat]] || 9.7
|}

==== Insulin resistance (sensitivity) ====

MUFAs (especially oleic acid) have been found to lower the incidence of [[insulin resistance]]; PUFAs (especially large amounts of [[arachidonic acid]]) and SFAs (such as [[arachidic acid]]) increased it. These ratios can be indexed in the [[phospholipid]]s of human [[skeletal muscle]] and in other tissues as well. The relationship between dietary fats and insulin resistance is presumed secondary to the relationship between insulin resistance and [[inflammation]], which is partially modulated by dietary fat ratios {{nowrap|([[omega−3]]/[[Omega-6 fatty acids|6]]/[[Omega-9 fatty acids|9]])}}, with both omega{{nbnd}}3 and {{nbnd}}9 thought to be anti-inflammatory and omega{{nbnd}}6 pro-inflammatory (as well as by numerous other dietary components, particularly [[Health effects of polyphenols|polyphenols]] and exercise, with both of these anti-inflammatory). Although both pro- and anti-inflammatory types of fat are [[biologically]] necessary, fat dietary ratios in most U.S. diets are skewed towards omega{{nbnd}}6, with subsequent disinhibition of inflammation and potentiation of insulin resistance.<ref name="stor1996" /> This is contrary to the suggestion that polyunsaturated fats are shown to be protective against insulin resistance.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

The large-scale KANWU study found that increasing MUFA and decreasing SFA intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low.<ref name="vess2001" /> However, some MUFAs may promote insulin resistance (like the SFAs), whereas PUFAs may protect against it.<ref name="love2002" /><ref name="fuku2004" />{{clarify|date=August 2020}}

====Cancer====
Levels of oleic acid along with other MUFAs in red blood cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The [[Membrane scaling#Scaling prediction methods|saturation index]] (SI) of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk. MUFAs and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these variables depend on the activity of the enzyme [[delta-9 desaturase]] (Δ9-d).<ref name="pala2001" />

Results from [[Observational study|observational clinical trials]] on PUFA intake and cancer have been inconsistent and vary by numerous factors of cancer incidence, including gender and genetic risk.<ref name="nihw2016" /> Some studies have shown associations between higher intakes and/or blood levels of omega-3 PUFAs and a decreased risk of certain cancers, including breast and colorectal cancer, while other studies found no associations with cancer risk.<ref name="nihw2016" /><ref name="patt2011xk" />

====Pregnancy disorders====
Polyunsaturated fat supplementation was found to have no effect on the incidence of pregnancy-related disorders, such as [[hypertension]] or [[preeclampsia]], but may increase the length of [[gestation]] slightly and decreased the incidence of early premature births.<ref name="osu2014" />

Expert panels in the United States and Europe recommend that pregnant and lactating women consume higher amounts of polyunsaturated fats than the general population to enhance the DHA status of the fetus and newborn.<ref name="osu2014" />

==={{anchor|Trans fat}}"Cis fat" vs. "trans fat"===
{{main|Trans fat}}
In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in [[Cis–trans isomerism|''cis'' configuration]] (with the adjacent [[C–C bond]]s on the same side) as opposed to ''trans''.<ref name="mart2007" /> Nevertheless, [[Trans fat|''trans'' fatty acids]] (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of [[ruminant]]s (such as cattle and sheep),<ref name="kuhnt2011" /><ref>{{cite book|first1=Fred August |last1=Kummerow |first2=Jean M. |last2=Kummerow|title=Cholesterol Won't Kill You, But Trans Fat Could|publisher=Trafford|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4251-3808-0}}</ref> typically 2{{nbnd}}5% of total fat.<ref name="tfca2006" /> Natural TFAs, which include [[conjugated linoleic acid]] (CLA) and [[vaccenic acid]], originate in the [[rumen]] of these animals. CLA has two double bonds, one in the ''cis'' configuration and one in ''trans'', which makes it simultaneously a ''cis''- and a ''trans''-fatty acid.<ref name="mejo0000" />

The trans fat content in various natural and traditionally processed foods is shown in the table below.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Food type
! Trans fat content<ref name="tarr2006" /><br />(grams per 100 g)
|-
| [[Butter]]
|2 to 7 g
|-
| [[Whole milk]]
|0.07 to 0.1 g
|-
| [[Animal fat]]
| 0 to 5 g<ref name="tfca2006" />
|-
| [[Ground beef]]
|1 g
|}
The processing of fats by hydrogenation can convert some unsaturated fats into trans fats. The presence of trans fats in various processed foods has received much attention. 
[[File:Margaryn 022.jpg|thumb|[[Margarine]] is a common product that can contain trans fats.]]
[[File:Crisco Cookbook 1912.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Cover of the original [[Crisco]] cookbook, 1912. Crisco was made by hydrogenating cottonseed oil. The formula was revised in the 2000s and now has only a small amount of trans fat.]]

===Omega-three and omega-six fatty acids===
{{main|Omega-3 fatty acid|Omega-6 fatty acid}}
The [[Omega-3 fatty acid|ω−3 fatty acids]] have received substantial attention. Among omega-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were consistently associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA), however, the most abundant omega-3 [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]] in erythrocyte ([[red blood cell]]) membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer.<ref name="pala2001" /> The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is positively associated with cognitive and behavioral performance.<ref name="rest2008" /> In addition, DHA is vital for the [[grey matter]] structure of the human brain, as well as retinal stimulation and [[neurotransmission]].<ref name="osu2014" />

===Interesterification===
Some studies have investigated the health effects of interesterified (IE) fats, by comparing diets with IE and non-IE fats with the same overall fatty acid composition.<ref name=Alfieri>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Andreina Alfieri |title=Effects of Plant Oil Interesterified Triacylglycerols on Lipemia and Human Health |journal=Int J Mol Sci |date=Dec 2017 |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=104 |doi=10.3390/ijms19010104 |doi-access=free |pmid=29301208 |pmc=5796054 }}</ref><ref name="mens2016" />

Several experimental studies in humans found no statistical difference on fasting blood lipids between a diet with large amounts of IE fat, having 25-40% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position, and a similar diet with non-IE fat, having only 3-9% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position.<ref name="zock1995" /><ref name="nest1995" /><ref name="meij1997" /> A negative result was obtained also in a study that compared the effects on blood [[cholesterol]] levels of an IE fat product mimicking [[cocoa butter]] and the real non-IE product.<ref name="gran1970" /><ref name="berry2007a" /><ref name="zamp1994" /><ref name="ylij2001" /><ref name="berry2007b" /><ref name="summ1999" /><ref name="chris2000b" /> Another study found tentative evidence that interesterified fat may lower cardiovascular disease risk.<ref name=Alfieri/>

A 2007 study funded by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board<ref name="sund2007" /> claimed that replacing natural [[palm oil]] by other interesterified or partially hydrogenated fats caused adverse health effects, such as higher [[Low-density lipoprotein|LDL]]/[[High-density lipoprotein|HDL]] ratio and [[Blood sugar level|plasma glucose levels]]. However, these effects could be attributed to the higher percentage of saturated acids in the IE and partially hydrogenated fats, rather than to the IE process itself.<ref name="dest2007" /><ref name="mens2003" />

===Rancification===
{{main|Rancidification}}
Unsaturated fats undergo [[auto-oxidation]], which involves replacement of a C-H bond with C-OH unit. The process requires oxygen (air) and is accelerated by the presence of traces of metals, which serve as catalysts. Doubly unsaturated fatty acids are particularly prone to this reaction.  Vegetable oils resist this process to a small degree because they contain antioxidants, such as [[tocopherol]]. Fats and oils often are treated with [[chelating agents]] such as [[citric acid]] to remove the metal catalysts.

===Role in disease===
{{Main|Hypertriglyceridemia}}
In the human body, high levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been linked to [[atherosclerosis]], [[Coronary artery disease|heart disease]]<ref>{{cite news | title=Boston scientists say triglycerides play key role in heart health | newspaper=The Boston Globe | url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/science/2014/06/18/boston-researchers-find-that-triglycerides-play-pivotal-role-heart-health/ynrM4QQwIq1fCCoRwMfOAN/story.html |access-date=June 18, 2014}}</ref>
and [[stroke]].<ref name="drummond" /> However, the relative negative impact of raised levels of triglycerides compared to that of LDL:HDL ratios is as yet unknown. The risk can be partly accounted for by a strong inverse relationship between triglyceride level and HDL-cholesterol level. But the risk is also due to high triglyceride levels increasing the quantity of [[Low-density lipoprotein#LDL size patterns|small, dense LDL particles]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ivanova EA, Myasoedova VA, Melnichenko AA, Grechko AV, Orekhov AN |title=Small Dense Low-Density Lipoprotein as Biomarker for Atherosclerotic Diseases |journal= Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity |volume=2017 |article-number=1273042 |year=2017 |doi=10.1155/2017/1273042 |pmc= 5441126 |pmid = 28572872 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Guidelines ===
<div class="noprint">[[File:Blood values sorted by mass and molar concentration.png|thumb|upright=1.8|[[Reference ranges for blood tests]], showing usual ranges for triglycerides (increasing with age) in orange at right]]</div>

The [[National Cholesterol Education Program]] has set guidelines for triglyceride levels:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003493.htm |title=Triglycerides |website=MedlinePlus |access-date=April 23, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228062757/http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/Triglycerides_UCM_306029_Article.jsp |archive-date=February 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>Crawford, H., Micheal. ''Current Diagnosis & Treatment Cardiology''. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Medical, 2009. p19</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=2 | Level
! rowspan=2 | Interpretation
|-
! ([[Milligram|mg]]/[[Decilitre|dL]])
! ([[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]])
|-
| < 150
| < 1.70
| Normal range – low risk
|-
| 150–199
| 1.70–2.25
| Slightly above normal
|-
| 200–499
| 2.26–5.65
| Some risk
|-
| 500 or higher
| > 5.65
| Very high – high risk
|}
These levels are tested after [[Fasting#Medical application|fasting]] for 8 to 12 hours. Triglyceride levels remain temporarily higher for a period after eating.

The AHA recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100{{nbs}}mg/dL (1.1{{nbs}}mmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's considered normal?|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/triglycerides/art-20048186|website=Triglycerides: Why do they matter?|publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]|date=September 28, 2012}}</ref>

=== Reducing triglyceride levels ===
{{Excerpt|Hypertriglyceridemia|Treatment}}

==See also==
* [[Diet and heart disease]]
* [[Fatty acid synthesis]]
* [[Food composition data]]
* [[Western pattern diet]]

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<ref name="hoop2020e">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hooper L, Martin N, Jimoh OF, Kirk C, Foster E, Abdelhamid AS |title=Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2020 |volume=5 |issue=5 |article-number=CD011737 |issn=1465-1858 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011737.pub2 |pmid=32428300 |pmc=7388853 |type=Systematic review}}</ref>{{Update inline|reason=Updated version https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32827219|date = February 2025}}

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<ref name="vess2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vessby B, Uusitupa M, Hermansen K, Riccardi G, Rivellese AA, Tapsell LC, Nälsén C, Berglund L, Louheranta A, Rasmussen BM, Calvert GD, Maffetone A, Pedersen E, Gustafsson IB, Storlien LH | title = Substituting dietary saturated for monounsaturated fat impairs insulin sensitivity in healthy men and women: The KANWU Study | journal = Diabetologia | volume = 44 | issue = 3 | pages = 312–9 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11317662 | doi = 10.1007/s001250051620 | doi-access = free}}</ref>
<ref name="love2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lovejoy JC | title = The influence of dietary fat on insulin resistance | journal = Current Diabetes Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 435–40 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12643169 | doi = 10.1007/s11892-002-0098-y | s2cid = 31329463}}</ref>
<ref name="fuku2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fukuchi S, Hamaguchi K, Seike M, Himeno K, Sakata T, Yoshimatsu H | title = Role of fatty acid composition in the development of metabolic disorders in sucrose-induced obese rats | journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 229 | issue = 6 | pages = 486–93 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15169967 | doi = 10.1177/153537020422900606 | s2cid = 20966659}}</ref>
<ref name="merck0000">{{cite web | title = You Can Control Your Cholesterol: A Guide to Low-Cholesterol Living | publisher = [[Merck & Co.|MerckSource]] | url = http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_krames_template.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzkrameszSz1292_01zPzhtm | access-date = January 2, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090303124418/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_krames_template.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzkrameszSz1292_12zPzhtm | archive-date = March 3, 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="aha0000xc">{{cite web | title = Monounsaturated Fat | publisher = American Heart Association | url = https://healthyforgood.heart.org/Eat-smart/Articles/Monounsaturated-Fats | access-date = April 19, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180307184535/https://healthyforgood.heart.org/Eat-smart/Articles/Monounsaturated-Fats | archive-date = March 7, 2018 | url-status = live}}</ref>
</references>
{{Cookbook | Oil and fat}}
{{wiktionary | Fat}}
{{Fatsandoils}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nutrients]]
[[Category:Macromolecules]]