View source for Flavoring

{{Short description|Food additive used to change its aroma or taste}}
{{About|flavorings in food|flavor as the perception of an aroma or odor|Taste}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
[[File:Rumaroma.jpg|thumb|A flavoring]]
A '''flavoring''' (or '''flavouring'''),{{efn|See spelling differences: [[American and British English spelling differences]]}} also known as '''flavor''' (or '''flavour''') or '''flavorant''', is a [[food additive]] that is used to improve the [[taste]] or [[Sense of smell|smell]] of food. It changes the [[perceptual]] impression of [[food]] as determined primarily by the [[chemoreceptor]]s of the [[Taste|gustatory]] and [[olfactory system|olfactory systems]].<ref>Small DM, Green BG. "[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92876/ A Proposed Model of a Flavor Modality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919215614/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92876/ |date=19 September 2021 }}". In: Murray MM, Wallace MT, editors. The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2012. Chapter 36.</ref><ref name="wol">{{cite book |last1=Wolfe |first1=Jeremy |url=https://archive.org/details/sensationpercept0000unse_o8u3 |title=Sensation & perception |last2=Kluender |first2=Keith |last3=Levi |first3=Dennis |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-87893-572-7 |edition=3rd |page=7 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Along with additives, other components, like sugars, determine the taste of food.  

A flavoring is defined as a substance that gives another substance taste, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become [[sweet]], [[sour]], [[pungent|tangy]], etc. Although the term, in common language, denotes the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same term is used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell.

Owing to the high cost, or unavailability, of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorings are "nature-identical", which means that they are the [[chemical compound|chemical]] equivalent of natural flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than having been extracted from source materials. Identification of components of natural foods, for example a [[raspberry]], may be done using technology such as [[headspace technology|headspace techniques]], so the flavorist can imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present. In the EU legislation, the term "natural-identical flavoring" does not exist. The legislation is specified on what is a "flavoring" and a "natural flavoring".

== Definition ==
A flavoring is a [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] additive that improves the taste or smell of food. They work primarily via the [[olfactory system|sense of smell]]. In legislation, substances that exclusively have a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings. These usually include [[flavor enhancer]]s, [[sweetener]]s, [[acidulant]]s and [[salt substitute]]s. 

There are different ways to divide flavorings. First by the way they are produced. A vanilla flavoring can for example be obtained naturally by extraction from [[vanilla]] seeds, or one can start with cheap chemicals and try to make a similar substance artificially (in this example [[vanillin]]). A nature-identical flavoring is chemically an exact copy of the original substance and can be either natural or artificial.<ref name="au-nz_guide-2002"/> Vanillin is neither obtained from the vanilla plant nor an exact copy of vanilla, but a synthesized nature-identical component of the vanilla aroma. Vanillin is not vanilla, but gives a food a vanilla aroma.

The second division is by the effect they have on smell (aroma) or taste of the food. The effect can be the aroma of a specific [[fruit]], [[Benzaldehyde|almond]], [[Artificial butter flavoring|butter]], [[Liquid smoke|smoke from wood]], or some fantasy flavor. The aroma of the flavoring may resemble that of the source, or imitate a particular unrelated food. It may for example be the extract from vanilla seeds and smell like vanilla, or it may be the extract of a potato and smell like a banana. Irrespective of the effect, the flavoring may be natural or artificial. It may for example be the natural tissue of an animal with the aroma of a citrus, or just a chemical that smells like a citrus.

==Division by production method==
Flavorings can be divided into three principal types: "natural flavorings", "nature-identical flavorings", and "artificial flavorings".<ref name="au-nz_guide-2002">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080720091222if_/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/flavourings_user_guide_0802.pdf ''Flavourings and Flavour Enhancers — User Guide''], August 2002. The Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code (archived)</ref> In the United States, they are traditionally divided into natural and artificial flavorings, where the latter includes nature-identical flavorings.<ref name="fda-title21-2022"/> In contrast, European legislation does not distinguish natural and nature-identical flavorings, while only the term "natural" is subject to some regulation.

=== Natural flavorings ===
Natural flavorings are edible [[aroma compound]]s that are found in [[Natural environment|nature]], not [[Artificiality|made by man]].
In nature, they always occur with other natural substances that also may be flavorings. Natural flavorings can be isolated on industrial scale, to be used as an additive.

Techniques to obtain natural flavorings include the use of [[enzyme]]s and/or [[microorganism]]s. European legislators have accepted flavorings produced by manmade [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMOs) – not found in nature – as natural flavorings.

=== Nature-identical flavorings ===
Nature-identical flavorings are human-made aroma compounds that are chemically identical to some substance that can be found in nature. They are synthesized from [[chemical]]s or isolated by means of chemical processes.

Because nature-identical flavorings can be produced at low costs, the food industry will argue that nature-identical and natural flavorings are exactly the same. They have the advantage to be chemically pure, without [[allergen]]s that may be coupled with natural flavorings. On the other hand, they are missing the [[synergy]] of other substances present in their natural origin, so they may lack subtlety.

=== Artificial flavorings ===
[[Artificial]] flavorings are synthesized from chemical substances by man and are not found in nature. Their sensory characteristics mostly resemble that of natural or nature-identical flavorings.

== Perception of flavorings ==
Of the three chemical senses, [[Sense of smell|smell]] is the main determinant of a food item's flavor.<ref name="neurogastronomy">{{cite book|title=Neurogastronomy|url=https://archive.org/details/neurogastronomyh0000shep|url-access=registration|date=2012|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-15910-4|location=New York|last1=Shepherd|first1=Gordon M.}}</ref> Aromas are the [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] components of the food. The aroma is determined by the [[aroma compound]]s it contains and the personal ability to detect them. While a flavoring primarily acts through the [[olfactory system]], it also affects the [[taste]] at the same time. 

Along with additives, other components, like sugars, determine the taste of food. The [[trigeminal nerve]]s, which detect chemical [[irritation|irritants]] in the [[mouth]] and [[throat]], as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall perception of food.{{cn|date=April 2023}}

== Mechanism ==
Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2014/dec/08/fake-flavours-artificial-aromas-real-food-smells-aromafork|title=Fake flavours: why artificial aromas can't compete with real food smells|author=Amy Fleming|department=Food & Drink|access-date=3 June 2015|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=8 December 2014|archive-date=3 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603123223/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2014/dec/08/fake-flavours-artificial-aromas-real-food-smells-aromafork|url-status=live}}</ref>

Unlike smelling, which occurs upon [[inhalation]], the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the [[exhalation]] phase of [[breathing]] and is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.02.024 | title = Expiration: The moment we experience retronasal olfaction in flavor | year = 2010 | last1 = Masaoka | first1 = Yuri | last2 = Satoh | first2 = Hironori | last3 = Akai | first3 = Lena | last4 = Homma | first4 = Ikuo | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 473 | issue = 2 | pages = 92–6 | pmid = 20171264| s2cid = 2671577 }}</ref>

==Taste==
The taste of a food product is determined not only by the aromas present in the original material and added flavorings, but also by accompanying substances, like flavor enhancers, [[sweetener]]s, [[acidulant]]s and [[salt substitute]]s. [[Polyol]]s, like [[sorbitol]] and [[maltitol]], are carriers in flavorings, but they themselves also have a sweet taste.

Even the color of food can affect one's experience of the taste significantly.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.008 | title = Grape expectations: The role of cognitive influences in color–flavor interactions | year = 2010 | last1 = Shankar | first1 = Maya U. | last2 = Levitan | first2 = Carmel A. | last3 = Spence | first3 = Charles | journal = Consciousness and Cognition | volume = 19 | pages = 380–90 | pmid = 19828330 | issue = 1| s2cid = 32230245 }}</ref>
In one study, adding more [[food color|red color]] to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12706.x | title = Perceived Sweetness and Redness in Colored Sucrose Solutions | year = 1982 | last1 = Johnson | first1 = J. | last2 = Clydesdale | first2 = F. M. | journal = Journal of Food Science | volume = 47 | issue = 3 | page = 747}}</ref> Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; for example, different colors of the U.S. product [[Froot Loops]] cereal and most brands of [[Gummy Bear]]s often use the same flavorings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/01/08/575406711/are-gummy-bear-flavors-just-fooling-our-brains|title=Are Gummy Bear Flavors Just Fooling Our Brains?|first=Ashlie|last=Stevens|work=NPR|date=8 January 2018|access-date=16 January 2018|archive-date=17 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117010102/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/01/08/575406711/are-gummy-bear-flavors-just-fooling-our-brains|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/1477/breaking-breakfast-news-froot-loops-are-all-the-same-flavor/|title=Breaking Breakfast News: Fruit Loops Are All the Same Flavor, after the Mandela effect now known as Froot Loops |author=Locker, Melissa|magazine=Time|date=21 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Flavor enhancers ===
<!-- [[Flavor enhancer]] redirects here; this should be a separate article. -->
Flavor enhancers or taste enhancers, which are [[umami]] or "savory" compounds, are themselves not flavorings, but they intensify the taste of the food. They are largely based on [[amino acid]]s and [[nucleotide]]s. These are typically used as [[sodium]] or [[calcium]] [[salt (chemistry)|salts]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glutamate.org/history/100_years_of_taste.html|title=Monosodium Glutamate & Umami|website=International Glutamate Information Service|access-date=3 June 2015|archive-date=25 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625045829/http://www.glutamate.org/history/100_years_of_taste.html}}</ref> Umami flavorings recognized and approved by the European Union include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodadditivesworld.com/flavorings.html|title=Flavorings|website=Food Additives|access-date=3 June 2015|archive-date=6 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506054952/http://www.foodadditivesworld.com/flavorings.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Acid salts
!Description
|-
|[[Glutamic acid]] salts
|This amino acid's sodium salt, [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG), is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono- and diglutamate salts are also commonly used.
|-
|[[Glycine]] salts
|Simple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
|-
|[[Guanylic acid]] (GMP) salts
|Nucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
|-
|[[Inosinic acid]] (IMP) salts
|Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP.<!-- AMP deaminase? Not commonly known to non-specialists? --> Due to high costs of production, typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
|-
|5'-[[ribonucleotide]] salts
|A blend of GMP and IMP salts ("I+G"), generally in the [[disodium ribonucleotides]] form; typically combined with amino acids flavor enhancers
|}

==Regulations==
=== In Europe ===
Under the EU legislation, substances which have exclusively a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings (Article 2, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008.<ref name="regulation_1334/2008">[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02008R1334-20211124 ''Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on flavourings and certain food ingredients with flavouring properties for use in and on foods and amending Council Regulation (EEC) No 1601/91, Regulations (EC) No 2232/96 and (EC) No 110/2008 and Directive 2000/13/EC''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133818/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02008R1334-20211124 |date=9 February 2022 }} (consolidated version of 24 November 2021). The preamble is [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1334 reproduced here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133830/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1334 |date=9 February 2022 }}</ref>

Also flavor enhancers are not considered flavorings under the EU legislation but additives (Point 14 of Annex I of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008).<ref name="regulation_1333/2008">[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02008R1333-20210808 ''Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133830/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02008R1333-20210808 |date=9 February 2022 }} (consolidated version of 8 August 2021). The preamble is [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1333 reproduced here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133820/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1333 |date=9 February 2022 }}</ref>

EU legislation defines several types of flavorings:<ref>European Commission website, Directorate General for Health and Food Safety. Retrieved on 6 May 2020 https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings_en {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712212322/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings_en |date=12 July 2020 }}</ref>
*flavoring substances (including "natural flavoring substances"): 
*flavoring preparations (by definition always natural): 
*thermal process flavorings
*smoke flavorings
*flavor precursors
*other flavorings

In the EU, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 on flavorings and certain food ingredients with flavoring properties for use in/on foods, i.e. the EU Flavouring Regulation, was adopted on 16 December 2008 and entered into force on 20 January 2009.  It applies from 20 January 2011.
Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 lays down general requirements for safe use of flavorings and provides definitions for different types of flavorings. The Regulation sets out substances for which an evaluation and approval is required. The Union list of flavoring substances, approved for use in and on foods, was adopted on 1 October 2012 and was introduced in Annex I of this Regulation<ref>European Commission website, Directorate General for Health and Food Safety. Retrieved on 6 May 2020: https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings/eu_rules_en {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716151212/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings/eu_rules_en |date=16 July 2020 }}</ref>

==== In the UK ====
The UK followed the above EU legislation which remained in force until 31 December 2020. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 provided that from 1 January 2021, this directly applicable EU legislation was converted into UK law with minor corrections to enable it to operate effectively as UK law. These corrections were made by Statutory Instrument 2019 No. 860.

The UK Food industry, in collaboration with the flavoring industry, has developed guidance on what to consider when declaring a pictorial representation of a food ingredient on the label of a pre-packed product.

=== In the United States ===
In the United States, flavorings are regulated in ''Title 21'' of the [[Code of Federal Regulations]]. They are divided into artificial and natural flavorings.<ref name="fda-title21-2022">U.S. Food and Drug Administration, [https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.22 ''Food Labeling''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209115842/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.22 |date=9 February 2022 }} In: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 — Food and drugs, Chapter I. (version of 6 Jan 2022)</ref>

=== In Australia and New Zealand ===
In Australia and New Zealand regulation of flavorings is covered by the [[Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code]] of November 2000, entered into force in December 2002.<ref name="au-nz_guide-2002"/>

Natural flavorings are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological, or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.

Nature-identical flavorings are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically and [[organoleptic]]ally identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.

Artificial flavorings are "flavouring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed."

===Regulations on natural flavoring===
[[File:Mystic Ice Cream flavor selection sign.jpg|thumb|American ice cream shop using natural flavors]]
In the EU, in order to be labeled as natural flavoring substance, many conditions have to be fulfilled: "Natural flavouring substance" shall mean a flavoring substance obtained by appropriate physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable, animal or microbiological origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by one or more of the traditional food preparation processes listed in Annex II. Natural flavoring substances correspond to substances that are naturally present and have been identified in nature (Article 3).<ref name="regulation_1334/2008"/>

More detailed information on the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations can be found on the European Flavour Association (EFFA) Guidance Document.<ref>EFFA Guidance Document for the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations: https://effa.eu/docs/default-source/guidance-documents/effa-guidance-document-for-the-production-of-natural-flavouring-substances-and-(natural)-flavouring-preparations-in-the-eu6c53ae21f98c63ce9dbbff000087830d.pdf{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[UK]] Food Law defines a natural flavor as:

{{Blockquote|A flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by physical, enzymatic, or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other than one normally so used<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1994/uksi_19941486_en_1.htm|title=The Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994|website=www.opsi.gov.uk|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=28 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528083814/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1994/Uksi_19941486_en_1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavoring" as:
{{quote|The [[essential oil]], oleoresin, essence, or extractive, protein hydrolysate, [[distillate]], or any product of roasting, heating, or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit, or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf, or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional.<ref name="fda-title21-2022"/>}}

==Dietary restrictions==
Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal byproducts.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}}  Some flavor ingredients, such as [[gelatin]], are produced from animal products.  Some, such as [[glycerin]], can be derived from either animal or vegetable sources.  And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol. Many groups, such as [[Jews]], [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Hindus]], and [[Muslims]], as well as [[vegans]], follow dietary restrictions which disallow the use of animal byproducts and/or alcohol in certain contexts.  In many Western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewish [[kosher]] [[pareve]] certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish). [[The Vegan Society]]'s Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies worldwide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings).{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}}

Similarly, persons with known [[Food sensitivity|sensitivities]] or [[Food allergy|allergies]] to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2015/12/attention-allergy-sufferers-beware-of-natural-flavors|title=Attention, Allergy Sufferers: Beware of Natural Flavors|date=2 December 2015|website=Food Safety News|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203181604/http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2015/12/attention-allergy-sufferers-beware-of-natural-flavors/|url-status=live}}</ref> Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common [[allergen]]s, such as [[Dairy allergy|dairy]], [[Soy allergy|soy]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.allergyadvisor.com/hidden.htm |website=Allergy Advisor |title=Hidden Allergens in Foods |access-date=27 December 2011 |archive-date=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227173750/http://allergyadvisor.com/hidden.htm}}</ref> [[sesame#Allergy|sesame]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kidswithfoodallergies.org/resourcespre.php?id=107 |website=Kids with Food Allergies Foundation |title=Sesame Allergy: A growing food allergy |access-date=27 December 2011 |archive-date=21 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421021345/http://www.kidswithfoodallergies.org/resourcespre.php?id=107}}</ref> [[Egg allergy|eggs]], and [[Nut allergy|nuts]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cspinet.org/nah/04_01/ |website=Center for Science in the Public Interest |title=Food Allergies |access-date=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826044631/http://www.cspinet.org/nah/04_01/ |archive-date=26 August 2011 }}</ref>
In the EU, nevertheless, this information is available in the labeling. Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, states in article 9 that any ingredient or processing aid listed in Annex II (of the aforementioned Regulation) or derived from a substance or product listed in Annex II causing allergies or intolerances used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and still present in the finished product, even if in an altered form, must be included in the labeling.<ref>Regulation (EU) no 1169/2011 of the European parliament and of the council of 25 October 2011</ref>

==Flavor creation==
{{also|food science|food technology}}
Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and flavor chemists ([[flavorist]]s) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorings consist of [[ester]]s, which are often described as being sweet or fruity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm|title=How do artificial flavors work?|website=How Stuff Works|access-date=3 June 2015|date=31 May 2000|archive-date=30 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030122421/http://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally. It has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.<ref name="Smitha">{{cite journal | title = A procedure for the safety evaluation of natural flavor complexes used as ingredients in food: essential oils |author=R.L. Smitha |author2=S.M. Cohenb |author3=J. Doullc |author4=V.J. Ferond |author5=J.I. Goodmane |author6=L.J. Marnettf |author7=P.S. Portogheseg |author8=W.J. Waddellh |author9=B.M.Wagneri |author10=R.L. Hallj |author11=N.A. Higleyk |author12=C. Lucas-Gavinl |author13=T.B. Adamsm | journal = [[Food and Chemical Toxicology]] | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | year = 2005| pages =345–363 | doi = 10.1016/j.fct.2004.11.007 | pmid = 15680674}}</ref> Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.<ref name="Smitha"/>

[[food industry|Food]] and [[beverage industry|beverage]] companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products), or changes in formula or processing for existing products. In 2011, about US$10.6 billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed in [[ultra-processed food]] and [[convenience food]].<ref>Ceresana, market study Flavors, December 2012, http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/flavors/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729111954/http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/flavors/ |date=29 July 2013 }}</ref>

The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavored [[gelatin dessert|jellies]], [[soft drink]]s and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances.

Most flavors represent a mixture of [[aroma compound]]s, the raw material that is produced by flavor companies. In rare cases, a single synthetic compound is used in pure form. Artificial [[vanilla flavor]]s [[vanillin]] and [[ethylvanillin]] are a notable exception, as well as the artificial [[strawberry]] flavor ([[ethyl methylphenylglycidate]]). The ubiquitous "green apple" aroma is based on [[hexyl acetate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1003201.html|title=hexyl acetate, 142-92-7|first=William|last=Luebke|date=31 December 2017|website=www.thegoodscentscompany.com|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203064606/http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1003201.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<!--list is alphabetical by flavor emulated-->
{| class=wikitable
|+{{vanchor|Table of some fruity flavorings}}
|-
!Chemical
!Odor
|-
|[[Manzanate]]
|[[Apple]]
|-
|[[Diacetyl]], [[acetylpropionyl]], [[acetoin]]
|[[Butter]]y
|-
|[[Isoamyl acetate]]
|[[Banana]]
|-
|[[Benzaldehyde]]
|[[Bitter almond]], [[cherry]]
|-
|[[Cinnamaldehyde]]
|[[Cinnamon]]
|-
|[[Ethyl propionate]]
|[[Fruit]]y
|-
|[[Methyl anthranilate]]
|[[Grape]]
|-
|[[Limonene]]
|[[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
|-
|[[γ-Decalactone]]
|[[Peach]]
|-
|[[Ethyl decadienoate]]
|[[Pear]]
|-
|[[Allyl hexanoate]]
|[[Pineapple]]
|-
|[[Ethyl methylphenylglycidate]]
|[[Strawberry]]
|-
|[[Ethyl maltol]]
|Caramelized [[sugar]], [[cotton candy]]
|-
|[[2,4-Dithiapentane]]
|[[Truffle]]
|-
|[[Ethylvanillin]]
|[[Vanilla]]
|-
|[[Methyl salicylate]]
|[[Wintergreen]]
|}

Some flavors are relatively multifaceted. For example, the basic aroma of cooked meat is formed by a combination of [[Maillard reaction]], [[lipid peroxidation]], and degradation of sulfur-containing compounds, such as [[thiamine]] and cysteine.<ref name=Li>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xuejie |last2=Li |first2=Jian |title=The Flavor of Plant-Based Meat Analogues |journal=Cereal Foods World |date=2020 |volume=65 |issue=4 |doi=10.1094/CFW-65-4-0040|s2cid=231203281 }}</ref> With this understanding, an artificial chicken flavor can be made from ingredients as simple as glucose, salt, cysteine, and [[arachidonic acid]]: when heated in a water solution they undergo these three reactions to produce the desired flavor. (Such a flavor produced during the preparation process from precursor compounds is called a "process flavor"). Small tweaks to the mixture can instead produce a beef flavor. This kind of basic meat flavoring has been known since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perret |first1=Marcel Andre |title=Chicken flavor and process for preparing the same |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3689289A/en |date=5 September 1972}}</ref> Of course, these four chemicals only mimic a small number of possible reactions out of the many reactions possible among the complex flavor precursor chemicals found in meat. For a more realistically complex aroma, natural feedstocks such as [[yeast extract]], [[hydrolyzed vegetable protein]], and spices can be used to expand the number of possible reactions. They also contribute peptides, free amino acids, and nucleic acid metabolites that all play a role in the natural taste of meat.<ref name=Li/><ref name=vegmeat>{{cite journal |last1=Kale |first1=Prajyoti |last2=Mishra |first2=Anusha |last3=Annapure |first3=Uday S. |title=Development of vegan meat flavour: A review on sources and techniques |journal=Future Foods |date=June 2022 |volume=5 |article-number=100149 |doi=10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100149|s2cid=248838839 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Determination==
Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors.<ref>e.g. ISO 13301:2002 Sensory analysis – Methodology – General guidance for measuring odor, flavor and taste detection thresholds by a three-alternative forced-choice (3-AFC) procedure, or ISO 6564:1985 Sensory analysis – Methodology – Flavor profile methods.</ref> In [[Analytical chemistry|chemical analysis]] of flavors, [[solid phase extraction]], [[solid phase microextraction]], and headspace [[gas chromatography]] are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by various [[mass spectrometry|mass spectrometric]] techniques.<ref>Use of Ozone Depleting Substances in Laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. [http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf norden.org] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227052412/http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf |date=27 February 2008 }}</ref>  A [[flavor lexicon]] can aid the development of objective language for food.

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
{{div col}}
* [[Aroma compound]]
* [[Artificial butter flavoring]]
* [[Ester]] (for list of some artificial flavor chemical compounds)
* ''[[Flavour and Fragrance Journal]]''
* [[Food additive]]
* [[Fragrance oil]]
* [[Katsuobushi]]
* [[Off-flavor]]
* [[Palatability]]
* [[Seasoning]]
* [[Taste bud]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*J. Demyttenaere, "Natural or Synthetic? The Legal Framework in the EU for the Production of Natural Flavouring Ingredients". In: ''Biotechnology of Natural Products'' (Schwab, W., Lange, B.M. and Wüst, M., Eds.), Springer, 2018.
*J.C.R. Demyttenaere, "The new European Union Flavouring Regulation and its impact on essential oils: production of natural flavouring ingredients and maximum levels of restricted substances", ''Flavour and Fragrance Journal'', 27, 3–12 (2012).
*J.C.R. Demyttenaere. "The EU Regulation on Flavourings – an Update after 10 Years into Force: Focus on B2B Labelling of Natural Flavourings and Dealing with Restricted Substances", ''Foods & Food Ingredients Journal of Japan'', 224(2), 178, 2019.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|flavor|flavour}}
{{Commonscat|Food flavorings}}
* [https://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm "How do artificial flavors work?"]. [[HowStuffWorks]]
* [https://monell.org/ Monell Chemical Senses Center]
* [https://effa.eu/ EFFA website]
* [https://effa.eu/library/guidance-documents EFFA Guidance Documents]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhM2JRhMOwI&t= EFFA Video "What is a Flavouring?"]
* H. W. Schultz (editor): ''Symposium On Foods: The Chemistry and Physiology of Flavors. The Fourth in a Series of Symposia On Foods Held in Oregon State University'', AVI Pub, Co., Westpoint Conn. 1967, LCCN 66024813.[https://lccn.loc.gov/66024813 LCCN-permanent link]

{{Food chemistry}}
{{Consumer Food Safety}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Flavors| ]]
[[Category:Food science]]