View source for First Punic War

{{Short description|War between Rome and Carthage (264–241 BC)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict    = First Punic War
| partof      = the [[Punic Wars]]
| image       = File:First Punic War 264 BC v3.png
| image_size  = 275
| caption     = The Western Mediterranean just before the start of the war in 264 BC: Rome is shown in red, Carthage in grey, and Syracuse in green
| date        = 264–241 BC ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|year1=241|year2=264}})
| place       = [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Sicily]], [[North Africa]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]]
| territory   = Roman annexation of [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicily]] (except [[Kingdom of Syracuse|Syracuse]])
| result      = Roman victory
| combatant1  = [[Roman Republic|Rome]]
| combatant2  = [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]]
}}
{{Campaignbox First Punic War}}
{{Campaignbox Punic Wars}}

The '''First Punic War''' (264–241 BC) was the first of [[Punic Wars|three wars]] fought between [[Roman Republic|Rome]] and [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]], the two main powers of the western [[Mediterranean]] in the early 3rd&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and greatest [[naval war]] of [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the two powers struggled for supremacy. The war was fought primarily on the Mediterranean island of [[Sicily]] and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa. After immense losses on both sides, the Carthaginians were defeated and Rome gained territory from Carthage.

The war began in 264&nbsp;BC with the Romans gaining a foothold on Sicily at [[Battle of Messana|Messana]] (modern [[Messina]]). The Romans then pressed [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], the only significant independent power on the island, into allying with them and laid siege to Carthage's main base at [[Agrigento|Akragas]]. A large Carthaginian army attempted to lift the siege in 262&nbsp;BC but was heavily defeated at the [[Battle of Agrigentum|Battle of Akragas]]. The Romans then built a [[Roman navy|navy]] to challenge the Carthaginians, and using novel tactics inflicted several defeats. A Carthaginian base on [[Corsica]] was seized, but an attack on [[Sardinia]] was repulsed; the base on Corsica was then lost. Taking advantage of their naval victories the Romans launched an invasion of North Africa, which the Carthaginians intercepted. At the [[Battle of Cape Ecnomus]] the Carthaginians were again beaten; this was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved. The invasion initially went well and in 255&nbsp;BC the Carthaginians [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]]; the proposed terms were so harsh that they fought on, [[Battle of the Bagradas River (255 BC)|defeating the invaders]]. The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors and the Carthaginians opposed it at the [[Battle of Cape Hermaeum]] off Africa; the Carthaginians were heavily defeated. The Roman fleet, in turn, was [[Sinking of the Roman fleet (255 BC)|devastated by a storm]] while returning to Italy, losing most of its ships and over 100,000 men.

The war continued, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage. The Carthaginians attacked and recaptured Akragas in 255&nbsp;BC but, not believing they could hold the city, they razed and abandoned it. The Romans rapidly rebuilt their fleet, adding 220 new ships, and captured Panormus (modern [[Palermo]]) in 254&nbsp;BC. The next year they lost 150 ships to a storm. In 251&nbsp;BC the Carthaginians attempted to recapture Panormus, but were defeated in a [[Battle of Panormus|battle outside the walls]]. Slowly the Romans had occupied most of Sicily; in 249&nbsp;BC they besieged the last two Carthaginian strongholds{{snd}}in the extreme west. They also launched a surprise attack on the Carthaginian fleet but were defeated at the [[Battle of Drepana]]. The Carthaginians followed up their victory and most of the remaining Roman warships were lost at the [[Battle of Phintias]]. After several years of stalemate, the Romans rebuilt their fleet again in 243&nbsp;BC and effectively [[blockade]]d the Carthaginian garrisons. Carthage assembled a fleet that attempted to relieve them, but it was destroyed at the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]] in 241&nbsp;BC, forcing the cut-off Carthaginian troops on Sicily to negotiate for peace.

A treaty was agreed. By its terms Carthage paid large [[War reparations|reparations]] and [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicily was annexed]] as a [[Roman province]]. Henceforth Rome was the leading military power in the western Mediterranean, and increasingly the Mediterranean region as a whole. The immense effort of building 1,000 galleys during the war laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance for 600 years. The end of the war sparked a [[Mercenary War|major but unsuccessful revolt]] within the Carthaginian Empire. The unresolved strategic competition between Rome and Carthage led to the eruption of the [[Second Punic War]] in 218&nbsp;BC.

==Primary sources==
[[File:Stele des Polybios.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|alt=A monochrome relief stele depicting a man in classical Greek clothing raising one arm|{{center|[[Polybius]], ancient Greek historian}}]]
The term ''Punic'' comes from the Latin word {{lang|la|Punicus}} (or {{lang|la|Poenicus}}), meaning "[[Phoenicia]]n", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}} The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian [[Polybius]] ({{circa|200}} – {{circa|118}}&nbsp;BC), a Greek sent to [[Rome]] in 167&nbsp;BC as a hostage.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=432}} His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics,{{sfn|Shutt|1938|p=53}} but he is known today for [[The Histories (Polybius)|''The Histories'']], written sometime after 146&nbsp;BC or about a century after the end of the war.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Walbank|1990|pp=11–12}} Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=x–xi}}{{sfn|Hau|2016|pp=23–24}}

Carthaginian written records [[Siege of Carthage (c. 149–146 BC)|were destroyed]] along with their capital, [[Carthage]], in 146&nbsp;BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, [[Greek language|Greek]] and Latin sources.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=23}} Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever possible personally interviewed participants in the events he wrote about.{{sfn|Shutt|1938|p=55}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=21}} Only the first book of the 40 comprising ''The Histories'' deals with the First Punic War.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=20–21}} The accuracy of Polybius's account has been much debated over the past 150 years, but the modern consensus is to accept it largely at face value, and the details of the war in modern sources are almost entirely based on interpretations of Polybius's account.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=x–xi, 82–84}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|pp=432–433}} The modern historian Andrew Curry considers that "Polybius turns out to [be] fairly reliable";{{sfn|Curry|2012|p=34}} while [[Craige B.&nbsp;Champion]] describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian".{{sfn|Hoyos|2015|p=102}} Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=432}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=22}} Modern historians usually take into account the fragmentary writings of various Roman annalists, especially [[Livy]] (who relied on Polybius), the Sicilian Greek [[Diodorus Siculus]], and the later Greek writers [[Appian]] and [[Cassius Dio]].{{sfn|Mineo|2015|pp=111–127}} The classicist [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] states that "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts".{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=21}}{{#tag:ref|Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)".{{sfn|Mineo|2015|pp=111–127}}|group=note}} Other sources include inscriptions, terrestrial archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme [[Olympias (trireme)|''Olympias'']].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=23, 98}}

Since 2010, 19 bronze warship [[Naval ram|rams]] have been found by archaeologists in the sea off the west coast of Sicily, a mix of Roman and Carthaginian. Ten bronze helmets and hundreds of [[amphorae]] have also been found.{{sfn|RPM Foundation|2020}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=12}}{{sfn|Prag|2013}}{{sfn|Murray|2019|}} The rams, seven of the helmets, and six intact amphorae, along with a large number of fragments, have since been recovered.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=12, 26, 31–32}} It is believed the rams were each attached to a sunken warship when they were deposited on the seabed.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=39}} The archaeologists involved stated that the location of artefacts so far discovered supports Polybius's account of where the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]] took place.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=35–36}} Based on the dimensions of the recovered rams, the archaeologists who have studied them believe they all came from [[trireme]]s, contrary to Polybius's account that all the warships involved were [[Hellenistic-era warships#Hellenistic-era warships|quinqueremes]].{{sfn|Murray|2019|}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=39–42}} However, they believe that the many amphorae identified confirm the accuracy of other aspects of Polybius's account of this battle: "It is the sought-after convergence of the archaeological and historical records."{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=45–46}}

==Background==
[[File:Carthage view.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|alt=A black and white aerial photograph of an urban area by the sea with a water-filled, torus-shaped inlet.|{{center|An aerial photograph of the remains of the naval base of the city of Carthage. The remains of the mercantile harbour are in the centre and those of the military harbour are bottom right. Before the war Carthage had the most powerful navy in the western Mediterranean.}}]]

The [[Roman Republic]] had been [[Roman expansion in Italy|aggressively expanding]] in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the First Punic War.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=157–158}} It had conquered peninsular Italy south of the River [[Arno]] by 272&nbsp;BC when the Greek cities of southern Italy ([[Magna Graecia]]) submitted at the conclusion of the [[Pyrrhic War]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=21–22}} During this period [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]], with its capital in what is now [[Tunisia]], had come to dominate southern [[Spain]], much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]], and the western half of [[Sicily]], in a military and commercial empire.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=29–30}} Beginning in 480&nbsp;BC Carthage had fought a [[Sicilian Wars|series of inconclusive wars]] against the Greek [[city state]]s of Sicily, led by [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=115, 132}} By 264&nbsp;BC Carthage and Rome were the preeminent powers in the western Mediterranean.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=25–26}} The two states had several times asserted their mutual friendship via [[Treaties between Rome and Carthage|formal alliances]]: in 509&nbsp;BC, 348&nbsp;BC and around 279&nbsp;BC. Relationships were good, with strong commercial links. During the Pyrrhic War of 280–275&nbsp;BC, against a king of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] who alternately fought Rome in Italy and Carthage on Sicily, Carthage provided [[materiel]] to the Romans and on at least one occasion used its navy to ferry a Roman force.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=94, 160, 163, 164–165}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=69–70}}

In 289&nbsp;BC a group of Italian [[mercenary|mercenaries]] known as [[Mamertines]], previously hired by Syracuse, occupied the city of Messana (modern [[Messina, Italy|Messina]]) on the north-eastern tip of Sicily.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=165}} Hard-pressed by Syracuse, the Mamertines appealed to both Rome and Carthage for assistance in 265&nbsp;BC. The Carthaginians acted first, pressing [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero&nbsp;II]], king of Syracuse, into taking no further action and convincing the Mamertines to accept a Carthaginian garrison.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=44}} According to Polybius, a considerable debate then took place in Rome as to whether to accept the Mamertines' appeal for assistance. As the Carthaginians had already garrisoned Messana, acceptance could easily lead to war with Carthage. The Romans had not previously displayed any interest in Sicily and did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful owners. However, many of them saw strategic and monetary advantages in gaining a foothold in Sicily. The deadlocked [[Roman Senate]], possibly at the instigation of [[Appius Claudius Caudex]], put the matter before the popular assembly in 264&nbsp;BC. Caudex encouraged a vote for action and held out the prospect of plentiful [[Looting|booty]]; the popular assembly decided to accept the Mamertines' request.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=42–45}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=150}}{{sfn|Scullard|2006|p=544}} Caudex was appointed commander of a military expedition with orders to cross to Sicily and place a Roman garrison in Messana.{{sfn|Starr|1991|p=479}}{{sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=168–169}}

The war began with the Romans landing on Sicily in 264&nbsp;BC. Despite the Carthaginian naval advantage, the Roman crossing of the [[Strait of Messina]] was ineffectively opposed.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=48–49}} Two legions commanded by Caudex [[Battle of Messana|marched to Messana]], where the Mamertines had expelled the Carthaginian garrison commanded by [[Hanno, Messana garrison commander|Hanno]] (no relation to [[Hanno II the Great|Hanno the Great]]) and were besieged by both the Carthaginians and the Syracusans.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=52}} The sources are unclear as to why, but first the Syracusans, and then the Carthaginians withdrew from the siege. The Romans marched south and in turn besieged Syracuse, but they had neither a strong enough force nor the secure supply lines to prosecute a successful siege, and soon withdrew.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=52–53}} The Carthaginians' experience over the previous two centuries of warfare on Sicily was that decisive action was impossible; military efforts petered out after heavy losses and huge expense. The Carthaginian leaders expected that this war would run a similar course. Meanwhile, their overwhelming maritime superiority would allow the war to be kept at a distance, and even for them to continue to prosper.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} This would allow them to recruit and pay an army that would operate in the open against the Romans, while their strongly fortified cities could be supplied by sea and provide a defensive base from which to operate.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=171}}

=== Armies ===
{{main|Roman army of the mid-Republic|Military of Carthage}}
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|alt=A monochrome relief stele depicting two figures dressed as Roman legionaries|{{center|Detail from the [[Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus|Ahenobarbus relief]] showing two Roman foot-soldiers from the second century BC}}]]

Adult male Roman citizens were liable for military service; most would serve as [[infantry]] with the wealthier minority providing a [[Roman cavalry|cavalry]] component. Traditionally the Romans would raise two [[Roman legion|legions]], each of 4,200 infantry{{#tag:ref|This could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=23}}|group=note}} and 300 cavalry. A small number of the infantry served as [[javelin]]-armed [[velites|skirmishers]]. The balance were equipped as [[heavy infantry]], with [[Body armor|body armour]], a large [[Scutum (shield)|shield]], and [[Gladius|short thrusting swords]]. They were divided into three ranks, of which the [[hastati|front rank]] also carried two javelins, while the [[principes|second]] and [[triari|third]] ranks had a [[Hasta (spear)|thrusting spear]] instead. Both legionary [[Maniple (military unit)|sub-units]] and individual [[legionary|legionaries]] fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their [[Socii|Latin allies]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=22–25}}

Carthaginian citizens served in their army only if there was a direct threat to the city. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many would be from North Africa which provided several types of fighters including: [[Close order formation|close-order]] infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting [[spear]]s; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry{{#tag:ref|"Shock" troops are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before or immediately upon contact.{{sfn|Jones|1987|p=1}}|group=note}} (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Both Spain and [[Gaul]] provided experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{#tag:ref|The Spanish used a heavy throwing spear which the Romans were later to adopt as the {{lang|la|[[pilum]]}}.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}|group=note}} Most of the Carthaginian infantry would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a [[phalanx]], usually forming two or three lines.{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Specialist [[Balearic slinger|slingers]] were recruited from the Balearic Islands.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=8}} The Carthaginians also employed [[war elephant]]s; North Africa had indigenous [[African forest elephant]]s at the time.{{#tag:ref|These elephants were typically about {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|adj=mid|-high}} at the shoulder, and should not be confused with the larger [[African bush elephant]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=240}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=27}} The sources are not clear as to whether they carried towers containing fighting men.{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=70, n. 76}}

=== Navies ===

[[Quinqueremes]], meaning "five-oared",{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} provided the workhorse of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the [[Punic Wars]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=27–28}} So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}} A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=100}} It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines{{snd}}usually soldiers assigned to the ship{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}{{snd}}if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=102–103}}

[[File:Corvus.svg|left|thumb|upright=0.85|alt=A diagram showing the location and usage of a {{lang|la|corvus}} on a Roman galley.|{{center|The ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'', the Roman [[Naval boarding|ship boarding]] device}}]]

Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training.{{sfn|Casson|1995|pp=278–280}} At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if the ship was to be handled effectively.{{sfn|de Souza|2008|p=358}} As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the [[corvus (weapon)|''corvus'']], a bridge {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=off}} long, with a heavy spike on the underside of the free end, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}} This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to [[Naval boarding|board enemy ships]] and capture them, rather than employing the previously [[Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys|traditional tactic]] of [[ramming]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}

All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of {{convert|60|cm|ft|sigfig=1|adj=mid |-wide }} bronze blades weighing up to {{convert|270|kg|lb|sigfig=2}} positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the [[Hellenistic-era warships|larger and heavier vessels]] adopted in this period lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram, while their sturdier construction reduced the ram's effect even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the {{lang|la|corvus}} was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the {{lang|la|corvus}} became useless.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}{{sfn|Wallinga|1956|pp=77–90}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=100–101, 103}}

==Sicily 264–256 BC==
{{Main|Battle of Messana|Battle of Agrigentum}}
[[File:Sicilia - prima guerra punica.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=A relief map of Sicily showing the main cities at the time of the First Punic War|{{center|Sicily, the main theatre of the war}}]]
Much of the war was to be fought on, or in the waters near, Sicily. Away from the coasts, its hilly and rugged terrain made manoeuvring large forces difficult and favoured defence over offence. Land operations were largely confined to [[Raid (military)|raids]], [[siege]]s, and [[interdiction]]; in 23 years of war on Sicily there were only two full-scale pitched battles{{snd}}[[Battle of Agrigentum|Akragas]] in 262&nbsp;BC and [[Battle of Panormus|Panormus]] in 250&nbsp;BC. Garrison duty and land [[blockade]]s were the most common operations for both armies.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=82}}

It was the long-standing Roman procedure to appoint two men each year, known as [[Roman consul|consuls]], to each lead an army. In 263&nbsp;BC both consuls were sent to Sicily with a force of 40,000.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=74}} Syracuse was again besieged, and with no Carthaginian assistance anticipated, Syracuse rapidly made peace with the Romans: it became a Roman ally, paid an indemnity of 100 [[talent (measurement)|talents]] of silver{{#tag:ref|100 talents was approximately {{convert|2.6|lt|lk=out|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} of silver.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=note}} and, perhaps most importantly, agreed to help supply the Roman army in Sicily.{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=71}} Following the defection of Syracuse, several small Carthaginian dependencies switched to the Romans.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=171}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=72–73}} Akragas (Latin: Agrigentum; modern [[Agrigento]]), a port city halfway along the south coast of Sicily, was chosen by the Carthaginians as their strategic centre. The Romans marched on it in 262&nbsp;BC and besieged it.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} The Romans had an inadequate supply system, partly because the Carthaginian naval supremacy prevented them from shipping supplies by sea, and they were not in any case accustomed to feeding an army as large as 40,000 men. At harvest time most of the army was dispersed over a wide area to harvest the crops and to forage. The Carthaginians, commanded by [[Hannibal Gisco]], sortied in force, taking the Romans by surprise and penetrating their camp; the Romans rallied and routed the Carthaginians; after this experience both sides were more guarded.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=77}}

[[Image:Romanadvance (cropped).JPG|thumb|left|upright=1|alt=a map of Sicily showing Rome and Carthage's territories, movements and the main military clashes 260–256 BC|Continued Roman advance 260–256&nbsp;BC]]

Meanwhile, Carthage had recruited an army, which assembled in Africa and was shipped to Sicily. It was composed of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 60 elephants, and was commanded by [[Hanno, son of Hannibal]]; it was partly made up of [[Ligures|Ligurians]], [[Celts]] and [[Iberians]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=171–172}} Five months after the siege began, Hanno marched to Akragas's relief.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} When he arrived, he merely camped on high ground, engaged in desultory skirmishing and trained his army. Two months later, in spring 261&nbsp;BC, he attacked. The Carthaginians were defeated with heavy losses at the Battle of Akragas. The Romans, under both consuls{{snd}}[[Lucius Postumius Megellus (consul 262 BC)|Lucius Postumius Megellus]] and [[Quintus Mamilius Vitulus]]{{snd}} pursued, capturing the Carthaginians' elephants and [[Train (military)|baggage train]]. That night the Carthaginian garrison escaped while the Romans were distracted. The next day the Romans seized the city and its inhabitants, selling 25,000 of them into slavery.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=179–180}}

After this success for the Romans, the war became fragmented for several years, with minor successes for each side, but no clear focus. In part this was because the Romans diverted many of their resources to an ultimately fruitless campaign against Corsica and Sardinia, and then into the equally fruitless expedition to Africa.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} After taking Akragas the Romans advanced westward to besiege [[Mytistraton]] for seven months, without success.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=82}} In 259&nbsp;BC they advanced toward [[Termini Imerese|Thermae]] on the north coast. After a quarrel, the Roman troops and their allies set up separate camps. [[Hamilcar (Drepanum)|Hamilcar]] took advantage of this to launch a [[counterattack|counter-attack]], taking one of the contingents by surprise as it was breaking camp and killing 4,000–6,000. Hamilcar went on to seize [[Enna]], in central Sicily,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=65–66}} and [[Kamarina, Sicily|Camarina]], in the south east, dangerously close to Syracuse. Hamilcar seemed close to overrunning the whole of Sicily.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=75, 79}} The following year the Romans retook Enna and finally captured Mytistraton. They then moved on Panormus (modern [[Palermo]]), but had to withdraw, although they did capture [[Hippana]]. In 258&nbsp;BC they recaptured Camarina after a lengthy siege.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=82–83}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=75}} For the next few years petty raiding, skirmishing and the occasional defection of a smaller town from one side to the other continued on Sicily.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=77–78}}

==Rome builds a fleet==
{{Main|Battle of Mylae|Battle of Sulci}}{{See also|Roman navy#First Punic War|l1=Roman navy|Battle of the Lipari Islands}}
[[Image:Trireme cut-fr.svg|thumb|right|alt=A diagram depicting the positions of the rowers of the three different oars in a trireme|{{center|Depiction of the position of the rowers of the three different oars in a Greek [[trireme]]}}]]

The war in Sicily reached a stalemate, as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interdict.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=97}} The focus of the war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had usually relied on small [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]] provided by their Latin or Greek allies.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=91–92, 97}} In 260&nbsp;BC Romans set out to construct a [[Roman navy|fleet]] and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme as a blueprint for their own.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=97, 99–100}} As novice [[Shipbuilding|shipwrights]], the Romans built copies that were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels, making them much slower and less maneuvrable.{{sfn|Murray|2011|p=69}}

The Romans built 120 warships and despatched them to Sicily in 260&nbsp;BC for their crews to carry out basic training. One of the consuls for the year, [[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina|Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio]], sailed with the first 17 ships to arrive to the [[Aeolian Islands|Lipari Islands]], a little way off the north-east coast of Sicily, in an attempt to [[Battle of the Lipari Islands|seize the islands' main port]], [[Lipara]]. The Carthaginian fleet was commanded by Hannibal Gisco, the general who had commanded the garrison of Akragas, and was based at Panormus, some {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=off}} from Lipara. When Hannibal heard of the Romans' move he despatched 20 ships under [[Boodes]] to the town. The Carthaginians arrived at night and trapped the Romans in the harbour. Boodes' ships attacked and Scipio's inexperienced men offered little resistance. Some Romans panicked and fled inland and the consul himself was taken prisoner. All of the Roman ships were captured, most with little damage.{{sfn|Harris|1979|pp=184–185}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=181}} A little later, Hannibal was scouting with 50 Carthaginian ships when he encountered the full Roman fleet. He escaped, but lost most of his ships.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=67}} It was after this skirmish that the Romans installed the {{lang|la|corvus}} on their ships.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=68}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=182}}

Scipio's fellow consul, [[Gaius Duilius]], placed the Roman army units under subordinates and took command of the fleet. He promptly sailed, seeking battle. The two fleets met off the coast of [[Mylae]] in the [[Battle of Mylae]]. Hannibal had 130 ships, and the historian John Lazenby calculates that Duilius had approximately the same number.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=70–71}} The Carthaginians anticipated victory, due to the superior experience of their crews, and their faster and more manoeuvrable galleys, and broke formation to close rapidly with the Romans.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=63}} The first 30 Carthaginian ships were grappled by the {{lang|la|corvus}} and successfully boarded by the Romans, including Hannibal's ship – he escaped in a [[skiff]]. Seeing this, the remaining Carthaginians swung wide, attempting to take the Romans in the sides or rear. The Romans successfully countered and captured a further 20 Carthaginian vessels.{{#tag:ref|The figures for Carthaginian losses are taken from Polybius. Other ancient sources give 30 or 31 ships captured and 13 or 14 sunk.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=73–74}}|group=note}} The surviving Carthaginians broke off the action, and being faster than the Romans were able to escape. Duilius sailed to relieve the Roman-held city of [[Segesta]], which had been under siege.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=63}}

From early 262&nbsp;BC Carthaginian ships had been raiding the Italian coast from bases on Sardinia and Corsica.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=58}} The year after Mylae, 259&nbsp;BC, the consul [[Lucius Cornelius Scipio (consul 259 BC)|Lucius Cornelius Scipio]] led part of the fleet against [[Aléria]] in Corsica and captured it. He then attacked [[Olbia|Ulbia]] on Sardinia, but was repulsed,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} and also lost Aléria.{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p= 154}} In 258&nbsp;BC a stronger Roman fleet engaged a smaller Carthaginian fleet at the [[Battle of Sulci]] off the city of [[Sulci]], in western Sardinia, and inflicted a heavy defeat. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal Gisco, who abandoned his men and fled to Sulci, was later captured by his soldiers and [[crucifixion|crucified]]. Despite this victory, the Romans{{snd}}who were attempting to support simultaneous offensives against both Sardinia and Sicily{{snd}}were unable to exploit it, and the attack on Carthaginian-held Sardinia petered out.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}}

In 257&nbsp;BC the Roman fleet happened to be anchored off [[Tindari|Tyndaris]] in north-east Sicily when the Carthaginian fleet, unaware of its presence, sailed past in loose formation. The Roman commander, [[Gaius Atilius Regulus (consul 257 BC)|Gaius Atilius Regulus]], ordered an immediate attack, initiating the [[Battle of Tyndaris]]. This led to the Roman fleet in turn putting to sea in a disordered manner. The Carthaginians responded rapidly, ramming and sinking nine of the leading ten Roman ships. As the main Roman force came into action they sank eight Carthaginian ships and captured ten. The Carthaginians withdrew, again being faster than the Romans and so able to make off without further loss.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=109–110}} The Romans then raided both the Liparis and [[Malta]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=78}}

==Invasion of Africa==
{{main|Battle of Cape Ecnomus|Siege of Aspis|Battle of Adys|Battle of Tunis|Sinking of the Roman fleet (255 BC)}}

[[Image:First Punic War Africa 256-255BC.svg|thumb|upright=1|left|alt=a map of what is now north-east Tunisia, showing the advance, main military clashes and retreat of the invading Roman army in 256–255 BC|1: Romans land and capture Aspis (256&nbsp;BC)<br />
2: Roman victory at Adys (256&nbsp;BC)<br />
3: Romans capture Tunis (256&nbsp;BC)<br />
4: Xanthippus sets out from Carthage with a large army (255&nbsp;BC)<br />
5: Romans are defeated at the Battle of Tunis. (255&nbsp;BC)<br />
6: Romans retreat to Aspis and leave Africa. (254&nbsp;BC)]]
Rome's naval victories at Mylae and Sulci, and their frustration at the stalemate in Sicily, led them to adopt a sea-based strategy and to develop a plan to invade the Carthaginian heartland in North Africa and threaten Carthage (close to [[Tunis]]).{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=155}} Both sides were determined to establish [[naval supremacy]] and invested large amounts of money and manpower in maintaining and increasing the size of their navies.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=110}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=83}} The Roman fleet of 330 warships and an unknown number of transports sailed from [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], the port of Rome, in early 256&nbsp;BC, commanded by the consuls for the year, [[Marcus Atilius Regulus (consul 267 BC)|Marcus Atilius Regulus]] and [[Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus]].{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=434}} The Romans embarked approximately 26,000 legionaries from the Roman forces on Sicily shortly before the battle. They planned to cross to Africa and invade what is now Tunisia.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}{{sfn|Walbank|1959|p=10}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=84–85}}

The Carthaginians knew of the Romans' intentions and mustered all their 350 warships under Hanno the Great and Hamilcar, off the south coast of Sicily to intercept them. With a combined total of about 680 warships carrying up to 290,000 crew and marines, the ensuing [[Battle of Cape Ecnomus]] was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=110–111}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=87}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=436}} At the start of the battle the Carthaginians took the initiative, hoping their superior ship handling skills would tell.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=112–113}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=459}} After a day of prolonged and confused fighting the Carthaginians were defeated, losing 30 ships sunk and 64 captured to Roman losses of 24 ships sunk.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=69}}

After the victory the Roman army, commanded by Regulus, landed in Africa near Aspis (modern [[Kelibia]]) on the [[Cape Bon|Cape Bon Peninsula]] and began ravaging the Carthaginian countryside. After a [[Siege of Aspis|brief siege]], Aspis was captured.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=176}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=186}} Most of the Roman ships returned to Sicily, leaving Regulus with 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry to continue the war in Africa; Regulus laid siege to the city of [[Uthina|Adys]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=186}} The Carthaginians had recalled Hamilcar from Sicily with 5,000 infantry and 500 cavalry. Hamilcar, [[Hasdrubal, son of Hanno|Hasdrubal]] and a third general called Bostar were placed in joint command of an army which was strong in cavalry and elephants and was approximately the same size as the Roman force. The Carthaginians established a camp on a hill near Adys.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=85}} The Romans carried out a night march and launched a surprise dawn attack on the camp from two directions. After confused fighting the Carthaginians broke and fled. Their losses are unknown, although their elephants and cavalry escaped with few casualties.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=86}}

The Romans followed up and captured Tunis, only {{convert|16|km|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} from Carthage. From Tunis the Romans raided and devastated the immediate area around Carthage. In despair, the Carthaginians [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]] but Regulus offered such harsh terms that the Carthaginians decided to fight on.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=87}} Charge of the training of their army was given to the [[Sparta]]n mercenary commander [[Xanthippus of Carthage|Xanthippus]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=188}} In 255&nbsp;BC Xanthippus led an army of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and 100 elephants against the Romans and defeated them at the [[Battle of the Bagradas River (255 BC)|Battle of Tunis]]. Approximately 2,000 Romans retreated to Aspis; 500, including Regulus, were captured; the rest were killed. Xanthippus, fearful of the envy of the Carthaginian generals he had outdone, took his pay and returned to Greece.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=188}} The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors. It was intercepted by a Carthaginian fleet off Cape Bon (in the north east of modern Tunisia) and in the [[Battle of Cape Hermaeum]] the Carthaginians were heavily defeated, losing 114 ships captured.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{#tag:ref|This assumes, per G. K. Tipps, that all 114 captured Carthaginian vessels were sailing with the Romans.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}|group=note}} The Roman fleet was devastated by a storm while returning to Italy, with 384 ships sunk from their total of 464 and 100,000 men lost, the majority non-Roman Latin allies.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=189}}{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=66}}{{nbs}} It is possible that the presence of the {{lang|la|corvus}} made the Roman ships unusually unseaworthy; there is no record of them being used after this disaster.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=112, 117}}

==Sicily 255–248 BC==
{{Main|Battle of Panormus|Battle of Drepana|Battle of Phintias|Siege of Lilybaeum (250–241 BC)}}
[[Image:Attacksrenewed (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright=1|alt=a map of Sicily showing Rome and Carthage's territories, movements and the main military clashes 253–251 BC|{{center|Roman attacks 253–251&nbsp;BC}}]]
Having lost most of their fleet in the storm of 255&nbsp;BC, the Romans rapidly rebuilt it, adding 220 new ships.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=114}} In 254&nbsp;BC the Carthaginians attacked and captured Akragas, but not believing they could hold the city, they burned it, razed its walls and left.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=114–116, 169}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=158}} Meanwhile, the Romans launched a determined offensive in Sicily. Their entire fleet, under both consuls, attacked Panormus early in the year. The city was surrounded and blockaded, and siege engines set up. These made a breach in the walls which the Romans stormed, capturing the outer town and giving [[no quarter]]. The inner town promptly surrendered. The 14,000 inhabitants who could afford it ransomed themselves and the remaining 13,000 were sold into slavery. Much of western inland Sicily now went over to the Romans: [[Ietas]], [[Solous]], Petra, and [[Tyndaris]] all came to [[peace|terms]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=80}}

In 253&nbsp;BC the Romans changed their focus to Africa again and carried out several raids. They lost another 150 ships to a storm while returning from raiding the North African coast east of Carthage. They rebuilt again.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=189–190}} The next year the Romans shifted their attention to north-west Sicily. They sent a naval expedition toward [[Lilybaeum]]. En route, the Romans seized and burned the Carthaginian hold-out cities of [[Selinunte|Selinous]] and [[Heraclea Minoa]], but they failed to take Lilybaeum. In 252&nbsp;BC they captured Thermae and Lipara, which had been isolated by the fall of Panormus. Otherwise they avoided battle in 252 and 251&nbsp;BC, according to Polybius because they feared the war elephants which the Carthaginians had shipped to Sicily.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=118}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=159}}
[[File:C._Caecilius_Metellus_Caprarius,_denarius,_125_BC,_RRC_269-1.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|Denarius of [[Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius|C. Caecilius Metellus Caprarius]], minted in 125&nbsp;BC. The reverse depicts the triumph of his ancestor [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (consul 251 BC)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], with the elephants he had captured at [[Battle of Panormus|Panormus]].{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=292, 293}}]]

In late summer 251&nbsp;BC{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=93}} the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal{{snd}}who had faced Regulus in Africa{{snd}}hearing that one consul had left Sicily for the winter with half of the Roman army, advanced on Panormus and devastated the countryside.{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=159}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=169}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=82}} The Roman army, which had been dispersed to gather the harvest, withdrew into Panormus. Hasdrubal boldly advanced most of his army, including the elephants, towards the city walls. The Roman commander [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (consul 251 BC)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]] sent out skirmishers to harass the Carthaginians, keeping them constantly supplied with javelins from the stocks within the city. The ground was covered with [[earthworks (military)|earthworks]] constructed during the Roman siege, making it difficult for the elephants to advance. Peppered with missiles and unable to retaliate, the elephants fled through the Carthaginian infantry behind them. Metellus had opportunistically moved a large force to the Carthaginian's left flank, and they charged into their disordered opponents. The Carthaginians fled; Metellus captured ten elephants but did not permit a pursuit.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=82–83}} Contemporary accounts do not report either side's losses, and modern historians consider later claims of 20,000–30,000 Carthaginian casualties improbable.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=93–94}}

[[Image:Attacksrenewed2 (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright=1|alt=a map of Sicily showing Rome and Carthage's territories, movements and the main military clashes 253–251 BC|{{center|Roman attacks 250–249&nbsp;BC}}]]
Encouraged by their victory at Panormus, the Romans moved against the main Carthaginian base on Sicily, Lilybaeum, in 249&nbsp;BC. A large army commanded by the year's consuls [[Publius Claudius Pulcher (consul 249 BC)|Publius Claudius Pulcher]] and [[Lucius Junius Pullus (consul 249 BC)|Lucius Junius Pullus]] besieged the city. They had rebuilt their fleet, and 200 ships blockaded the harbour.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=190}} Early in the blockade, 50 Carthaginian quinqueremes gathered off the [[Aegates Islands]], which lie {{convert|15|-|40|km|0|abbr=on}} to the west of Sicily. Once there was a strong west wind, they sailed into Lilybaeum before the Romans could react and unloaded reinforcements and a large quantity of supplies. They evaded the Romans by leaving at night, evacuating the Carthaginian cavalry.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=117}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=85}} The Romans sealed off the landward approach to Lilybaeum with earth and timber camps and walls. They made repeated attempts to block the harbour entrance with a heavy timber [[Boom (navigational barrier)|boom]], but due to the prevailing sea conditions they were unsuccessful.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=84–86}} The Carthaginian garrison was kept supplied by blockade runners, light and manoeuvrable quinqueremes with highly trained crews and experienced [[Maritime pilot|pilots]].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=117–118}}

Pulcher decided to attack the Carthaginian fleet, which was in the harbour of the nearby city of Drepana (modern [[Trapani]]). The Roman fleet sailed by night to carry out a surprise attack, but became scattered in the dark. The Carthaginian commander [[Adherbal (admiral)|Adherbal]] was able to lead his fleet out to sea before they were trapped and counter-attacked in the [[Battle of Drepana]]. The Romans were pinned against the shore and after a hard day's fighting were heavily defeated by the more manoeuvrable Carthaginian ships with their better-trained crews. It was Carthage's greatest naval victory of the war.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=117–121}} Carthage turned to the maritime offensive, inflicting another heavy naval defeat at the [[Battle of Phintias]] and all but swept the Romans from the sea.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=88–91}} It was to be seven years before Rome again attempted to field a substantial fleet, while Carthage put most of its ships into reserve  to save money and free up manpower.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=163}}

==Conclusion==
{{Main|Siege of Drepana|Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC)|Battle of the Aegates|l3=Battle of the Aegates Islands}}
[[File:CILI(2)p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1|alt=a stone slab, densely engraved with Latin text|{{center|A fragment of the [[Fasti Triumphales]], listing all of the Roman [[Roman triumph|triumphators]] of the war.}}]]

By 248&nbsp;BC the Carthaginians held only two cities on Sicily: Lilybaeum and [[Drepana]]; these were well-fortified and situated on the west coast, where they could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=94–95}} When [[Hamilcar Barca]]{{#tag:ref|Hamilcar Barca was the father of [[Hannibal]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=165}}|group=note}} took command of the Carthaginians on Sicily in 247&nbsp;BC he was only given a small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn. Hostilities between Roman and Carthaginian forces declined to small-scale land operations, which suited the Carthaginian strategy. Hamilcar employed [[combined arms]] tactics in a [[Fabian strategy]] from his base at [[Eryx (Sicily)|Eryx]], north of Drepana. This [[guerrilla warfare]] kept the Roman legions pinned down and preserved Carthage's foothold in Sicily.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=144}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=92–94}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=95}}

After more than 20 years of war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted.{{sfn|Bringmann|2007|p=127}} Evidence of Carthage's financial situation includes their request for a 2,000 talent loan{{#tag:ref|2,000 talents was approximately {{convert|51|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} of silver.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=note}} from [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], which was refused.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=92}} Rome was also close to [[Sovereign default|bankruptcy]] and the number of adult male citizens, who provided the manpower for the navy and the legions, had declined by 17 percent since the start of the war.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=91}} Goldsworthy describes Roman manpower losses as "appalling".{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=131}}

In late 243&nbsp;BC, realizing they would not capture Drepana and Lilybaeum unless they could extend their blockade to the sea, the Senate decided to build a new fleet.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} With the state's coffers exhausted, the Senate approached Rome's wealthiest citizens for loans to finance the construction of one ship each, repayable from the [[War reparations|reparations]] to be imposed on Carthage once the war was won. The result was a fleet of approximately 200 quinqueremes, built, equipped, and crewed without government expense.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=150}} The Romans modelled the ships of their new fleet on a captured blockade runner with especially good qualities.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} By now, the Romans were experienced at shipbuilding, and with a proven vessel as a model produced high-quality quinqueremes.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=124}} Importantly, the {{lang|la|corvus}} was abandoned,{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} which improved the ships' speed and handling but forced a change in tactics on the Romans; they would need to be superior sailors, rather than superior soldiers, to beat the Carthaginians.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=150}}{{sfn|Casson|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=95}}

The Carthaginians raised a larger fleet which they intended to use to run supplies into Sicily. It would then embark much of the Carthaginian army stationed there to use as marines. It was intercepted by the Roman fleet under [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] and [[Quintus Valerius Falto]], and in the hard-fought Battle of the Aegates Islands the better-trained Romans defeated the undermanned and ill-trained Carthaginian fleet.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=96}} After achieving this decisive victory, the Romans continued their land operations in Sicily against Lilybaeum and Drepana.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=125–126}} The Carthaginian Senate was reluctant to allocate the resources necessary to have another fleet built and manned.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=97}} Instead, it ordered Hamilcar to negotiate a peace treaty with the Romans, which he left up to his subordinate [[Gisco (died 239 BC)|Gisco]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=97}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=157}} The [[Treaty of Lutatius]] was signed and brought the First Punic War to its end: Carthage evacuated Sicily, handed over all prisoners taken during the war, and paid an [[indemnity]] of 3,200 talents{{#tag:ref|3,200 talents was approximately {{convert|81|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} of silver.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=note}} over ten years.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}}

==Aftermath==
[[File:First Punic War 237 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=A map of the western Mediterranean showing the territory ceded to Rome by Carthage under the treaty.|{{center|Territory ceded to Rome by Carthage under the treaty is shown in pink}}]]

The war lasted 23 years, the longest war in ancient Romano-Greek history and the greatest naval war of the ancient world.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=x and 1}} In its aftermath Carthage attempted to avoid paying in full the foreign troops who had fought its war. Eventually [[Mercenary War|they rebelled]] and were joined by many disgruntled local groups.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=112–114}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Hoyos|2000|p=371}} They were put down with great difficulty and considerable savagery. In 237&nbsp;BC Carthage prepared an expedition to recover the island of Sardinia, which had been lost to the rebels.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=135}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=209, 212–213}} Cynically, the Romans stated they considered this an act of war. Their peace terms were the ceding of Sardinia and Corsica and the payment of an additional 1,200-talent indemnity.{{#tag:ref|1,200 talents was approximately {{convert|30|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=in}} of silver.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=note}} Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than enter into a conflict with Rome again; the additional payment and the renunciation of Sardinia and Corsica were added to the treaty as a codicil.{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=175}} These actions by Rome fuelled resentment in Carthage, which was not reconciled to Rome's perception of its situation, and are considered contributory factors in the outbreak of the [[Second Punic War]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=175}}

The leading role of Hamilcar Barca in the defeat of the mutinous foreign troops and African rebels greatly enhanced the prestige and power of the [[Barcid]] family. In 237&nbsp;BC Hamilcar led many of his veterans on an expedition to expand Carthaginian holdings in southern [[Carthaginian Iberia|Iberia]] (modern Spain). Over the following 20 years this was to become a semi-autonomous Barcid fiefdom and the source of much of the silver used to pay the large indemnity owed to Rome.{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=13}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=152–155}}

For Rome, the end of the First Punic War marked the start of its expansion beyond the Italian Peninsula. Sicily became the first [[Roman province]] as [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicilia]], governed by a former [[praetor]]. Sicily would become important to Rome as [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|a source of grain]].{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}} [[Provincia Sardinia et Corsica|Sardinia and Corsica]], combined, also became a Roman province and a source of grain, under a praetor, although a strong military presence was required for at least the next seven years, as the Romans struggled to suppress the local inhabitants.{{sfn|Hoyos|2015|p=211}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=136}} [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] was granted nominal independence and ally status for the lifetime of Hiero II.{{sfn|Allen|Myers|1890|p=111}} Henceforth Rome was the leading military power in the western Mediterranean, and increasingly the Mediterranean region as a whole.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=213}} The Romans had built more than 1,000 galleys during the war, and this experience of building, manning, training, supplying and maintaining such numbers of ships laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance for 600 years.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=128–129, 357, 359–360}} The question of which state was to control the western Mediterranean remained open, and when Carthage besieged the Roman-protected town of [[Saguntum]] in eastern Iberia in 218&nbsp;BC it ignited the [[Second Punic War]] with Rome.{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=13}}

==Notes, citations and sources==
===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note|30em}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|20em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book|last1=Allen|first1=William|last2=Myers|first2=Philip Van Ness|author-link2=Philip van Ness Myers|title=Ancient History for Colleges and High Schools: Part II – A Short History of the Roman People|location=Boston|publisher=Ginn & Company|year=1890|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028286692|oclc=702198714 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bagnall |first=Nigel |date=1999 |title=The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the Mediterranean|location=London |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-0-7126-6608-4|author-link=  Nigel Bagnall }}
* {{cite book|last=Bringmann|first=Klaus|title=A History of the Roman Republic|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Polity Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7456-3370-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftlpza5l9R4C}}
* {{cite book|last=Casson|first=Lionel|title=The Ancient Mariners|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|edition=2nd|year=1991|isbn=978-0-691-06836-7}}
* {{cite book  |title=Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World |first=Lionel|last= Casson  |location=Baltimore, MD |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8018-5130-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger |author-link=Roger Collins|title=Spain: An Oxford Archaeological Guide|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-285300-4}}
* {{cite book
|last=Crawford
|first=Michael
|date=1974
|title=Roman Republican Coinage
|location=Cambridge
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|oclc=859598398
|author-link=Michael Crawford (historian)}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =65
| issue =1
| pages =32–37
| last =Curry
| first =Andrew
| title =The Weapon That Changed History
| journal =Archaeology
| date =2012
| jstor =41780760}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =143
| issue =3/4
| pages =369–380
|first=Dexter
|last=Hoyos
|date=2000
| title =Towards a Chronology of the 'Truceless War', 241–237 B.C.
| journal =Rheinisches Museum für Philologie
| jstor =41234468}}
* {{cite book
|editor1-last=Hoyos
|editor1-first=Dexter
|first=Paul
|last=Erdkamp
|chapter=Manpower and Food Supply in the First and Second Punic Wars
|date=2015
|orig-year=2011
|title=A Companion to the Punic Wars
|location=Chichester, West Sussex
|publisher=John Wiley
|pages= 58–76
|isbn=978-1-119-02550-4
}}
* {{citation |last=Ghaki |first=Mansour |contribution=Toponymie et Onomastique Libyques: L'Apport de l'Écriture Punique/Néopunique |contribution-url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/50105050/Toponymie_et_onomastique_Lapport_de_lecriture_punique_neopunique.pdf |pages=65–71 |date=2015 |location=Naples |publisher=Unior |editor=Anna Maria di Tolla |display-editors=0 |title=La Lingua nella Vita e la Vita della Lingua: Itinerari e Percorsi degli Studi Berberi |series=Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi |volume=4 |isbn=978-88-6719-125-3 |issn=2283-5636 |language=fr |access-date=2018-11-02 |archive-date=2020-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428044658/https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/50105050/Toponymie_et_onomastique_Lapport_de_lecriture_punique_neopunique.pdf |url-status=dead }} 
* {{cite book|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy|title=The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|year=2006|isbn=978-0-304-36642-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Harris|first=William|title=War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC|location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|date=1979|isbn=978-0-19-814866-1}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hau
|first=Lisa
|date=2016
|title=Moral History from Herodotus to Diodorus Siculus
|location=Edinburgh
|publisher=Edinburgh University Press
|isbn=978-1-4744-1107-3
}}
* {{citation |last1=Head |first1=Barclay |editor=Ed Snible |first2=G.F.|last2= Hill |first3=George |last3=MacDonald |first4=W. |last4=Wroth  |url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/index.html |title=Historia Numorum |contribution=Numidia|contribution-url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/numidia.html |pages=884–887 |date=1911 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press }}
* {{cite book
|first=Dexter
|last=Hoyos
|date=2015
|orig-year=2011
|title=A Companion to the Punic Wars
|location=Chichester, West Sussex
|publisher=John Wiley
|isbn=978-1-119-02550-4
}}
* {{cite book
|last=  Jones
|first=Archer
|date=1987
|title=The Art of War in the Western World
|location=Urbana 
|publisher=University of Illinois Press
|isbn=978-0-252-01380-5
}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Hoyos|editor1-first=Dexter|last=Koon
|first=Sam|chapter=Phalanx and Legion: the "Face" of Punic War Battle
|date=2015
|orig-year=2011|title=A Companion to the Punic Wars
|location=Chichester, West Sussex|publisher=John Wiley|pages=77–94  |isbn=978-1-119-02550-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Lazenby|first=John|title=The First Punic War: A Military History|location=Stanford, California|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8047-2673-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Miles|first=Richard|author-link= Richard Miles (historian) |title=Carthage Must be Destroyed|location=London|publisher=Penguin |year=2011|isbn=978-0-14-101809-6}}
* {{cite book
|editor1-last=Hoyos
|editor1-first=Dexter
|first=Bernard
|last=Mineo
|chapter=Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)
|date=2015
|orig-year=2011
|title=A Companion to the Punic Wars
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzJ3BwAAQBAJ&q=A+companion+to+the+Punic+Wars
|location=Chichester, West Sussex
|publisher=John Wiley
|pages= 111–128
|isbn=978-1-119-02550-4
}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Age of Titans: The Rise and Fall of the Great Hellenistic Navies|last=Murray|first=William  |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-993240-5|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite web
|url=https://classicalstudies.org/annual-meeting/145/abstract/ship-classes-egadi-rams-and-polybius’-account-first-punic-war
|title=The Ship Classes of the Egadi Rams and Polybius' Account of the First Punic War
|last=Murray
|first=William
|date=2019
|website= Society for Classical Studies
|access-date=16 January 2020}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_releases_for_journalists/130405.html/ |access-date=2014-08-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001150839/http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_releases_for_journalists/130405.html |archive-date=2013-10-01
|title=Rare Bronze Rams Excavated from Site of the Final Battle of the First Punic War
|last=Prag
|first=Jonathan
|date=2013
|website=University of Oxford media site
|publisher=University of Oxford }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Boris Rankov |editor-last1=Hoyos |editor-first1=Dexter |title=A Companion to the Punic Wars |chapter=A War of Phases: Strategies and Stalemates |pages=149–166 |author-last=Rankov |author-first=Boris |location=Chichester, West Sussex|publisher=John Wiley |date=2015|orig-year=2011|isbn=978-1-4051-7600-2 }}
* {{cite web
|url=https://rpmnautical.org/projects/egadi-islands-project/
|title=Battle of the Egadi Islands Project
|date=2020
|ref={{sfnRef|RPM Foundation|2020}}
|publisher=RPM Nautical Foundation
|access-date=7 October 2020
}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =67
| issue =67
| pages =59–79
| last =Sabin
| first =Philip
| title =The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War
| journal =Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement
| date =1996
| jstor =43767903
 |author-link= Philip Sabin
}}
* {{cite book |first=H.H. |last=Scullard |author-link= Howard Hayes Scullard|chapter=Carthage and Rome |pages=486–569
|editor1-first= F. W. |editor1-last=Walbank |editor2-first=A. E. |editor2-last=Astin |editor3-first=M. W. |editor3-last=Frederiksen |editor4-first=R. M. |editor4-last=Ogilvie|title=Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 7, Part 2, 2nd Edition| location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |orig-year=1989| isbn= 978-0-521-23446-7}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =8
| issue =22
| pages =50–57
| last =Shutt
| first =Rowland
| title =Polybius: A Sketch
| journal =Greece & Rome
| date =1938
| jstor =642112
| doi =10.1017/S001738350000588X| s2cid =162905667
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sidwell|first1=Keith C.|author2-link=Peter Jones (classicist)|location=Cambridge; New York|last2=Jones|first2=Peter V.|title=The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-38600-5}}
* {{Cite book
 | first = Philip
 | last = de Souza
 | chapter=Naval Forces
 | pages = 357–367
 | editor1-first = Philip
 | editor1-last = Sabin
 | editor2-first = Hans
 | editor2-last = van Wees
 | editor3-first = Michael
 | editor3-last = Whitby |name-list-style=amp
 | title = The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, Volume 1: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
 | year = 2008
 |location=Cambridge
 | isbn = 978-0-521-85779-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Starr|first=Chester |author-link=Chester Starr|title=A History of the Ancient World|location=New York, New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|orig-year=1965|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-506628-9}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume = 34
| issue = 4
| pages =432–465
| last = Tipps
| first = G.K.
| title = The Battle of Ecnomus
| journal = Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
| date = 1985
| jstor = 4435938}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =25
| pages =7–48
| last1 =Tusa
| first1 =Sebastiano
 |author1-link=  Sebastiano Tusa
| last2 =  Royal
| first2 =Jeffrey
| title =The Landscape of the Naval Battle at the Egadi Islands (241 B.C.)
| journal =Journal of Roman Archaeology
| date =2012
| issn =1047-7594
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S1047759400001124| s2cid =159518193
}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =64
| issue =1
| pages =10–11
| last =Walbank
| first =Frank|author-link=F. W. Walbank
| title =Naval Triarii
| journal =The Classical Review
| date =1959
| jstor =702509
| doi =10.1017/S0009840X00092258| s2cid =162463877
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Walbank
|first=F.W.
|date=1990
|title=Polybius
|volume =1
|location=Berkeley
|publisher=University of California Press
|isbn= 978-0-520-06981-7
}}
* {{cite book|last=Wallinga|first=Herman|title=The Boarding-bridge of the Romans: Its Construction and its Function in the Naval Tactics of the First Punic War|oclc=458845955|publisher=J.B. Wolters|location= Groningen|year=1956}}
* {{cite book|last=Warmington|first=Brian|author-link= Brian Herbert Warmington|title=Carthage|publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc|year=1993|orig-year=1960|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56619-210-1}}

{{refend}}

===Further reading===
* {{Cite journal
| volume =112
| issue =3
| pages =350–367
| last =Biggs
| first =T.
| title =Primus Romanorum: Origin Stories, Fictions of Primacy, and the First Punic War
| journal =Classical Philology
| date =2017
| issn =0009-837X
| doi=10.1086/692606
| s2cid =164526422
|ref=none
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Dexter
|first=Hoyos
|date=1998
|title=Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ja4fAAAAQBAJ&q=Unplanned+wars:+The+origins+of+the+First+and+Second+Punic+Wars
|location=Berlin and New York
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|isbn=978-3-11-080835-3
|ref=none
}}
* {{cite web
|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/1*.html
|title=The Histories
|last=Polybius
|author-link=Polybius
|date=2020
|translator-last1= Paton
| translator-first1=William Roger
|translator-last2=Thayer
| translator-first2=Bill
|translator1-link=William Roger Paton
|website= Bill Thayer's Web Site
|publisher=University of Chicago
|access-date=4 May 2020
|orig-year=c. 167–118 BC
|ref=none 
}}

{{Punic Wars navbox}}
{{Ancient Roman Wars}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:First Punic War| ]]
[[Category:260s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:250s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:240s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:264 BC]]
[[Category:3rd century BC in the Roman Republic|Punic War 01]]
[[Category:3rd century BC|Punic War 01]]
[[Category:Punic Wars|.01]]
[[Category:Wars involving Carthage]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Roman Republic]]