View source for Fish oil

{{short description|Oil derived from the tissues of oily fish}}
{{For|Omegaven|Fish oil (medical use)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}

'''Fish oil''' is oil derived from the [[biological tissue|tissues]] of [[oily fish]]. Fish oils contain the [[omega−3 fatty acid]]s [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA) and [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA), precursors of certain [[eicosanoid]]s that are known to reduce [[inflammation]] in the body and improve [[hypertriglyceridemia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moghadasian |first1=Mohammed H. |title=Advances in Dietary Enrichment with N-3 Fatty Acids |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=8 May 2008 |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=402–410 |doi=10.1080/10408390701424303 |pmid=18464030 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pages=679–81 |doi=10.1186/ar1876 |year=2006 |last1=Cleland |first1=Leslieg |last2=James |first2=Michaelj |last3=Proudman |first3=Susannam |journal=[[Arthritis Research & Therapy]] |volume=8 |pmid=16542466 |pmc=1526555 |title=Fish oil: What the prescriber needs to know |issue=1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There has been a great deal of controversy in the 21st century about the role of fish oil in [[cardiovascular disease]], with recent [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] reaching different conclusions about its potential impact.

The fish used as sources do not actually produce omega−3 fatty acids. Instead, the fish accumulate the acids by consuming either [[microalgae]] or [[prey fish]] that have accumulated omega−3 fatty acids. Fatty predatory fish, like sharks, [[swordfish]], [[tilefish]], and [[albacore tuna]], may be high in omega−3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the [[food chain]], these species may also accumulate [[toxic]] substances through [[biomagnification]]. For this reason, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] recommends limiting consumption (especially for women of childbearing age) of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g., [[albacore tuna]], shark, [[king mackerel]], [[tilefish]] and [[swordfish]]) due to high levels of the toxic contaminant [[Mercury in fish|mercury]]. [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], like [[polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]] and [[chlordane]], as well as other chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides are also present.<ref name=petsworldtoday>{{cite web|url=https://www.petsworldtoday.in/2020/02/best-fish-to-eat.html|title=Best fish to eat|author=Venus Nandi|date=2020-02-09|access-date=9 February 2020}}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{unreliable source?|date=March 2025}}</ref> Fish oil is used in [[Commercial fish feed|aquaculture feed]], in particular for feeding [[Aquaculture of salmon|farmed salmon]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Highlights of Special Studies |chapter-url=https://www.fao.org/4/i0250e/i0250e03.pdf |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture |date=1999 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-106029-2 }}</ref>

Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in contents of [[arachidonic acid]], EPA and DHA.<ref name="pmid7666244">{{cite journal |pmid=7666244 |year=1995 |last1=Innis |first1=Sheila M. |last2=Rioux |first2=France M. |last3=Auestad |first3=Nancy |last4=Ackman |first4=Robert G. |title=Marine and freshwater fish oil varying in arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids differ in their effects on organ lipids and fatty acids in growing rats |volume=125 |issue=9 |pages=2286–93 |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |doi=10.1093/jn/125.9.2286 }}</ref> The various species range from lean to fatty, and their oil content in the tissues has been shown to vary from 0.7% to 15.5%.<ref name=Gruger1964>{{cite journal |last1=Gruger |first1=E. H. |last2=Nelson |first2=R. W. |last3=Stansby |first3=M. E. |title=Fatty acid composition of oils from 21 species of marine fish, freshwater fish and shellfish |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |date=October 1964 |volume=41 |issue=10 |pages=662–667 |doi=10.1007/BF02661403 }}</ref> They also differ in their effects on organ lipids.<ref name="pmid7666244" /> Studies have revealed that there is no relation between either 1) total fish intake or 2) estimated omega−3 fatty acid intake from all fish and serum omega−3 fatty acid concentrations.<ref name="pmid17158409">{{cite journal|vauthors=Philibert A, Vanier C, Abdelouahab N, Chan HM, Mergler D|title=Fish intake and serum fatty acid profiles from freshwater fish|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|date=December 2006|volume=84|issue=6|pages=1299–307|pmid=17158409|doi=10.1093/ajcn/84.6.1299|doi-access=free}}</ref> Only fatty fish intake, particularly salmonid, and estimated EPA + DHA intake from fatty fish has been observed to be significantly associated with increase in serum EPA + DHA.<ref name="pmid17158409" />

The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has approved four fish oil-based prescription drugs for the management of [[hypertriglyceridemia]], namely Lovaza, Omtryg (both [[omega-3-acid ethyl esters]]), Vascepa ([[ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid]]), and Epanova ([[omega-3-carboxylic acids]]).<ref name="skulas19">{{cite journal |last1=Skulas-Ray |first1=Ann C. |last2=Wilson |first2=Peter W.F. |last3=Harris |first3=William S. |last4=Brinton |first4=Eliot A. |last5=Kris-Etherton |first5=Penny M. |last6=Richter |first6=Chesney K. |last7=Jacobson |first7=Terry A. |last8=Engler |first8=Mary B. |last9=Miller |first9=Michael |last10=Robinson |first10=Jennifer G. |last11=Blum |first11=Conrad B. |last12=Rodriguez-Leyva |first12=Delfin |last13=de Ferranti |first13=Sarah D. |last14=Welty |first14=Francine K. |title=Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |date=2019 |volume=140 |issue=12 |pages=e673–e691 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709 |pmid=31422671 |display-authors=8|doi-access=free }}</ref> None of these drugs are actually fish oil; they are all derivatives of acids found in fish oil.

== Uses ==
Often marketed and sold for consumption as part of the diet or in dietary supplements in contemporary societies, fish oils also have found roles in external use, as [[emollient]]s<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-7020-3143-4.10002-3 |quote=Other oils used as emollients include fish oil, petrolatum, shea butter, and sunflower seed oil. |chapter=Cosmeceuticals |title=Cosmetic Dermatology |date=2009 |last1=Talakoub |first1=Lily |last2=Neuhaus |first2=Isaac M. |last3=Yu |first3=Siegrid S. |pages=7–34 |isbn=978-0-7020-3143-4 }}</ref> or as general [[ointment]]s<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burch |first1=Ernest S. |title=Social Life in Northwest Alaska: The Structure of Iñupiaq Eskimo Nations |date=2006 |publisher=University of Alaska Press |isbn=978-1-889963-92-1 |page=278 |quote=Oil was also used externally as an ointment to heal cold sores, cuts, insect bites, frostbite, rashes - in short, skin problems of all kinds. Duck or goose body-cavity fat was apparently as useful as seal or fish oil in dealing with skin problems. }}</ref> as well as in [[body art]],<ref>{{cite book
 |last1        = Heartney
 |first1       = Eleanor
 |chapter      = Zhang Huan: Becoming the Body
 |title        = Zhang Huan: Altered States
 |chapter-url  = http://www.zhanghuan.com/ShowText.asp?id=30&sClassID=1
 |publisher    = Charta and Asia Society
 |date         = 2007
 |isbn         = 978-88-8158-641-7
 |access-date  = 2014-10-23
 |quote        = This becomes abundantly clear in the work of Chinese body artist Zhang Huan. In the course of his career, Zhang Huan has subjected himself to painful trials: sitting motionless for hours in an outhouse covered in honey and fish oil while flies crawled over his body [...].
 |archive-date = 4 March 2016
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215026/http://www.zhanghuan.com/ShowText.asp?id=30&sClassID=1
 }}</ref>
or for alleged insulation against cold temperatures.<ref>
Ilse Schreiber: ''Die Schwestern aus Memel'' (1936), quoted, and extract translated in:
{{cite book
| last1                 = Strzelczyk
| first1                = Florentine
| chapter               = 'Fighting against Manitou': German Identity and Ilse Schreiber's Canada Novels ''Die Schwestern aus Memel'' (1936) and ''Die Flucht in Paradies'' (1939)
| jstor                 = 10.7722/j.ctt5vj78r.21
| editor1-last          = McFarland
| editor1-first         = Rob
| editor2-last          = James
| editor2-first         = Michelle Stott
| title                 = Sophie Discovers Amerika: German-Speaking Women Write the New World
| series                = Studies in German Literature Linguistics and Culture
| volume                = 148
| publisher             = Boydell & Brewer
| date                  = 2014
| pages                 = 205–218
| quote-page            = 207
| isbn                  = 978-1-57113-586-5
| quote                 = Hoffentlich zogen die Eltern in eine Gegend, wo es recht viele Eingeborene gab. Indianer, die nur von Jagd und Fischfang leben. Ach, und womöglich Eskimos, die sich mit Tran einschmieren, um sich gegen die Kälte zu schützen und rohes Fleisch essen [...]. [She hoped her parents would move to an area where there were many aboriginals. Indians who live solely by hunting and fishing. Oh, and if possible Eskimos who smear themselves with fish oil to protect themselves from the cold, and who eat raw meat.]
}}
</ref>

Fishmeal and fish oil are the principal sources of [[Omega-3 fatty acid|omega-3]] long-chain [[Polyunsaturated fat|polyunsaturated fatty acids]] ([[eicosapentaenoic acid]] [EPA] and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]) in animal feed.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |doi=10.4060/cd0683en |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-5-138763-4 }}{{page needed|date=March 2025}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

[[File:FMIB 36337 Rendering Room where the Fish Waste was Treated to Separate the Valuable Oil Content, Port Dover, Ont.jpeg|thumb|Fish oil rendering in [[Port Dover, Ontario]], 1918]]

== Food sources ==
The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is cold-water [[oily fish]], such as [[salmon]], [[herring]], [[mackerel]], [[anchovies]], and [[sardine]]s. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much [[Omega−3 fatty acid|omega−3 oil]]s as [[Omega-6 fatty acid|omega−6 oils]]. Other oily fish, such as [[tuna]], also contain omega−3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish is a dietary source of omega−3 oils, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the [[algae]] ([[microalgae]] in particular) or [[plankton]] in their diets.<ref>{{cite journal|id={{INIST|2356641}} |doi=10.1007/s003000050274 |title=Lipids and fatty acids in ice algae and phytoplankton from the Marginal Ice Zone in the Barents Sea |year=1998 |last1=Falk-Petersen |first1=S. |last2=Sargent |first2=J. R. |last3=Henderson |first3=J. |last4=Hegseth |first4=E. N. |last5=Hop |first5=H. |last6=Okolodkov |first6=Y. B. |journal=Polar Biology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=41–47|bibcode=1998PoBio..20...41F }}</ref>

EPA and DHA are available as dietary supplements most commonly as fish oil [[Capsule (pharmacy)|capsules]], [[softgel]]s, and gummies,<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> [[krill oil]], and less commonly as [[seaweed oil|algae oil]].<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup> Generally, salmon oil has more DHA than EPA while other fish oils such as herring, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, and pollock have more EPA than DHA. (See Supplements section below.)

{| class="sortable wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;width:360px;"
|+Grams of omega−3 fatty acids per {{convert|3|oz|g|abbr=on}} serving of popular fish.<ref name="ahao3">{{cite web
| url = http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797
| title = Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega-3 Fatty Acids
| publisher = American Heart Association
| access-date = 6 October 2010
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100709203304/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797
| archive-date = 9 July 2010
}}</ref><ref name="KrisEtherton2002">{{cite journal |last1=Kris-Etherton |first1=Penny M. |last2=Harris |first2=William S. |last3=Appel |first3=Lawrence J. |title=Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease |journal=Circulation |date=19 November 2002 |volume=106 |issue=21 |pages=2747–2757 |doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 |pmid=12438303 }}</ref>
!| Common name             || grams
|-
| [[Herring]], [[sardine]]s  || 1.3–2
|-
| [[Spanish mackerel]], [[Atlantic mackerel|Atlantic]], [[Pacific mackerel|Pacific]]        || 1.1–1.7
|-
| [[Salmon]]               || 1.1–1.9
|-
| [[Halibut]]              || 0.60–1.12
|-
| [[Tuna]]                 || 0.21–1.1
|-
| [[Swordfish]]            || 0.97
|-
| [[New Zealand green-lipped mussel|Greenshell/lipped mussels]] || 0.95<ref name="o3c">{{cite web
|url=http://www.omega-3centre.com/sources_long_chain.html |title=Omega-3 Centre
|access-date=27 July 2008
|work=Omega-3 sources
|publisher=Omega-3 Centre
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080718174524/http://www.omega-3centre.com/sources_long_chain.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2008-07-18}}</ref><!--Source: Fatty acid database, RMIT University-->
|-
| [[Tilefish]]             || 0.9
|-
| [[Tuna]] (canned, light) || 0.17–0.24
|-
| [[Pollock]]              || 0.45
|-
| [[Cod]]                  || 0.15–0.24
|-
| [[Catfish]]              || 0.22–0.3
|-
| [[Flounder]]             || 0.48
|-
| [[Grouper]]              || 0.23
|-
| [[Mahi mahi]]            || 0.13
|-
| [[Orange roughy]]        || 0.028
|-
| [[Red snapper (fish)|Red snapper]]          || 0.29
|-
| Shark                || 0.83
|-
| [[King mackerel]]        || 0.36
|-
| [[Blue grenadier|Hoki (blue grenadier)]]          || 0.41
|-
| [[Silver gemfish]]                                       || 0.40
|-
| [[Cod#Perciformes|Blue eye cod]]                  || 0.31
|-
| [[Sydney rock oyster]]               || 0.30
|-
| [[Canned tuna|Tuna, canned]]                  || 0.23
|-
| [[Lutjanidae|Snapper]]                                       || 0.22
|-
| [[Barramundi|Barramundi, saltwater]]               || 0.100
|-
| [[Giant tiger prawn]]                             || 0.100
|}

For comparison, note the omega−3 levels in some common non-fish foods:

{| class="sortable wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;width:300px;"
|+Grams of omega−3 fatty acids per {{convert|3|oz|g|abbr=on}} serving of common non-fish foods.<ref name="ahao3" />
!| Name             || grams
|-
| [[Flaxseeds]]                || 19.55
|-
| [[Chia seeds]]                || 14.8
|-
| [[Hemp seeds]]                || 7.4
|-
| [[Walnut]]                || 1.7
|-
| [[Soybean]]                || 1.1
|-
| Butter          || 0.27
|-
| [[Egg (food)|Eggs, large regular]]                || 0.109<ref name="o3c"/>
|-
| [[Red meat|Lean red meat]]                        || 0.031
|-
| [[Turkey (bird)]]                                        || 0.030
|-
| [[Cereal|Cereals, rice, pasta, etc.]]             ||   0.00
|-
| [[Fruit]]                                         ||   0.00
|-
| [[Milk|Milk, regular]]                             ||   0.00
|-
| [[Bread|Bread, regular]]                           ||   0.00
|-
| Vegetables                                    ||   0.00
|}

== Research==
{{See also|Omega-3 fatty acid#Health effects of omega−3 supplementation}}
[[File:Kepler Cod Liver Oil, by Burroughs Wellcome & Co Wellcome L0016947.jpg|thumb|Kepler [[cod liver oil]] with [[malt extract]]]]

===History===
{{See also|Cod liver oil}}
Fish oil became one of the earliest dietary supplements during 1870s, and by the end of the 19th century, was used as a treatment for many diseases, including such ailments as [[tuberculosis]] and [[Female hysteria|hysteria]].<ref name=ScienceHistory>{{Cite web |title=The Man with a Fish on His Back |url=https://sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/the-man-with-a-fish-on-his-back/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=Science History Institute |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grad |first=Roni |date=2004 |title=Cod and the Consumptive: A Brief History of Cod-Liver Oil in the Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis |journal=Pharmacy in History |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=106–120 |jstor=41112218 |pmid=15712453 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guy |first1=Ruth A. |title=The history of cod liver oil as a remedy |journal=Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine |date=August 1923 |volume=26 |issue=2 |page=112 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.1923.04120140011002 }}</ref> The possible effects of fish oil and omega−3 fatty acids have since been studied in clinical depression,<ref name="Su2003">{{cite journal |pages=267–71 |doi=10.1016/S0924-977X(03)00032-4 |title=Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder |year=2003 |last1=Su |first1=Kuan-Pin |last2=Huang |first2=Shih-Yi |last3=Chiu |first3=Chih-Chiang |last4=Shen |first4=Winston W. |journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=13 |issue=4 |jstor=10.7249/j.ctt19w7233 |pmid=12888186 |url=https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/115565 }}</ref><ref name="Pp">{{cite journal |pages=477–79 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.477 |title=Addition of Omega-3 Fatty Acid to Maintenance Medication Treatment for Recurrent Unipolar Depressive Disorder |year=2002 |last1=Nemets |first1=B. |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=159 |issue=3 |pmid=11870016 |last2=Stahl |first2=Z |last3=Belmaker |first3=RH}}</ref> [[anxiety]],<ref>{{cite journal |pages=107–13 |doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.07.005 |title=Red cell membrane omega-3 fatty acids are decreased in nondepressed patients with social anxiety disorder |year=2006 |last1=Green |first1=Pnina |last2=Hermesh |first2=Haggai |last3=Monselise |first3=Assaf |last4=Marom |first4=Sofi |last5=Presburger |first5=Gadi |last6=Weizman |first6=Abraham |journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=16 |issue=2 |pmid=16243493 }}</ref> cancer, and [[macular degeneration]], yet they have not been proven effective.<ref name="medline"/>

Crude fish oil as it is originally sold (especially [[cod liver oil]]) contains vitamin A and vitamin D, which was useful in preventing [[vitamin A deficiency]] and [[vitamin D deficiency]] (the latter manifesting as [[rickets]] in urban children).<ref name=ScienceHistory/> Modern fish oil supplements purified for omega-3 do not claim to contain these two vitamins.

=== Various recommendations ===
In a 2009 letter on a pending revision to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the American Heart Association recommended 250–500&nbsp;mg/day of EPA and DHA.<ref name="AHA-2012">{{cite web |title=Re: 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans |url=http://www.heart.org/idc/groups/heart-public/@wcm/@adv/documents/downloadable/ucm_312853.pdf |work=Jan 2009 |publisher=American Heart Association |access-date=12 December 2012 |archive-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810070407/http://www.heart.org/idc/groups/heart-public/@wcm/@adv/documents/downloadable/ucm_312853.pdf }}</ref> The Guidelines were revised again for 2015–2020; included is a recommendation that adults consume at least eight ounces of a variety of seafood per week,<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Department of Agriculture |last2=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 |url=https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/resources/2020-2025-dietary-guidelines-online-materials |access-date=28 July 2025 |page=96 |date=December 2020 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721092537/https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/resources/2020-2025-dietary-guidelines-online-materials }}</ref> which provide an average of 250&nbsp;mg/day of EPA + DHA.<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |last2=U.S. Department of Agriculture |title=2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans |url=https://odphp.health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/2015-2020_Dietary_Guidelines.pdf |access-date=28 July 2025 |page=24 |date=December 2015}}</ref> The Food and Drug Administration recommends not exceeding 3 grams per day of EPA + DHA from all sources, with no more than 2 grams per day from dietary supplements.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2004/ucm108351.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709202853/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2004/ucm108351.htm|archive-date=9 July 2009|title=2004 – FDA Announces Qualified Health Claims for Omega-3 Fatty Acids|website=fda.gov|language=en|access-date=2016-05-25}}</ref>

=== Prostate cancer ===
There is no good evidence that fish oil supplementation is of benefit for [[prostate cancer]], and [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s may increase the cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zuniga KB, Chan JM, Ryan CJ, Kenfield SA |title=Diet and lifestyle considerations for patients with prostate cancer |journal=Urol Oncol |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=105–117 |date=March 2020 |pmid=31327752 |pmc=7293879 |doi=10.1016/j.urolonc.2019.06.018 |url=}}</ref>

=== Cardiovascular ===
There is uncertainty about the role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, with reviews reaching different conclusions about its potential impact. Multiple evaluations suggest fish oil has little or no reduction on cardiovascular mortality, although there may be a small reduction in the incidence of actual cardiac events and strokes with its use.<ref name="abdel">{{Cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=Abdelhamid|first1=Asmaa S.|last2=Brown|first2=Tracey J.|last3=Brainard|first3=Julii S.|last4=Biswas|first4=Priti|last5=Thorpe|first5=Gabrielle C.|last6=Moore|first6=Helen J.|last7=Deane|first7=Katherine Ho|last8=Summerbell|first8=Carolyn D.|last9=Worthington|first9=Helen V.|last10=Song|first10=Fujian|last11=Hooper|first11=Lee|date=29 February 2020|title=Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2020|issue=3|article-number=CD003177|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5 |pmc=7049091|pmid=32114706}}</ref><ref name="Cochrane 2018 2">{{cite journal|last1=Abdelhamid|first1=AS|last2=Martin|first2=N|last3=Bridges|first3=C|last4=Brainard|first4=JS|last5=Wang|first5=X|last6=Brown|first6=TJ|last7=Hanson|first7=S|last8=Jimoh|first8=OF|last9=Ajabnoor|first9=SM|last10=Deane|first10=KH|last11=Song|first11=F|date=November 2018|title=Polyunsaturated fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=11|article-number=CD012345|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD012345.pub3|pmc=6517012|pmid=30484282|last12=Hooper|first12=L|issue=11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=30763028 |year=2007 |author1=John M. Eisenberg Center for Clinical Decisions Communications Science |title=Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease: Current State of the Evidence |journal=Comparative Effectiveness Review Summary Guides for Clinicians}}</ref> In 2007, the [[American Heart Association]] recommended the consumption of 1 gram of fish oil daily,<ref>{{cite web | title = Fish oil supplements provide some benefit after heart attack, heart failure | publisher = American Heart Association | url = https://www.heart.org/en/news/2018/05/01/fish-oil-supplements-provide-some-benefit-after-heart-attack-heart-failure | access-date = 6 October 2020}}</ref> preferably by eating fish, for patients with [[coronary artery disease]], but cautioned pregnant and nursing women to avoid eating fish with high potential for [[mercury (element)|mercury]] contaminants including mackerel, shark, and swordfish.<ref name="AHA-2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4632 | title= Fish and Omega-3 Fatty Acids|access-date=9 February 2007 |publisher=American Heart Association}}</ref> (Optimal dosage was related to body weight.)

The US [[National Institutes of Health]] lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega−3 sources are most highly recommended: [[hypertriglyceridemia]] (high triglyceride level), preventing secondary [[cardiovascular disease]], and [[hypertension]] (high blood pressure). It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil or omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke."<ref name="medline">{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/omega3-supplements-what-you-need-to-know|title=Omega-3 Supplements: In Depth |publisher=MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine |date=1 April 2018|access-date=21 September 2023}}</ref>

There were studies to determine if fish oil had an effect on certain [[cardiac dysrhythmia|abnormal heart rhythms]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Charnock |first1=John S |title=The role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid-enriched diets in the prevention of ventricular fibrillation |journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition |date=19 September 1999 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=226–230 |doi=10.1046/j.1440-6047.1999.00115.x |pmid=24394167 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Li GR, Sun HY, Zhang XH, Cheng LC, Chiu SW, Tse HF, Lau CP |year=2009 |title=Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids inhibit transient outward and ultra-rapid delayed rectifier K+currents and Na+current in human atrial myocytes|journal=Cardiovasc Res |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=286–93 |doi=10.1093/cvr/cvn322 |pmid=19029136 |doi-access=free }}</ref> although a 2012 [[meta-analysis]] found no significant effect.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khawaja |first1=Owais |last2=Gaziano |first2=J Michael |last3=Djoussé |first3=Luc |title=A Meta-Analysis of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Incidence of Atrial Fibrillation |journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition |date=February 2012 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=4–13 |doi=10.1080/07315724.2012.10720003 |pmid=22661621 }}</ref>

A 2008 [[meta-study]] found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with [[ventricular arrhythmia]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=181–82 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.071654 |title=Should patients with cardiovascular disease take fish oil? |year=2008 |last1=Nair |first1=G. M. |last2=Connolly |first2=S. J. |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=178 |issue=2 |pmid=18195293 |pmc=2174997}}</ref> A 2012 meta-analysis  covering 20 studies and 68,680 patients, found that omega−3 fatty acid supplementation did not reduce the chance of death, cardiac death, heart attack, or stroke.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=1024–33 |doi=10.1001/2012.jama.11374 |title=Association Between Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Risk of Major Cardiovascular Disease Events: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |year=2012 |last1=Rizos |first1=E. C. |last2=Ntzani |first2=E. E. |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=308 |issue=10 |pmid=22968891 |last3=Bika |first3=E |last4=Kostapanos |first4=MS |last5=Elisaf |first5=MS}}</ref> A 2018 meta-analysis of 77,000 participants found a 3% reduction in the relative risk for those who supplemented fish oil; however, this effect was deemed insignificant.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aung |first1=Theingi |last2=Halsey |first2=Jim |last3=Kromhout |first3=Daan |last4=Gerstein |first4=Hertzel C. |last5=Marchioli |first5=Roberto |last6=Tavazzi |first6=Luigi |last7=Geleijnse |first7=Johanna M. |last8=Rauch |first8=Bernhard |last9=Ness |first9=Andrew |last10=Galan |first10=Pilar |last11=Chew |first11=Emily Y. |last12=Bosch |first12=Jackie |last13=Collins |first13=Rory |last14=Lewington |first14=Sarah |last15=Armitage |first15=Jane |last16=Clarke |first16=Robert |title=Associations of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplement Use With Cardiovascular Disease Risks: Meta-analysis of 10 Trials Involving 77 917 Individuals |journal=JAMA Cardiology |date=March 2018 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=225–234 |doi=10.1001/jamacardio.2017.5205 |pmid=29387889 |pmc=5885893 }}</ref>

=== Mental health ===
A 2008 [[Cochrane Library|Cochrane]] [[systematic review]] found that limited data is available. In the one eligible study, omega−3s were an effective adjunctive therapy for depressive but not manic symptoms in [[bipolar disorder]]. The authors found an "acute need" for more randomised controlled trials.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montgomery P, Richardson AJ|title=Omega-3 fatty acids for bipolar disorder |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2008 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005169.pub2 |pmid=18425912 |article-number=CD005169 |editor1-last=Montgomery |editor1-first=Paul}}</ref>

A 2009 metastudy found that patients taking omega−3 supplements with a higher EPA:DHA ratio experienced fewer depressive symptoms. The studies provided evidence that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. However, this metastudy concluded that due to the identified limitations of the included studies, larger, randomized trials are needed to confirm these findings.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/07315724.2009.10719785 |title=EPA but Not DHA Appears to Be Responsible for the Efficacy of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation in Depression: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |year=2009 |last1=Martins |first1=Julian G |journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=525–42 |pmid=20439549 }}</ref>

In a 2011 [[meta-analysis]] of [[PubMed]] articles about fish oil and depression from 1965 to 2010, researchers found that "nearly all of the treatment efficacy observed in the published literature may be attributable to publication bias."<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/mp.2011.100 |title=Omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis |year=2011 |last1=Bloch |first1=M H |last2=Hannestad |first2=J |journal=Molecular Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=12 |pages=1272–82 |pmid=21931319 |pmc=3625950}}</ref>

A 2014 meta-analysis of eleven trials conducted respectively on patients with a DSM-defined diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and of eight trials with patients with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD demonstrated significant clinical benefit of omega−3 PUFA treatment compared to placebo. The study concluded that: "The use of omega-3 PUFA is effective in patients with diagnosis of MDD and on depressive patients without diagnosis of MDD."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grosso | first1 = G. | last2 = Pajak | first2 = A. | last3 = Marventano | first3 = S. | last4 = Castellano | first4 = S. | last5 = Galvano | first5 = F. | last6 = Bucolo | first6 = C. | last7 = Caraci | first7 = F. | year = 2014 | title = Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Treatment of Depressive Disorders: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 9 | issue = 5| article-number = e96905 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0096905 | pmid=24805797 | pmc=4013121| bibcode = 2014PLoSO...996905G | doi-access = free }}</ref>

====Antidepressant====
A 2019 [[meta-analysis]] concluded that EPA ≥ 60% at a dosage of ≤1 g/d may have antidepressant effect.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liao |first1=Y |last2=Xie |first2=B |last3=Zhang |first3=H |last4=He |first4=Q |last5=Guo |first5=L |last6=Subramanieapillai |first6=M |last7=Fan |first7=B |last8=Lu |first8=C |last9=McIntyre |first9=RS |title=Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: A meta-analysis |journal=Translational Psychiatry |year=2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=190 |doi=10.1038/s41398-019-0515-5 |pmid=31383846|pmc=6683166 }}</ref>

=== Alzheimer's disease ===
A [[Cochrane Library|Cochrane]] [[meta-analysis]] published in June 2012 found no significant protective effect for cognitive decline for those aged 60 and over and who started taking fatty acids after this age. A co-author of the study said to ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', "Our analysis suggests that there is currently no evidence that omega-3 fatty acid supplements provide a benefit for memory or concentration in later life".<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Sifferlin, Alexandra |date=13 June 2012|title=Fish Oil Fail: Omega-3s May Not Protect Brain Health After All |url=https://healthland.time.com/2012/06/13/fish-oil-fail-omega-3s-may-not-protect-brain-health-after-all/ |magazine=Time |access-date=19 June 2012}}</ref>

=== Psoriasis ===
Diets supplemented with [[cod liver oil]] have shown beneficial
effects on [[psoriasis]].<ref>{{cite journal |pages=706–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06781.x |title=Diet and psoriasis: experimental data and clinical evidence |year=2005 |last1=Wolters |first1=M. |journal=British Journal of Dermatology |volume=153 |issue=4 |pmid=16181450 }}</ref>

=== Pregnancy ===
Some studies reported better psychomotor development at 30 months of age in infants whose mothers received fish oil supplements for the first four months of lactation.<ref name=Jensen10>{{cite journal |pages=900–05 |doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.06.006 |title=Effects of Early Maternal Docosahexaenoic Acid Intake on Neuropsychological Status and Visual Acuity at Five Years of Age of Breast-Fed Term Infants |year=2010 |last1=Jensen |first1=Craig L. |last2=Voigt |first2=Robert G. |last3=Llorente |first3=Antolin M. |last4=Peters |first4=Sarika U. |last5=Prager |first5=Thomas C. |last6=Zou |first6=Yali L. |last7=Rozelle |first7=Judith C. |last8=Turcich |first8=Marie R. |last9=Fraley |first9=J. Kennard |journal=The Journal of Pediatrics |volume=157 |issue=6 |pmid=20655543 |last10=Anderson |first10=Robert E. |last11=Heird |first11=William C.}}</ref> In addition, five-year-old children whose mothers received modest algae based docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for the first 4 months of breastfeeding performed better on a test of sustained attention. This suggests that [[docosahexaenoic acid]] intake during early infancy confers long-term benefits on specific aspects of neurodevelopment.<ref name=Jensen10 />

In addition, provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce an infant's sensitization to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of certain skin diseases in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and/or severity of eczema, hay fever and asthma.<ref name=Calder10>{{cite journal |pages=373–80 |doi=10.1017/S0029665110001552 |title=Is there a role for fatty acids in early life programming of the immune system? |year=2010 |last1=Calder |first1=Philip C. |last2=Kremmyda |first2=Lefkothea-Stella |last3=Vlachava |first3=Maria |last4=Noakes |first4=Paul S. |last5=Miles |first5=Elizabeth A. |journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |volume=69 |issue=3 |pmid=20462467 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Crohn's disease ===
A 2014 Cochrane review found that, based on two large studies, fish oil supplements did not appear to be effective for maintenance of remission in [[Crohn's disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lev-Tzion |first1=Raffi |last2=Griffiths |first2=Anne Marie |last3=Ledder |first3=Oren |last4=Turner |first4=Dan |title=Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=28 February 2014 |volume=2014 |issue=6 |article-number=CD006320 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006320.pub4 |pmid=24585498 |pmc=8988157 }}</ref>

== Supplements ==
[[File:Lachsölkapsel.jpg|thumb|Fish oil capsules]]
Fish oil is a commonly used [[dietary supplement]], with sales in the US alone reaching $976&nbsp;million in 2009.<ref name=clpr>{{cite web |title=ConsumerLab.com Finds Quality Problems with Nearly Thirty Percent of Fish Oil Supplements Reviewed; "Fishy" Claims Identified: Softgels and Liquids for Adults, Children and Pets Tested, Including Krill Oil and Algal Oil Supplements|url=http://www.consumerlab.com/news/fish_oil_supplements_reviewed/09_28_2010/|publisher=ConsumerLab.com|access-date=20 October 2012|date=28 September 2010}}{{dubious|date=December 2012}}</ref> By 2020 the global omega−3 supplement market size had reached $5.58&nbsp;billion, and fish oil based supplements accounted for 63.1% of that market.<ref>{{cite web |title=Omega 3 Supplements Market Size & Share Report 2020-2027 |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/omega-3-supplement-market |website=www.grandviewresearch.com |publisher=Grand View Research |access-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220212448/https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/omega-3-supplement-market |archive-date=20 February 2022 |language=en |date=October 2021}}</ref>

===Formulation===
Fish oil supplements are available mainly as liquids or capsules. Most of these capsules are [[Capsule (pharmacy)#Single-piece gel encapsulation ("soft capsules")|single-piece gel capsules]] or [[softgel]]s. Also available are [[enteric coating|enteric-coated]] capsules that pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and "fish burps". Poorly manufactured enteric-coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for-profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric-coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely.<ref name=clpr /> Fish oil products may use other techniques to hide the fishy taste. For example, added lemon or strawberry [[Flavoring|flavor]] tends to produce a more agreeable product<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Emin |last2=Öǧütcü |first2=Mustafa |last3=Arifoglu |first3=Nazan |title=Assessment of Thermal and Textural Characteristics and Consumer Preferences of Lemon and Strawberry Flavored Fish Oil Organogels |journal=Journal of Oleo Science |date=2015 |volume=64 |issue=10 |pages=1049–1056 |doi=10.5650/jos.ess15113|pmid=26369597 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and are usually present in fish oil [[gummies]].

===EPA and DHA content===
Generally, oily fish have more EPA than DHA versus salmon which has more DHA than EPA. To illustrate the amounts of EPA and DHA in supplements, a softgel capsule containing fish oil derived from pollock might contain a total of 642&nbsp;mg of total fish oil, of which 584&nbsp;mg are omega−3 fatty acids, with 377&nbsp;mg EPA and 158&nbsp;mg DHA.<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup> That same company's salmon oil softgel contains 1008&nbsp;mg of total fish oil, of which 295&nbsp;mg are omega−3 fatty acids, with 95&nbsp;mg EPA and 118&nbsp;mg DHA.<sup>[[#Notes|4]]</sup>

According to [[ConsumerLab.com]] tests, the concentrations of EPA and DHA in supplements can vary from between 8 and 80% fish oil content. The concentration depends on the source of the omega−3s, how the oil is processed, and the amounts of other ingredients included in the supplement.<ref name=review12 /> However, the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from both capsular and emulsified fish oils has been shown to be high.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Raatz | first1 = SK | last2 = Redmon | first2 = JB | last3 = Wimmergren | first3 = N | last4 = Donadio | first4 = JV | last5 = Bibus | first5 = DM | year = 2009 | title = Enhanced absorption of omega-3 fatty acids after emulsified compared with encapsulated fish oil | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 109 | issue = 6| pages = 1076–81 | doi=10.1016/j.jada.2009.03.006| pmid = 19465191 | pmc = 2701654 }}</ref> A ConsumerLab.com publication in 2010 stated that 3 of 24 fish oil supplements tested contained less EPA and/or DHA than was claimed on the label.<ref name=clpr /> A 2012 report stated that 4 of 35 fish oil supplements that were tested contained less EPA or DHA than was claimed on the label, and 3 of 35 contained more.<ref name=review12 />

===Quality and concerns===
Problems of quality have been identified in periodic tests by independent researchers of marketed supplements containing fish oil and other marine oils. These problems may include contamination, inaccurate listing of EPA and DHA levels, spoilage, and formulation issues.<ref>[http://www.consumerlab.com/results/index.asp Reviews of Supplements and Health Products] ''ConsumerLab''.</ref>

====Contamination====
A report by the [[Harvard Medical School]] studied five popular brands of fish oil, including Nordic Ultimate, Kirkland and CVS. They found that the brands had "negligible amounts of mercury, suggesting either that mercury is removed during the manufacturing of purified fish oil or that the fish sources used in these commercial preparations are relatively mercury-free".<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=14632570 |url=https://www.archivesofpathology.org/doi/full/10.1043/1543-2165%282003%29127%3C1603%3AMOMLIC%3E2.0.CO%3B2 |year=2003 |volume=127 |pages=1603–05 |last1=Foran |first1=Stacy E. |last2=Flood |first2=James G. |last3=Lewandrowski |first3=Kent B. |title=Measurement of Mercury Levels in Concentrated Over-the-Counter Fish Oil Preparations: Is Fish Oil Healthier Than Fish? |issue=12 |journal=Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine |doi=10.5858/2003-127-1603-MOMLIC |url-access=subscription }}</ref> 
There appears to be little risk of contamination by microorganisms, proteins, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, and trans-fats.<ref name=norstudy>{{cite book |title=Description of the processes in the value chain and risk assessment of decomposition substances and oxidation products in fish oils |publisher=Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety |year=2011 |isbn=978-82-8259-035-8 |first1=Marit |last1=Aursand |first2=Revilija |last2=Mozuraityte |first3=Kristin |last3=Hamre |first4=Helle |last4=Knutsen |first5=Amund |last5=Maage |first6=Augustine |last6=Arukwe |hdl=11250/2466549 |hdl-access=free }}{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref>

====Dioxins and PCBs====
Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin-like PCBs and total PCBs. While the US FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin-like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED's limit.<ref name=review12>{{cite web |title=ConsumerLab.com Review: Fish Oil and Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplements Review (Including Krill, Algae, and Calamari Oil)|url=https://www.consumerlab.com/reviews/fish_oil_supplements_review/omega3/ |publisher=ConsumerLab.com |access-date=19 October 2012 |date=13 August 2012}}{{registration required|date=December 2012}}</ref> Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.<ref name=review12 />

====Spoilage====
Peroxides can be produced when fish oil spoils. A study commissioned by the government of Norway concluded there would be some health concern related to the regular consumption of oxidized ([[Rancidification|rancid]]) fish/marine oils, particularly in regards to the gastrointestinal tract, but there is not enough data to determine the risk. The amount of spoilage and contamination in a supplement depends on the raw materials and processes of extraction, refining, concentration, encapsulation, storage and transportation.<ref name=norstudy /> ConsumerLab.com reports in its review that it found spoilage in test reports it ordered on some fish oil supplement products.<ref name=review12 />

===Prescription fish oil-based medications===
{{See also|Omega-3-acid ethyl esters|Fish oil (medical use)}}

Fish oil itself is available as a prescription, but the majority of fish oil products available via prescription are derivatives of fish oil. Such products are described elsewhere in this article. These preparations, with the purpose of treating or preventing medical disorder, are only available with a doctor's prescription. In the US, such prescriptions undergo the same [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) regulatory requirements as other prescription medications, including with regard to both efficacy and safety.<ref name="bays2007">{{cite journal | author=Bays H E | title=Safety Considerations with Omega-3 Fatty Acid Therapy | volume=99 | journal=The American Journal of Cardiology | issue=6 (Supplement 1) | date=19 March 2007 | pages=S35–S43 | doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.11.020 | pmid=17368277}}</ref> Purity is also regulated by the FDA. The prescription fish oil derivative medicines differ from [[Over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter]] fish oil supplements.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-03-prescription-fish-oil-pill-lowers.html|title=Prescription fish oil pill lowers heart attack risk in those already on statins|website=medicalxpress.com|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref> Prescription fish oil is considered a safe and effective option to reduce [[triglyceride]]s. There are various prescription fish oil products that have been approved and permitted by the FDA for decreasing triglyceride levels. Prescription fish oil products having DHA work by raising LDL-C levels to reduce triglycerides, like [[fibrate]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medpagetoday.com/cardiology/dyslipidemia/81701|title=AHA Endorses Prescription Fish Oil for High Triglycerides|date=2019-08-20|website=medpagetoday.com|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref> Heart experts advise that prescription fish oil helps in decreasing additional levels of blood fats. Prescription fish oils might only help when triglycerides reach a specific upper level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/cholesterol-management/news/20190819/heart-experts-support-use-of-prescription-fish-oil|title=Heart Experts Support Use of Prescription Fish Oil|website=WebMD|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref> Prescription fish oil pills, capsules and tablets have more omega−3 fatty acids than those which are non-prescription. The FDA regularly monitors prescription fish oil for standards like purity and for quality and safety.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/diet/omega-3s-in-fish-oil-and-supplements-whats-your-best-strategy|title=Omega-3 Fish Oil: Supplements and Prescriptions|website=WebMD|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref>

As of 2019, four fish oil-based prescription drugs have been approved in the United States for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia,<ref name="skulas19"/> namely:
#Epanova (omega-3-carboxylic acids) was approved on 23 April 2014.<ref>{{cite web | title=Epanova (omega-3-carboxylic acids) capsules, for oral use | website=DailyMed | date=8 September 2014 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=202513 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Drug Approval Package: Epanova (Omega-3-carboxylic acids) | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) | date=28 March 2016 | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2014/205060Orig1EpanovaTOC.cfm | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Epanova | website=Drug Information Portal | url=https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/epanova | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123153654/https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/epanova | archive-date=23 January 2022 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref> Clinical trial on mixed [[dyslipidaemia]] (hypertriglyceridemia with hypocholesterolemia) started in 2014<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicholls |first1=Stephen J. |last2=Lincoff |first2=A. Michael |last3=Bash |first3=Dianna |last4=Ballantyne |first4=Christie M. |last5=Barter |first5=Philip J. |last6=Davidson |first6=Michael H. |last7=Kastelein |first7=John J. P. |last8=Koenig |first8=Wolfgang |last9=McGuire |first9=Darren K. |last10=Mozaffarian |first10=Dariush |last11=Pedersen |first11=Terje R. |last12=Ridker |first12=Paul M. |last13=Ray |first13=Kausik |last14=Karlson |first14=Björn W. |last15=Lundström |first15=Torbjörn |last16=Wolski |first16=Kathy |last17=Nissen |first17=Steven E. |title=Assessment of omega-3 carboxylic acids in statin-treated patients with high levels of triglycerides and low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol: Rationale and design of the STRENGTH trial |journal=Clinical Cardiology |date=2018 |volume=41 |issue=10 |pages=1281–1288 |doi=10.1002/clc.23055 |pmid=30125052 |display-authors=8 |pmc=6489732}}</ref> found that it has no medical benefits, and the clinical trial was called off on 13 January 2019.<ref name="reuters20">{{cite news |title=AstraZeneca to discontinue Epanova trial, expects $100 million writedown |url=https://in.reuters.com/article/us-astrazeneca-study/astrazeneca-to-discontinue-epanova-trial-expects-100-million-writedown-idINKBN1ZC0JQ |access-date=15 January 2020 |work=Reuters |date=13 January 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114232904/https://in.reuters.com/article/us-astrazeneca-study/astrazeneca-to-discontinue-epanova-trial-expects-100-million-writedown-idINKBN1ZC0JQ }}</ref> Although FDA-approved, Epanova is not available in any market.
#Lovaza (omega-3-acid ethyl esters) was approved on 10 November 2004.<ref>{{cite web | title=Lovaza- omega-3-acid ethyl esters capsule, liquid filled | website=DailyMed | date=3 April 2019 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=5ada82f0-a5fd-46c9-aecc-f106f614c9f0 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lovaza: FDA-Approved Drugs |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021654 |website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) |access-date=15 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Drug Approval Package: Omacor (Omega-3-Acid Ethyl Esters) NDA #021654 | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2004/21-654_Omacor.cfm | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Lovaza | website=Drug Information Portal | url=https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/lovaza | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120164235/https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/Lovaza | archive-date=20 January 2017 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>
#Omtryg (omega-3-acid ethyl esters) was approved on 23 April 2014.<ref>{{cite web | title=Omtryg- omega-3-acid ethyl esters capsule | website=DailyMed | date=31 March 2016 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=5fe15bdb-f59f-4b87-8e5d-8a3d5683eb3d | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Drug Approval Package: Brand Omtryg capsules NDA 204977 | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) | date=18 December 2014 | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2014/204977Orig1s000TOC.cfm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102031112/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2014/204977Orig1s000TOC.cfm | archive-date=2 November 2020 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Omtryg | website=Drug Information Portal | url=https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/omtryg | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123152648/https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/omtryg | archive-date=23 January 2022 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>
#Vascepa (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid; icosapent ethyl) was approved on 26 July 2012.<ref>{{cite web | title=Vascepa- icosapent ethyl capsule | website=DailyMed | date=30 January 2020 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=9c1a2828-1583-4414-ab22-a60480e8e508 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Drug Approval Package: Vascepa (icosapent ethyl) NDA #202057 | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) | date=6 March 2013 | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2012/202057_vascepa_toc.cfm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329081226/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2012/202057_vascepa_toc.cfm | archive-date=29 March 2013 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Vascepa | website=Drug Information Portal | url=https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/vascepa | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123142807/https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/vascepa | archive-date=23 January 2022 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref> On 13 December 2019, the FDA also approved it as the first drug specifically "to reduce cardiovascular risk among patients with elevated triglyceride levels." Vascepa is not approved as a monotherapy for lowering TGs: it must be taken with a statin, per product labeling.<ref>{{cite web |title=FDA approves use of drug to reduce risk of cardiovascular events in certain adult patient groups |url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-use-drug-reduce-risk-cardiovascular-events-certain-adult-patient-groups |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216200302/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-use-drug-reduce-risk-cardiovascular-events-certain-adult-patient-groups |archive-date=16 December 2019 |website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) |access-date=15 January 2020 |date=17 December 2019}}</ref>

Some fish-oil products are approved for [[parenteral nutrition]]:
#[[Fish oil (medical use)|Omegaven]], approved in July 2018, is indicated as a source of calories and fatty acids in children with parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis (PNAC).<ref>{{cite web | title=Omegaven- fish oil injection, emulsion | website=DailyMed | date=6 August 2018 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=5d9d0b24-e139-48bf-ab2d-536fb59cf8e0 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Drug Approval Package: Omegaven (fish oil triglycerides) | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date=24 August 2018 | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/210589Orig1s000TOC.cfm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407190705/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/210589Orig1s000TOC.cfm | archive-date=7 April 2021 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Omegaven | website=Drug Information Portal | url=https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/omegaven | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123143407/https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/omegaven | archive-date=23 January 2022 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>
#Smoflipid, approved in July 2016, is indicated in adults as a source of calories and essential fatty acids for parenteral nutrition when oral or enteral nutrition is not possible, insufficient, or contraindicated.<ref>{{cite web | title=Smoflipid injection, emulsion | website=DailyMed | date=30 August 2019 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e0e9d917-ff6f-488e-a6a8-0ad59dd17d80 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Smoflipid (Lipid Injectable Emulsion) | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date=12 January 2018 | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2016/207648Orig1s000TOC.cfm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814120505/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2016/207648Orig1s000TOC.cfm | archive-date=14 August 2020 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Smoflipid | website=Drug Information Portal | url=https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/smoflipid | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123205414/https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/SMOFlipid | archive-date=23 January 2017 | access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>

== Dangers ==
A 2013 review concluded that the potential for adverse events among older adults taking fish oil "appear mild–moderate at worst and are unlikely to be of clinical significance".<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1186/1471-2318-13-41 |title=Fish oil administration in older adults: Is there potential for adverse events? A systematic review of the literature |year=2013 |last1=Villani |first1=Anthony M |last2=Crotty |first2=Maria |last3=Cleland |first3=Leslie G |last4=James |first4=Michael J |last5=Fraser |first5=Robert J |last6=Cobiac |first6=Lynne |last7=Miller |first7=Michelle D |journal=BMC Geriatrics |volume=13 |page=41 |pmid=23634646 |pmc=3664575 |issue=1 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Maximum intake ===
The FDA recommends that consumers do not exceed more than 3 grams per day of EPA and DHA combined, with no more than 2 grams from a dietary supplement.<ref>{{cite web|title=FDA Announces Qualified Health Claims for Omega-3 Fatty Acids|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]|date=2004-09-08|url=https://www.fda.gov/SiteIndex/ucm108351.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722101454/https://www.fda.gov/SiteIndex/ucm108351.htm|access-date=2017-08-21|archive-date=2009-07-22}}</ref> This is not the same as 3000&nbsp;mg of fish oil. A 1000&nbsp;mg pill typically has only 300&nbsp;mg of omega−3; 10 such pills would equal 3000&nbsp;mg of omega−3. 
According to the [[European Food Safety Authority]]'s (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, supplementation of 5 grams of EPA and DHA combined does not pose a safety concern for adults.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Scientific Opinion on the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) |journal=EFSA Journal |date=July 2012 |volume=10 |issue=7 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2815 |hdl=2434/257879 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A 1987 study found that healthy [[Greenlandic Inuit]] had an average intake of 5.7 grams of omega−3 EPA per day which had many effects including prolonged bleeding times, such as slower [[blood clotting]].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=3551346 |year=1987 |last1=Kantha |first1=SS |title=Dietary effects of fish oils on human health: A review of recent studies |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=37–44 |pmc=2590235 |journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine}}</ref>

====Research====
Two 2021 [[systematic review]]s and [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] concluded that more than 1 g/d marine omega−3 fatty acids is associated with an increased risk of [[atrial fibrillation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jia |first1=X |last2=Gao |first2=F |last3=Pickett |first3=JK |last4=Al Rifai |first4=M |last5=Birnbaum |first5=Y |last6=Nambi |first6=V |last7=Virani |first7=SS |last8=Ballantyne |first8=CM |title=Association Between Omega-3 Fatty Acid Treatment and Atrial Fibrillation in Cardiovascular Outcome Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. |journal=Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy |date=August 2021 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=793–800 |doi=10.1007/s10557-021-07204-z |pmid=34057665 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gencer |first1=B |last2=Djousse |first2=L |last3=Al-Ramady |first3=OT |last4=Cook |first4=NR |last5=Manson |first5=JE |last6=Albert |first6=CM |title=Effect of Long-Term Marine ɷ-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation on the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation in Randomized Controlled Trials of Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Circulation |year=2021 |volume=144 |issue=25 |pages=1981–1990 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654 |pmid=34612056|pmc=9109217 }}</ref>

=== Vitamins ===
The liver and liver products (such as [[cod liver oil]]) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega−3, but also the active form of [[vitamin A]]. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous ([[Hypervitaminosis A]]).<ref name="lips2003">{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMe020167 |title=Hypervitaminosis a and Fractures |year=2003 |last1=Lips |first1=Paul |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=348 |issue=4 |pages=347–49 |pmid=12540650}}</ref>

=== Toxic pollutants ===
Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of [[heavy metals]] and fat-soluble pollutants like [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]] and [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxins]], which are known to [[Biomagnification|accumulate up the food chain]]. After extensive review, researchers from [[Harvard School of Public Health|Harvard's School of Public Health]] in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks.

Heat treatment of [[fat]]s (fatty acid esters of glycerol) can form glycidol, glycidol fatty acid esters (GE), 2-Monochloropropane-1,3-diol fatty acid esters (2-MCPDE) and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDE), which contaminate marine oil supplements and fatty fish products.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beekmann |first1=K. |last2=Sloot |first2=S.J. |last3=Oey |first3=S.B. |last4=van Leeuwen |first4=S.P.J. |title=MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in food supplements of fish oils, algae oils, and krill oils |journal=Food Control |date=June 2022 |volume=136 |article-number=108865 |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108865 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ostermeyer |first1=Ute |last2=Merkle |first2=Sybille |last3=Karl |first3=Horst |last4=Fritsche |first4=Jan |title=Free and bound MCPD and glycidyl esters in smoked and thermally treated fishery products of the German market |journal=European Food Research and Technology |date=July 2021 |volume=247 |issue=7 |pages=1757–1769 |doi=10.1007/s00217-021-03746-6 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Fish oil supplements came under scrutiny in 2006, when the [[Food Standards Agency]] in the UK and the [[Food Safety Authority of Ireland]] reported [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) levels that exceeded the European Union maximum limits in several fish oil brands,<ref name=foodprod>{{cite web
 |url= http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/news/ng.asp?n=67059-boots-seven-seas-dioxins-fish-oil
 |title=Dioxins prompt second UK fish oil withdrawal|author=Jess Halliday
 |date=2006-04-13|access-date=8 February 2007}}</ref><ref name=bbc>{{cite news
 | url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1911312.stm
 | date= 2002-04-06| title=Pollutants found in fish oil capsules
 |access-date=8 February 2007 | work=BBC News}}</ref>
which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards (IFOS) Program, a third-party testing and accreditation program for fish oil products, was created by Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, Canada.<ref>[http://www.ifosprogram.com/IFOS/default.aspx International Fish Oil Standards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518181053/http://www.ifosprogram.com/IFOS/default.aspx |date=18 May 2012 }}.</ref>

A March 2010 lawsuit filed by a California environmental group claimed that eight brands of fish oil supplements contained excessive levels of PCBs, including [[CVS/pharmacy]], [[Nature Made]], [[Rite Aid]], [[General Nutrition Centers|GNC]], Solgar, [[Twinlab]], Now Health, [[Omega Protein]] and Pharmavite. The majority of these products were either cod liver or shark liver oils. Those participating in the lawsuit claim that because the liver is the major filtering and detoxifying organ, PCB content may be higher in liver-based oils than in fish oil produced from the processing of whole fish.<ref name=abcnews>{{cite web
 |url= https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/ConsumerNews/truth-fish-oil-concerns/story?id=9994049
 |title= Lawsuit Raises Fish Oil Supplement Concerns|author=Elisabeth Leamy
 |website= [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]|date=2010-03-03|access-date=5 March 2010|author-link= Elisabeth Leamy}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/03/03/BARO1C9RD3.DTL "Lawsuit says fish oil supplements contain PCB"], ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'', 3 March 2010.</ref>

An analysis based on data from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) with regards to the dangers of [[persistent organic pollutant]]s (POPs) in cod liver came to the conclusion that "in Norwegian women, fish liver consumption was not associated with an increased cancer risk in breast, uterus, or colon. In contrast, a decreased risk for total cancer was found."<ref>{{Cite journal |pages=682–6 |doi=10.1039/B706302B |title=POP exposure from fish liver consumption and risk of cancer?the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study |year=2007 |last1=Brustad |first1=Magritt |last2=Sandanger |first2=Torkjel Manning |last3=Andersen |first3=Vegard |last4=Lund |first4=Eiliv |journal=Journal of Environmental Monitoring |volume=9 |issue=7 |pmid=17607388}}</ref>

[[Microalgae]] oil is a vegetarian alternative to fish oil. Supplements produced from microalgae oil provide a balance of omega−3 fatty acids similar to fish oil, with a lower risk of pollutant exposure.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2174/157339907781368968 |title=Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Nutrition and Medicine: Considering Microalgae Oil as a Vegetarian Source of EPA and DHA |year=2007 |first1=Scott D. |last1=Doughman |first2=Srirama |last2=Krupanidhi |first3=Carani B. |last3=Sanjeevi |journal=Current Diabetes Reviews |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=198–203 |pmid=18220672}}</ref>

==See also==
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{div col|small=no|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Algae]]
* [[Cod liver oil]]
* [[Docosahexaenoic acid]]
* [[Eicosapentaenoic acid]]
* [[Krill oil]]
* [[Lovaza]]
* [[Omega-3-acid ethyl esters]]
* [[Shark liver oil]]
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/06690fd0-d133-424c-9673-1849e414543d
| license statement URL = https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f985caed-cc7a-457e-8107-7ce16c6ef209/content
| license = CC BY 4.0
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Notes ==
# Omega−3 fish oil supplements have no standard doses and vary considerably by producers and producers' products, but salmon oil consistently has more DHA than EPA while other fish oils have more EPA than DHA. For example, one supplier, Trident Food's Pure Alaska salmon oil product label reports per serving DHA 220&nbsp;mg and EPA 180&nbsp;mg (total omega−3 = 600&nbsp;mg), but their fish oil based on pollock has DHA 144&nbsp;mg and EPA 356&nbsp;mg (total omega−3 = 530&nbsp;mg). Equivalent products from another producer, Fish Oils, Puritan's Pride, reports DHA 180&nbsp;mg and EPA 150&nbsp;mg for their salmon oil product (total omega−3 = 420&nbsp;mg), but DHA 204&nbsp;mg and EPA 318&nbsp;mg for fish oil derived from anchovy, sardine, and mackerel (total omega−3 = 600&nbsp;mg). For information and comparison purposes only, no endorsements are implied. 
# Plant-based omega−3s are rich in ALA but completely lack EPA and DHA, so vegetarians and vegans seeking non-fish sources turn to more expensive algae derived oils. There is generally a pattern of more DHA than EPA in most of these products. For example, Nordic Naturals reports per serving DHA 390&nbsp;mg and EPA 195&nbsp;mg (total omega−3 = 715&nbsp;mg), Calgee reports DHA 300&nbsp;mg and EPA 150&nbsp;mg (total omega−3 = 550&nbsp;mg) and so on, but iwi Life reports DHA 100&nbsp;mg and EPA 150&nbsp;mg (total omega−3 = 252&nbsp;mg). For information and comparison purposes only, no endorsements are implied.
# [https://www.purealaskaomega.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/PAO-Bottle-451093-Lot-UC220030-Alaskan-Omega-3-625-mg-180-ct.pdf Trident Seafoods Pure Alaska Alaskan Omega-3 625 mg]
# [https://www.purealaskaomega.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/PAO-Bottle-446314-Lot-UC200037-Wild-Alaskan-Salmon-Oil-1000-mg-Vit-D3.pdf Trident Seafoods Pure Alaska Omega Wild Alaskan Salmon Oil 1000 mg Certificate of Analysis]

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* FAO (1986) [http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X6899E/X6899E00.HTM ''The production of fish meal and oil''] FAO Fishery Technical Paper 142. {{ISBN|92-5-102464-2}}.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Fish oil}}
* [https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/ Omega-3 Fatty Acids Fact Sheet for Health Professionals]
* [http://www.nutrasource.ca/ifos/ International Fish Oil Standards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329121813/http://www.nutrasource.ca/ifos/ |date=29 March 2019 }} – An organization concerned with the [[Quality (business)|quality]] of omega−3 products as it relates to the [[international standard]]s established by the [[World Health Organization]] and the Council For Responsible Nutrition for purity and concentration.
* {{cite web| url=http://www.fatsoflife.com|title=PUFA Newsletter|editor=Joyce A. Nettleton|access-date=20 February 2006}} Two newsletters, both quarterly, reviewing recent publications in essential fatty acids. One is written for researchers, the second is for consumers. Industry sponsored, academic contributors.
* [http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/DietandNutrition/omega-3-fatty-acids Omega-3 Fatty Acids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430082337/http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/DietandNutrition/omega-3-fatty-acids |date=30 April 2015 }} ''American Cancer Society''. Updated 11 January 2008.

{{seafood|state=expanded}}
{{fatsandoils}}
{{dietary supplement}}
{{Portal bar | Medicine}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fish Oil}}
[[Category:Dietary supplements]]
[[Category:Fish products]]
[[Category:Animal fats]]