View source for Foreign relations of China

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{{About|the foreign relations of the People's Republic of China|the foreign relations of the Republic of China|Foreign relations of Taiwan}}
{{Very long|date=October 2022}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
[[File:Diplomatic relations of China.svg|thumb|250px|Official diplomatic relations between world states and China<br />{{legend|#FF0000|People's Republic of China (PRC)}} {{legend|#008000|Republic of China (ROC)}} {{legend|#000080|States that have diplomatic relations with the PRC}} {{legend|#00FF00|States that have diplomatic relations with the ROC}} {{legend|Black|States that have diplomatic relations with neither}}]]
[[File:PRC relations commencement.svg|250px|right|thumb|Countries of the world indicating decade diplomatic relations commenced with the People's Republic of China: 1949/1950s (dark red), 1960s (red), 1970s (orange), 1980s (beige), 1990s/2000s (yellow) and 2010s/2020s (green). Countries not recognized by or not recognizing the PRC are in grey.]]{{Politics of China |expanded = Foreign }}

[[China]], officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), has full diplomatic relations with 180 out of the other 192 [[Member states of the United Nations|United Nations member states]], [[Cook Islands]], [[Niue]] and the [[State of Palestine]]. {{As of|2024}}, China has had the most [[diplomatic mission]]s of any state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_ranking|access-date=26 February 2024|website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref>

China officially claims it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of peace".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Independent Foreign Policy of Peace|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/hpwjzc/t1119842.shtml|access-date=9 August 2021|website=fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref> The fundamental goals of this policy are to preserve China's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, create a favorable international environment for China's [[Chinese economic reform|reform and opening up]] and modernization of construction, and to maintain [[world peace]] and propel common development."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223001208/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/|archive-date=23 February 2014}}</ref> An example of a foreign policy decision guided by "sovereignty and territorial integrity" is not engaging in [[Diplomacy|diplomatic relations]] with any country that recognizes the [[Taiwan|Republic of China (Taiwan)]], which the PRC does not recognize as a [[Political status of Taiwan#Position of the People's Republic of China (PRC)|separate nation]].<ref>{{cite news|title=China-Taiwan tussle in Bim politics|first=David|last=Williams|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/webarchive/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fcaribbean%2Fnews%2Fstory%2F2008%2F01%2F080108_chinataiwan.shtml|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=8 January 2008|access-date=13 July 2010|quote=Beijing and Taipei often trade insults over which is using "dollar diplomacy" in the form of offers of aid or cheap loans to curry influence around the world. The 'One-China' policy ensures that nations cannot have official relations with both China and Taiwan.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924163401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2008/01/080108_chinataiwan.shtml|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China halts St. Lucia work|first=Pete|last=Ninvalle|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/webarchive/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fcaribbean%2Fnews%2Fstory%2F2007%2F04%2F070427_chinaconstruct.shtml|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=27 April 2007|access-date=13 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915123240/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/04/070427_chinaconstruct.shtml|archive-date=15 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China in the Caribbean: The New Big Brother|first=Daniel|last=Erikson|url=http://stluciastar.com/content/archives/10022|publisher=Star Publishing Company|date=8 January 2010|access-date=13 July 2010<!-- guessing at invalid date -->|quote=China's overall strategy for the Caribbean has been driven by a desire to ensure the security of Chinese offshore financial holdings, woo countries with infrastructure projects and investment deals to ensure support for China in multilateral organizations, and promote the crucial "One China" policy to isolate Taiwan on the world stage.}}{{dead link|date=July 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

China is a member of many international organizations, holding key positions such as a permanent membership on the [[United Nations Security Council]]. In the early 1970s, the PRC replaced the ROC as the recognized government of "China" in the [[United Nations|UN]] following [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|Resolution 2758]]. As a nuclear power, China signed the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] in the United Nations.

== History ==
{{for-multi|history before 1800|Foreign relations of imperial China|history since 1800|History of foreign relations of China}}

==Foreign policy==
[[File:Air China B-2047 China-France PEK.JPG|thumb|An [[Air China]] [[Boeing 777]] in China-France 50 years anniversary livery]]
{{main|Foreign policy of China}}{{Further|China and the United Nations}}
Since [[History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)#Reform and opening up|the start of the period of Reform and Opening Up]] in 1978, China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]] and other multilateral organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lee|first=Kristine|date=15 April 2020|title=It's Not Just the WHO: How China Is Moving on the Whole U.N.|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/04/15/its-not-just-the-who-how-china-is-moving-on-the-whole-un-189029|access-date=15 October 2022|website=[[Politico]]}}</ref>

China traditionally operates separate tracks of government-to-government and party-to-party relations, the latter for example via the Communist Party's [[International Liaison Department of the Chinese Communist Party|International Liaison Department]].<ref name="Ong-2023">{{Cite book|last=Ong|first=Andrew|title=Stalemate: Autonomy and Insurgency on the China-Myanmar Border|date=2023|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5017-7071-5|jstor=10.7591/j.ctv2t8b78b}}</ref>{{Rp|page=137}}

=== Asian neighbors ===
China's relations with its Asian neighbors became more stable during the last decades of the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kang|first=David C.|year=2005|title=Why China's Rise Will Be Peaceful: Hierarchy and Stability in the East Asian Region|journal=Perspectives on Politics|volume=3|issue=3|pages=551–554|doi=10.1017/S1537592705270342|jstor=3689029|s2cid=145193988|issn=1537-5927}}</ref> It has cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), and participated in the [[Member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations#ASEAN Regional Forum|ASEAN Regional Forum]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=11}} In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the [[ASEAN Plus Three]] meetings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Routledge handbook of Asian regionalism|date=2012|publisher=[[Routledge]]|editor=Mark Beeson|editor2=Richard Stubbs|isbn=978-0-415-58054-0|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=666242764}}</ref> In 2005, the "ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 December 2005|title=Chairman's Statement of the First East Asia Summit, Kuala Lumpur, 14 December 2005|url=http://www.aseansec.org/18104.htm|access-date=14 October 2022|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216112947/http://www.aseansec.org/18104.htm|archive-date=16 December 2005}}</ref> Relations have improved with Vietnam since the 1979 [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] and subsequent [[Sino-Vietnamese conflicts (1979–1991)|Sino-Vietnamese conflicts]] although maritime disputes remain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Robert S.|date=4 July 2021|title=China-Vietnamese Relations in the Era of Rising China: Power, Resistance, and Maritime Conflict|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=30|issue=130|pages=613–629|doi=10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737|s2cid=230609101|issn=1067-0564}}</ref>

A [[Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|territorial dispute]] with its Southeast Asian neighbors over islands in the [[South China Sea]] remains unresolved, as does another dispute in the [[East China Sea]] with Japan. For the countries involved, these conflicts have had a negative impact on China's reputation.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 July 2013|title=Poll: Mutual Distrust Grows Between China, US|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poll-many-see-china-overtaking-us-as-top-superpower/1704167.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219210204/http://www.voanews.com/content/poll-many-see-china-overtaking-us-as-top-superpower/1704167.html|archive-date=19 February 2015|access-date=19 February 2015|url-status=live|publisher=[[Voice of America]]}}</ref>

The 2023 edition of China's "standard map" unveiled by its Ministry of Natural Resources on 28 August 2023, met with objections from its Asian neighbors the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, and India, all of which are involved in [[Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|territorial disputes]] with China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2023|title=China's new map outrages its neighbors|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-new-map-anger-india-south-china-sea-border-disputes-rcna102921|access-date=28 October 2023|publisher=[[NBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2023|title=China's new national map has set off a wave of protests. Why?|url=https://apnews.com/article/china-map-territorial-dispute-south-sea-702c45165d7f9cade796700fffa5691e|access-date=28 October 2023|work=[[Associated Press News]]}}</ref>

=== International territorial disputes ===
{{main|Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China}}

China has had border or maritime disputes with several countries, including with Vietnam in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]] and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these disputes. Notably on 21 July 2008, Russia finally resolved the last remaining border dispute along the 4300&nbsp;km border between the two countries by ceding a small amount of territory to China.<ref>{{cite news|date=21 July 2008|title=China, Russia sign border agreement|work=[[Business Standard]], [[Press Trust of India]]|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=42718|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211141134/http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=42718|archive-date=11 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=24 July 2008|title=The Sino-Russian border: The cockerel's cropped crest|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11792951|url-status=live|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829172624/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11792951|archive-date=29 August 2009}}</ref>

Territorial disputes with other countries below:<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />

* The PRC claims the ''de jure'' administration of [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]], as well as mainland-nearby islands of [[Kinmen]] and [[Matsu Islands]], currently controlled by the [[Republic of China]].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
* 10 features in the [[Yalu River|Yalu]] (Korean: Amnok) river are in dispute with North Korea.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
* Border dispute with India; India claims control of [[Aksai Chin]], which China seized during the [[Sino-Indian War]] of 1962, while China claims most of the Indian state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] (called [[South Tibet]] by China).<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
*Portions of the [[Bhutan–China border|Bhutan-China border]].<ref>China and Bhutan have not yet established diplomatic relations, nevertheless, negotiations are ongoing as of 2008.</ref><ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
* China claims the administration of [[Senkaku Islands]] (Diaoyutai Islands), currently held by [[Japan]].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
*South China Sea Issue (《Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea》 was signed by the People's Republic of China and the 10 ASEAN countries (10+1) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia on 4 November 2002)
** [[Paracel Islands]] administered and occupied by the People's Republic, but claimed by Vietnam.
** Involved in a dispute with the [[Philippines]] over [[Scarborough Shoal]].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
**Involved in a [[Spratly Islands dispute|complex dispute over the Spratly Islands]] with Malaysia, the [[Philippines]], Vietnam, Taiwan, and possibly [[Brunei]].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
**The maritime area in South China Sea, which China claimed sovereignty on area surrounding shoals and islands in the Sea, as well as historical right over the area in [[nine-dash line]], while countries like the United States and Japan consider the maritime area as [[international water]].<ref>{{cite web|date=10 June 2015|title=The South China Sea conflict in a nutshell|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2015/06/10/commentary/world-commentary/south-china-sea-conflict-nutshell/}}</ref>
*[[Exclusive economic zone]] disputes with North Korea in the [[Yellow Sea]]; [[South Korea]] in the Yellow and [[East China Sea]]s; [[Japan]] in the East China Sea ([[East China Sea EEZ disputes]]); Vietnam, the [[Philippines]], Malaysia, [[Brunei]] and [[Indonesia]] in the South China Sea.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />

Territorial disputes listed above as between the PRC and ROC ("Taiwan") stems from the question of which government is the legitimate government of China. The Republic of China which views itself as the successor state of the Qing Dynasty did not renounce any territory which fell under de facto control of other states (i.e. Mongolia), but has largely been a non-participant in enforcing these claims. The People's Republic of China which inherited the claims has settled a number of such disputes with Mongolia and Russia via bilateral treaties, not recognized by the Republic of China. In this respect, the territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring countries may be considered a subset of those between the ROC and said countries.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Bloomberg News reports that these disputes are undermining China's attempts to charm its neighbors away from American influence.<ref>Forsythe, Michael and Sakamaki, Sachiko [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-09-26/china-s-asian-charm-offensive-in-shambles-over-disputes-with-neighbors.html China's Asian Charm Offensive in `Shambles' Over Disputes With Neighbors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103180245/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-09-26/china-s-asian-charm-offensive-in-shambles-over-disputes-with-neighbors.html|date=3 November 2012}} [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]], 26 September 2010</ref> China has come to rely more on military power to resolve these disputes. China has made double digit percentage increases in its military budget for many years, though as a percentage of its fast growing GDP falling from 1.4% in 2006 to 1.3% in 2011.<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-04/chinese-military-spending-will-rise-11-percent-in-2012 "China Raising 2012 Defense Spending to Cope With Unfriendly 'Neighborhood'."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305072900/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-04/chinese-military-spending-will-rise-11-percent-in-2012|date=5 March 2012}} ''[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]''. 4 March 2012.</ref> This may lead to a China causing its own encirclement by nations that are ever more firmly aligned against an increasingly well armed and dominant China.<ref>[https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/03/05/chinas-defense-spending-dilemma/ "China's Defense Spending Dilemma."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807040319/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/03/05/chinas-defense-spending-dilemma/|date=7 August 2017}} ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. 5 March 2012.</ref> As of 2013 this has caused even the Philippines to invite back onto their soil not just the Americans, but also the Japanese.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Zachary Keck|author2=The Diplomat|title=Made in China: A US-Japan-Philippines Axis?|url=https://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/06/29/made-in-china-a-us-japan-philippines-axis/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111190223/https://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/06/29/made-in-china-a-us-japan-philippines-axis/|archive-date=11 November 2013|access-date=19 February 2015|work=The Diplomat}}</ref>

[[File:20041120-1 bushchinamtg-1-515h.jpg|thumb|[[Hu Jintao]] of China and [[George W. Bush]] meet while attending an [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004.]]

In March 2024, it was revealed that Japan and the European Union are set to engage in discussions regarding cooperation on advanced materials for next-generation chips and batteries, aiming to decrease their dependence on China. EU Commissioner for Innovation and Research, Iliana Ivanova, highlighted the potential mutual benefits of establishing a dialogue framework.<ref>{{Cite news|date=30 March 2024|title=Japan, EU to discuss cooperation on tech materials to cut reliance on China, Nikkei says|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/japan-eu-discuss-cooperation-tech-materials-cut-reliance-china-nikkei-says-2024-03-30/|access-date=31 March 2024}}</ref>

===21st century===
{{Further|Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|Political status of Taiwan|Chinese intelligence activity abroad}}
At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) general secretary Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." This policy line had varied little in intent since the People's Republic was established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect periods of domestic political upheaval.

In 2007, Foreign Affairs Ministry spokesman [[Qin Gang]] made an eight-point statement explaining the diplomatic philosophy of China in response to U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney's earlier remarks on China's military spending and China's anti-satellite test in January 2007 posing a global threat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301-104826-2978r/|title=Beijing likens Cheney criticism to nosy neighbor|work=The Washington Times|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219202935/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301-104826-2978r/|archive-date=19 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping (2019-06-05) 57.jpg|thumb|[[Paramount leader|Chinese leader]] Xi Jinping presented [[Panda diplomacy|two pandas]] to [[Moscow Zoo]] at a ceremony with [[Vladimir Putin]] on 5 June 2019.]]

In 2011, Foreign Minister [[Yang Jiechi]] outlined plans for an "integrated approach" that would serve China's economic development.<ref>Ho, Stephanie. [https://www.voanews.com/a/chinese-foreign-relations-to-focus-on-more-active-diplomacy-117511453/136106.html "Chinese Foreign Relations to Focus on More Active Diplomacy."]  Voice of America, 7 March 2011.</ref>

In 2016, during the 6th Plenum of [[18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party]], Party General Secretary [[Xi Jinping]] presented efforts for greater transparency in the decision-making process in local governance, which also represents his effort in establishing a positive image of China's Communist Party overseas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/chinas-sixth-plenum-xi-strives-polish-image-abroad/|title=In China's sixth plenum, Xi strives to polish image abroad|last=Lai|first=Christina|date=26 October 2016|website=Asia Times|access-date=11 November 2016}}</ref>

At their annual meeting on 13 June 2021, country leaders from the [[Group of Seven]] (G7) criticized China for a series of abuses. The G7 nations—the US, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Canada and Japan—had been hesitant about acting separately. Pressured by US President [[Joe Biden]], they unanimously agreed on a sharp criticism, followed by a similar strong unanimous attack by [[NATO]] members the next day. The criticisms focused on the mistreatment of the [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] minority, the systematic destruction of democracy in Hong Kong, repeated military threats against Taiwan, unfair trade practices, and lack of transparency regarding the origins of COVID-19. China has rejected all criticism of what it considers to be strictly internal policy matters. On the other hand, the constellation of critics is essential to the Chinese economy in terms of jobs, investments and purchases of its huge quantity of exports.<ref>{{Cite web|last=STUART LAU|date=13 June 2021|title=US and Europe converge on historic rebuke of China|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/us-europe-rebuke-china-economic-practices-g7-human-rights-xinjiang-coronavirus/|website=[[Politico Europe]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Areddy|first=James T.|date=14 June 2021|title=Back-to-Back Rebukes of China Mark a Turning Point|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/back-to-back-rebukes-of-china-mark-a-turning-point-11623710320|access-date=15 April 2022|issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>Sabine Siebold, Steve Holland and Robin Emmott, "NATO adopts tough line on China at Biden's debut summit with alliance" [https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/nato-welcomes-biden-pivotal-post-trump-summit-2021-06-14/ ''Reuters'' June 14, 2021]</ref><ref>Karla Adam et al.. "G-7 takes stronger stand against China, at U.S. urging" [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/queen-elizabeth-biden-g7/2021/06/13/078574de-c7cf-11eb-8708-64991f2acf28_story.html ''Washington Post'' June 13, 2021].</ref>

China's early success in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic facilitated its [[mask diplomacy]].<ref name="Zhao-2023">{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|page=90|oclc=1331741429}}</ref> Chinese ownership of much of the global medical supply chain enhanced its ability to send doctors and medical equipment to suffering countries.<ref name="Zhao-2023" /> China soon followed its mask diplomacy with [[vaccine diplomacy]].<ref name="Zhao-2023" /> China's infection rates were sufficiently low that it could send vaccines abroad without domestic objections.<ref name="Zhao-2023" /> Academic [[Suisheng Zhao]] writes that "[j]ust by showing up and helping plug the colossal gaps in the global supply, China gained ground."<ref name="Zhao-2023" />

== Economic policy ==
{{See also|Made in China 2025|Go Out policy|Debt-trap diplomacy}}

China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the [[2008 financial crisis]].<ref name="Mitter-2020">{{Cite book|last=Mitter|first=Rana|title=China's good war: how World War II is shaping a new nationalism|date=2020|publisher=The Belknap Press of [[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-98426-4|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|page=8|oclc=1141442704}}</ref> When Western countries were nearing financial disaster, China created credit for spending on infrastructure.<ref name="Mitter-2020" /> This both helped stabilize the global economy and it also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure.<ref name="Mitter-2020" />

The Communist Party's [[17th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|Seventeenth National Congress]] in 2007 made the negotiation of [[free trade agreement]]s a priority and was further emphasized following a 2015 [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]] opinion.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Cheng |first=Wenting |title=China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-3-031-24369-1 |series=Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series}}</ref>{{Rp|page=153}} The pace of China's free trade agreement negotiations has accelerated since 2007.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=153}}

China has invested in many infrastructure projects around Eurasia and Africa, including the [[Eurasian Land Bridge]], [[Sino-Myanmar pipelines]] and [[Dali–Ruili railway|railway]] and [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor|an economic corridor]] and [[Gwadar Port|a port]] in Pakistan.

=== Debt trap allegations ===
China financed [[Hambantota International Port]] in Sri Lanka, which drew allegations of [[debt-trap diplomacy]] when Sri Lanka defaulted on its loans and China took control of the port for 99 years.<ref name="bloomb">{{cite web|last=Marlow|first=Iain|date=17 April 2018|title=China's $1 Billion White Elephant|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-17/china-s-1-billion-white-elephant-the-port-ships-don-t-use|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503015142/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-17/china-s-1-billion-white-elephant-the-port-ships-don-t-use|archive-date=3 May 2019|access-date=15 September 2018|publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> Some western analysts have suggested China's debt-trap diplomacy may hide hegemonic intentions and challenges to states' sovereignty.<ref>{{cite web|date=3 February 2019|title=China's Era of Debt-Trap Diplomacy May Pave the Way for Something Sinister|url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/chinas-era-debt-trap-diplomacy-may-pave-way-something-sinister-42927|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401015136/https://nationalinterest.org/feature/chinas-era-debt-trap-diplomacy-may-pave-way-something-sinister-42927|archive-date=1 April 2019|access-date=3 February 2019|website=[[The National Interest]]}}</ref> A 2022 study from Johns Hopkins University's [[China Africa Research Initiative]] found that contrary to popular narratives regarding Hambantota port, there were no Chinese debt-to-equity swaps, no asset seizures, and no "hidden debt."<ref name="CARI-2022">{{Cite web|last=Umesh Moramudali and Thilina Panduwawal|date=29 November 2022|title=Evolution of Chinese Lending to Sri Lanka Since the mid-2000s: Separating Myth from Reality|url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5652847de4b033f56d2bdc29/t/638689771d0e3c4beb14bf2f/1669761400150/Briefing+Paper+-+Sri+Lanka+Debt+-+V5.pdf|access-date=5 January 2023|website=[[China Africa Research Initiative]]}}</ref> It concluded that "the popular narrative of Sri Lanka getting caught in a Chinese debt-trap has been debunked on many occasions."<ref name="CARI-2022" /> Numerous other academics have also argued that the notion of a Chinese "debt-trap" is false, and have called the allegation a "meme" based on anxiety about China's rise,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brautigam|first=Deborah|date=2 January 2020|title=A critical look at Chinese 'debt-trap diplomacy': the rise of a meme|journal=Area Development and Policy|volume=5|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/23792949.2019.1689828|s2cid=214547742|issn=2379-2949}}</ref> a function of China-US rivalries rather than reality,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jevans Nyabiage|date=6 June 2022|title=Chinese debt traps in Africa? The big worry is bondholders: study|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3180478/chinese-debt-traps-africa-bigger-worry-bondholders-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503190500/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3180478/chinese-debt-traps-africa-bigger-worry-bondholders-study-finds|archive-date=3 May 2024|access-date=14 October 2022|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> and that such allegations of "neo-colonialism" are false or misrepresentations.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|date=2022|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=84|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> As of 2021, China had not seized the Sri Lankan port or any other asset from another country.<ref>{{Cite magazine|author=Deborah Brautigam|author-link=Deborah Bräutigam|author2=Meg Rithmire|date=6 February 2021|title=The Chinese 'Debt Trap' Is a Myth|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2021/02/china-debt-trap-diplomacy/617953/|url-access=subscription|access-date=14 October 2022|magazine=The Atlantic}}</ref>

===Recent initiatives===
{{Main|Belt and Road Initiative|List of projects of the Belt and Road Initiative}}
[[File:One-belt-one-road.svg|alt= Map of Asia, showing the OBOR initiative|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Belt and Road Initiative]] {{legend|red|[[China]]}}{{legend|orange|Members of the [[Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank]]}}{{legend|black| The six Belt and Road corridors}}{{legend|#0186D7|[[21st Century Maritime Silk Road|Maritime silk road]]}} China in red, Members of the [[Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank]] in orange, the six corridors in black
China Britain Business Council: One Belt One Road<ref>{{cite web|title=One Belt One Road: A role for UK companies in developing China's new initiative|publisher=China–Britain Business Council|access-date=22 March 2019|url=http://www.cbbc.org/cbbc/media/cbbc_media/One-Belt-One-Road-main-body.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713011420/http://www.cbbc.org/cbbc/media/cbbc_media/One-Belt-One-Road-main-body.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2017|date=13 July 2017}}</ref>]]

As the [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]] in the United States opened a trade and tariff war with China in 2017, China's response has been to set up its own multinational trading arrangements. In late March 2019, Xi Jinping moved forward with major trading deals with France and Italy. French President [[Emmanuel Macron]] and Xi Jinping signed a series of large-scale trade agreements that cover many sectors over a period of years. The centerpiece was a €30 billion purchase of airplanes from Airbus. The new trade agreement also covered French exports of chicken, a French-built offshore wind farm in China, and a Franco-Chinese cooperation fund, as well as co-financing between [[BNP Paribas]] and the [[Bank of China]]. Other plans include billions of euros to be spent on modernizing Chinese factories, as well as new ship building.<ref>Rym Momtaz, "Macron steals Trump's thunder with Chinese Airbus order: France lands €30B aviation deal with Beijing," [https://www.politico.eu/article/macron-steals-trumps-thunder-with-chinese-airbus-order/ ''POLITICO'' 25 March 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326232439/https://www.politico.eu/article/macron-steals-trumps-thunder-with-chinese-airbus-order/ |date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> The same week Xi Jinping signed an infrastructure plan with Italian Prime Minister [[Giuseppe Conte]]. Italy became the first European power to join the [[Belt and Road Initiative]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Legorano|first=Giovanni|date=23 March 2019|title=Italy Signs Up to China's Global Infrastructure Plan Despite U.S. Ire|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/italy-signs-up-to-chinas-global-infrastructure-plan-despite-u-s-ire-11553341408|access-date=15 October 2022|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>

As of fall 2023, Italy has started the process to exit the Belt and Road Initiative by not renewing the five-year Belt and Road Initiative Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)<ref name=":1" /> of 2019 at the end of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Is Italy Withdrawing From China's Belt and Road Initiative?|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-italy-withdrawing-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative|access-date=30 October 2023|website=Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Italy Wants to Exit the Belt and Road – But Without Curbing Ties With China|url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/09/italy-wants-to-exit-the-belt-and-road-but-without-curbing-ties-with-china/|access-date=30 October 2023|website=thediplomat.com}}</ref> With anticipated Italy's notice not to renew, the MOU will officially end in March 2024.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLIC AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA|url=https://www.governo.it/sites/governo.it/files/Memorandum_Italia-Cina_EN.pdf|access-date=29 October 2023|website=governo.it}}</ref> Eighty percent of the 193-member United Nations have participated in the Belt and Road Initiative, and the developed Western countries have largely stayed away.<ref name=":0" />

===China–United States trade war===
{{Main|China–United States trade war}}
The world's two largest economies have engaged in an escalating [[trade war]] through increasing [[tariff]]s and other measures since 2018.<ref>{{cite news|last=Swanson|first=Ana|date=5 July 2018|title=Trump's Trade War With China Is Officially Underway|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/business/china-us-trade-war-trump-tariffs.html|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712201844/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/business/china-us-trade-war-trump-tariffs.html|archive-date=12 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lawrence J. Lau argues that a major cause is the growing battle China and the U.S. for global economic and technological dominance. He argues, "It is also a reflection of the rise of populism, isolationism, nationalism and protectionism almost everywhere in the world, including in the US."<ref>Lawrence J. Lau,  "The China–US Trade War and Future Economic Relations." ''China and the World'' (Lau Chor Tak Institute of Global Economics and Finance, 2019): 1–32. quote p. 3  [http://www.igef.cuhk.edu.hk/igef_media/working-paper/IGEF/igef%20working%20paper%20no.%2072%20english%20version.pdf online]</ref>

=== RCEP ===
{{Main|Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership}}The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a free trade agreement between the Asia-Pacific nations of Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. The agreement covers approximately 30% of the global population and 30% of the global economy.<ref>{{Cite news|date=15 November 2020|title=Asia forms world's biggest trade bloc, a China-backed group excluding U.S.|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/asean-trade-summit-rcep-signing-idUSKBN27V03K|access-date=14 October 2022}}</ref> In January 2022, RCEP became the world's largest [[trade bloc]] (in economic terms) and continues to be the world's largest as of at least early 2024.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Simon|title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order|last2=Klaus|first2=Ian|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-26690-0|location=New Haven and London|publication-date=2024}}</ref>{{Rp|page=148}}

The 2017 decision by United States President Donald Trump to withdraw from the [[Trans-Pacific Partnership]] strengthened the appeal of the RCEP.<ref name="Mitter-2020" />

== International treaties and organizations ==
{{main|China and the United Nations}}

=== International treaties ===
China has signed numerous international conventions and treaties.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ China], ''[[The World Factbook]]''</ref>

Treaties signed on behalf of [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China before 1949]] are applicable only to the Republic of China on Taiwan. Conventions signed by Beijing include: Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention; [[Biological Weapons Convention]]; [[Chemical Weapons Convention]]; Conventional Weapons Convention; [[Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident]]; Inhumane Weapons Convention; Nuclear Dumping Convention (London Convention); [[Convention on Nuclear Safety|Nuclear Safety Convention]]; [[Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material]]; Rights of the Child and on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography Convention (signed Optional Protocol); and Status of Refugees Convention (and the 1967 Protocol).<ref>{{Cite web|title=View the ratification status by country or by treaty|url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=36&Lang=EN|access-date=15 February 2024|website=tbinternet.ohchr.org}}</ref>

China also is a party to the following international environmental conventions: [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty|Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Desertification]], Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China and International Environmental Law|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2626_665266/2629_665272/|access-date=5 May 2021|website=fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref>

==== Membership in international organizations ====
{{main|International organization membership of China}}
China holds a permanent seat and veto power on the [[United Nations Security Council]]. Prior to 1971, the [[Republic of China]] based on the island of Taiwan held China's UN seat. On 25 October 1971, the People's Republic of China took control of the seat with the passing of [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|UN General Assembly Resolution 2758]] by a vote of 76 to 35 with 17 abstentions, with support coming from several [[NATO]] countries, the [[Soviet Union]], and [[India]], and a notable opponent being the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web|year=1974|title=General Assembly, 26th session: 1976th plenary meeting, Monday, 25 October 1971, New York (A/PV.1976)|url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/735611?ln=en|publisher=United Nations Digital Library|page=41}}</ref>

China plays a leadership role in the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|Shanghai Cooperation Organization]], a multilateral security group which aims to reduce the "three evils" of terrorism, separatism, and extremism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|pages=70–71|oclc=1331741429}}</ref>

China was active in the [[Six-party talks]] in an effort to end North Korea's nuclear program in the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|page=71|oclc=1331741429}}</ref> China hoped to play a lead role in developing the Six-Party Talks into a lasting multilateral security mechanism for northeast Asia, but ultimately the talks failed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|page=75|oclc=1331741429}}</ref> China's efforts in the unsuccessful tasks nonetheless raised its international standing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|pages=73–74|oclc=1331741429}}</ref>

As of at least 2024, China has positive relationships with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus">{{Cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Simon|title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order|last2=Klaus|first2=Ian|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-26690-0|location=New Haven and London|publication-date=2024|doi=10.2307/jj.11589102|jstor=jj.11589102}}</ref>{{Rp|page=166}}

==Diplomatic relations==
{{See also|Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China}}
List of countries which the People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!#
!Country
!Date
|-
|1
|{{flag|Russia}}
|{{dts|2 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Soviet Foreign Policy: 1945–1980|publisher=Progress Publishers|year=1981|pages=642–681}}</ref>
|-
|2
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|{{dts|4 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=China and Bulgaria |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/gjhdq_665435/3265_665445/3150_664460/ |access-date=1 July 2025 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs People's Republic of China}}</ref>
|-
|3
|{{flag|Romania}}
|{{dts|5 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Diplomatic Relations of Romania|url=https://www.mae.ro/en/node/2187|website=Ministerul Afacerilor Externe|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|4
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
|{{dts|6 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=China and Czechia |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3265_665445/3160_664490/ |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China |access-date=24 May 2025}}</ref>
|-
|5
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|{{dts|6 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political and diplomatic relations|url=https://peking.mfa.gov.hu/eng/page/politikai-kapcsolatok|access-date=14 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
|6
|{{flag|North Korea}}
|{{dts|6 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|year=2016|title=DPRK Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.ncnk.org/sites/default/files/issue-briefs/DPRK_Diplo_Relations_August2016.pdf|access-date=14 July 2022|publisher=NCNK|pages=8–9|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ncnk.org/sites/default/files/issue-briefs/DPRK_Diplo_Relations_August2016.pdf}}</ref>
|-
|7
|{{flag|Poland}}
|{{dts|7 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chiny|url=https://www.gov.pl/web/chiny/chiny|access-date=23 July 2023|language=pl}}</ref>
|-
|8
|{{flag|Mongolia}}
|{{dts|16 October 1949}}<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Countries Maintaining Diplomatic Relations with Mongolia|url=http://www.mfa.gov.mn/old/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/diplist-2020-draft-20200729.pdf|access-date=21 December 2021|page=3|archive-date=28 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928021439/http://www.mfa.gov.mn/old/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/diplist-2020-draft-20200729.pdf}}</ref>
|-
|9
|{{flag|Albania}}
|{{dts|23 November 1949}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/xos/gjlb/3125/|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
|-
|10
|{{flag|Vietnam}}
|{{dts|18 January 1950}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 2010|title=Asia|url=https://lamdong.gov.vn/sites/lderd/operationnotes/countriesandregions/SitePages/asia.aspx|access-date=29 April 2023|publisher=Government of Vietnam}}</ref>
|-
|11
|{{flag|India}}
|{{dts|1 April 1950}}<ref name="MFA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/gjhdq_665435/|title=Countries and Regions|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=27 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|12
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{dts|13 April 1950}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2004 |title=China and Indonesia |url=http://id.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zgyyn/sbgxgk/200404/t20040421_2346150.htm#:~:text=China%20and%20Indonesia%20established%20diplomatic,began%20to%20ease%20since%201980s. |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Indonesia |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|13
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|{{dts|9 May 1950}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-05/07/content_9819770.htm|title=60th anniversary of China-Sweden diplomatic relations celebrated|website=China Daily|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="cdc">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-06/11/content_891453.htm|title=China-Sweden relations continue to strengthen|website=China Daily|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref>
|-
|14
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|{{dts|11 May 1950}}<ref>{{cite news|date=11 May 2015|title=Deepening China-Denmark ties|website=China Daily|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2015-05/11/content_20677199.htm|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
|15
|{{flag|Myanmar}}
|{{dts|8 June 1950}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations|url=http://myanmarbsb.org/_site/diplomatic-relations/|access-date=13 May 2022|archive-date=12 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712174127/http://myanmarbsb.org/_site/diplomatic-relations/}}</ref>
|-
|16
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
|{{dts|14 September 1950}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=China's Foreign Affairs|publisher=World Affairs Press|year=2014|page=534}}</ref>
|-
|17
|{{flag|Switzerland}}
|{{dts|14 September 1950}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 September 2010 |title=60th anniversary of diplomatic relations between Switzerland and China |url=https://www.news.admin.ch/en/nsb?id=35100 |work=admin.ch |access-date=5 June 2025}}</ref>
|-
|18
|{{flag|Finland}}
|{{dts|28 October 1950}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=17227&culture=en-US&contentlan=2|title=Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland: Entering Finland and travelling abroad: China|website=Formin.finland.fi|access-date=24 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023125413/http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=17227&culture=en-US&contentlan=2|archive-date=23 October 2017}}</ref>
|-
|19
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|{{dts|21 May 1951}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf|title=Pakistan's Evolving Relations with China, Russia, and Central Asia|author=Fazal-ur-Rahman|access-date=24 November 2012}}</ref>
|-
|20
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|{{dts|17 June 1954}}<ref name="britain">{{cite web|date=10 April 2010|title=Overview on China-UK Relations|url=http://gb.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/ChinaUKRelations/introduction/201005/t20100510_3384299.htm|access-date=5 April 2024|website=[[Embassy of China, London|Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405152351/http://gb.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/ChinaUKRelations/introduction/201005/t20100510_3384299.htm|archive-date=5 April 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|21
|{{flag|Norway}}
|{{dts|5 October 1954}}<ref name="norway">{{cite web|url=http://www.norway.cn/Embassy/Norway-and-China/Anniversaries/Norway---China-55-year-friendship/|title=Norway – China 55-year friendship|publisher=Norway.cn|date=30 October 2009|access-date=29 September 2011|archive-date=2 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002183953/http://www.norway.cn/Embassy/Norway-and-China/Anniversaries/Norway---China-55-year-friendship/}}</ref>
|-
|22
|{{Flag|Netherlands}}
|{{dts|19 November 1954}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=China and Kingdom of the Netherlands |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3265_665445/3341_664690/ |access-date=1 July 2025 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs People's Republic of China}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9DcX1zf8XwoC&dq=China+and+the+Netherlands+established+diplomatic+relations+on+19+November+1954&pg=PA96 |title=Directory of Chinese Officials National level organizations · Volumes 7-13 |publisher=The Center |year=1980 |page=96}}</ref>
|-
|23
|{{flag|Serbia}}
|{{dts|2 January 1955}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Bilateral cooperation |url=https://www.mfa.gov.rs/en/foreign-policy/bilateral-cooperation |access-date=24 December 2021 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia}}</ref>
|-
|24
|{{flag|Afghanistan}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=Greenfield |first1=Charlotte |title=Afghanistan's Taliban sends new ambassador to Beijing |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-taliban-sends-new-ambassador-beijing-2023-12-01/ |access-date=7 June 2025 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=1 December 2023}}</ref>
|{{dts|20 January 1955}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2020 |title=Sino-Afghan Relations' 65th Anniversary Celebrated in Kabul |url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/sino-afghan-relations%E2%80%99-65th-anniversary-celebrated-kabul |access-date=7 November 2023 |website=Tolo News}}</ref>
|-
|25
|{{flag|Nepal}}
|{{dts|1 August 1955}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bilateral Relations |url=https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/ |access-date=25 June 2021 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nepal |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816132805/https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/ }}</ref>
|-
|26
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|{{dts|30 May 1956}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=China-Egypt Relations |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/phfnt/85089.htm |access-date=28 April 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|27
|{{flag|Syria}}
|{{dts|1 August 1956}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2023 |title=67 years passed and the Syrian Chinese ties towards greater hardness and strength |url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=317269 |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=SANA (Syrian Arab News Agency)}}</ref>
|-
|28
|{{flag|Yemen}}
|{{dts|24 September 1956}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China-Yemen relations|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/video/225354.htm|access-date=31 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|29
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|{{dts|7 February 1957}}<ref name="MFA" />
|-
|30
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|{{dts|19 July 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=LIST OF MEMBER STATES OF THE UNITED NATIONS (193) HAVING DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH CAMBODIA |url=https://www.mfaic.gov.kh/page/2021-02-10-LIST-OF-MEMBER-STATES-OF-THE-UNITED-NATIONS--193--HAVING-DIPLOMATIC-RELATIONS-WITH-CAMBOIDA |access-date=2 October 2021 |website=mfaic.gov.kh}}</ref>
|-
|31
|{{flag|Iraq}}
|{{dts|25 August 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 April 2013 |title=Bilateral Relations between China and Iraq |url=http://iq.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zygx/zygxgk/ |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Iraq}}</ref>
|-
|32
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|{{dts|1 November 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2018 |title=Interview: China-Morocco relations start new journey after 60 years of diplomatic ties |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-10/20/c_137545019.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105073551/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-10/20/c_137545019.htm |archive-date=5 November 2018 |access-date=21 November 2023 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref>
|-
|33
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|{{dts|20 December 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/phfnt/85069.htm |title=China-Algeria Relations |website=china.org.cn |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|34
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|{{dts|4 February 1959}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 February 2019 |title=60-Year Fruitful Partnership Paves the Way to a Brighter Future |url=http://sd.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/dshd/202011/t20201105_6687795.htm#:~:text=Since%20the%20two%20sides%20established,to%20achieve%20win%2Dwin%20results. |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Sudan}}</ref>
|-
|35
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|{{dts|14 October 1959}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183525.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026031030/http://china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183525.htm |archive-date=26 October 2010 |title=Guinea – china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|36
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|{{dts|5 July 1960}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction of China-Ghana Relations |url=http://gh.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zjgx/zzwl/200412/t20041231_6894669.htm |access-date=9 November 2023 |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Ghana}}</ref>
|-
|37
|{{flag|Cuba}}
|{{dts|28 September 1960}}<ref>{{Cite web |year=2015 |title=Memoria anual 2015 |url=https://archivo.cubaminrex.cu/sites/default/files/memoria_anual_2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507190813/https://archivo.cubaminrex.cu/sites/default/files/memoria_anual_2015.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2019 |pages=19–25 |language=es |access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|38
|{{flag|Mali}}
|{{dts|25 October 1960}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Mali |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183436.htm |access-date=5 June 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|39
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|{{dts|14 December 1960}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Diplomatic Relations |url=http://www.mfa.somaligov.net/Diplomatic%20Relations.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724073959/http://www.mfa.somaligov.net/Diplomatic%20Relations.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |access-date=5 February 2022 |work=Government of Somalia}}</ref>
|-
|40
|{{flag|Laos}}
|{{dts|25 April 1961}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diplomatic Relations |url=http://www.mofa.gov.la/index.php/lo/2015-04-07-02-45-52/1950 |access-date=30 June 2021 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Laos |archive-date=1 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601144934/http://www.mofa.gov.la/index.php/lo/2015-04-07-02-45-52/1950 }}</ref>
|-
|41
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|{{dts|9 December 1961}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tanzania |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183419.htm |access-date=28 April 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|42
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|{{dts|18 October 1962}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uganda |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183409.htm |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|43
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|{{dts|14 December 1963}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kenya |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183441.htm |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|44
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|{{dts|21 December 1963}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Burundi |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183578.htm |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|45
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|{{dts|10 January 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tunisia |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183413.htm |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|46
|{{flag|France}}
|{{dts|27 January 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=France and China |url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/china/france-and-china/ |access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|47
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|22 February 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo (B) – china.org.cn |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183555.htm |access-date=4 February 2022 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|48
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|{{dts|29 September 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Central Africa |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183564.htm |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|49
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|{{dts|29 October 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=China and Zambia celebrated the 55th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations |url=http://zm.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/dshdyjh/202210/t20221008_10778543.htm#:~:text=On%20October%2029%2C%201964%2C%20China,beginning%20of%20China%2DZambia%20friendship. |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Zambia}}</ref>
|-
|50
|{{flag|Benin}}
|{{dts|12 November 1964}}<ref name="Shinn-2023">{{Cite book |last1=Shinn |first1=David H. |title=China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement |last2=Eisenman |first2=Joshua |date=2023 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-21001-0 |location=New York |author-link=David H. Shinn}}</ref>
|-
|51
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|{{dts|19 July 1965}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mauritania |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183435.htm |access-date=30 April 2023 |website=[[China Internet Information Center]]}}</ref>
|-
|52
|{{flag|Canada}}
|{{dts|13 October 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-12/06/content_1216971.htm |title=Joint Communiqué of the Government of China and the Government of Canada on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between China and Canada (1970) |access-date=27 December 2023 |language=zh |archive-date=25 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925230511/http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-12/06/content_1216971.htm |url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>
|-
|53
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|{{dts|15 October 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Equatorial Guinea |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183538.htm |access-date=17 July 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|54
|{{flag|Italy}}
|{{dts|6 November 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 May 2004 |title=Major events in China-Italy relations |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-05/07/content_1454886.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040702080243/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-05/07/content_1454886.htm |archive-date=2 July 2004 |access-date=27 October 2023 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref>
|-
|55
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|{{dts|24 November 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183534.htm |access-date=1 June 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|56
|{{flag|Chile}}
|{{dts|15 December 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=RELACIONES DIPLOMATICAS DE CHILE CON LOS PAISES DE LA CUENCA DEL PACIFICO |url=https://archivospublicos.uahurtado.cl/uploads/r/archivo-institucional-universidad-alberto-hurtado/1/1/9/119a982db9b66f569a5d546b86f31a59dcb53b2815c3e28f774ad8bab7704d3c/31-2-12.pdf |access-date=27 November 2021 |language=es |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127123104/https://archivospublicos.uahurtado.cl/uploads/r/archivo-institucional-universidad-alberto-hurtado/1/1/9/119a982db9b66f569a5d546b86f31a59dcb53b2815c3e28f774ad8bab7704d3c/31-2-12.pdf }}</ref>
|-
|57
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|{{dts|10 February 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Five Decades of Shared Journey—On the 50th anniversary of China-Nigeria diplomatic relations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Federal Republic of Nigeria) |url=http://ng.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zngx/202101/t20210106_7032262.htm |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref>
|-
|58
|{{flag|Kuwait}}
|{{dts|22 March 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2009 |title=China and Kuwait |url=http://kw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zkgx/sbgxjj/200908/t20090824_1648929.htm |access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|59
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|{{dts|26 March 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=General picture of bilateral relations between China and Cameroon |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183577.htm}}</ref>
|-
|60
|{{flag|Austria}}
|{{dts|28 May 1971}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schaufelbuehl |first1=Janick Marina |url=https://brill.com/view/title/39350 |title=Europe and China in the Cold War: Exchanges Beyond the Bloc Logic and the Sino-Soviet Split |last2=Wyss |first2=Marco |last3=Zanier |first3=Valeria |date=1 January 2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-38812-3 |page=33 |doi=10.1163/9789004388123_003 |s2cid=158272088}}</ref>
|-
|61
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|{{dts|29 July 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sierra Leone -- china.org.cn |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183425.htm |access-date=28 November 2021 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|62
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|{{dts|4 August 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cetur/chn/ztgx/t191491.htm |title=中土关系概况 |website=mfa.gov.cn |access-date=15 December 2023 |language=zh |archive-date=14 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714225826/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cetur/chn/ztgx/t191491.htm }}</ref>
|-
|63
|{{flag|Iran}}
|{{dts|16 August 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 August 2021 |title=Side by side and hand in hand, Usher in a New Era for China-Iran Friendship |url=http://ir.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sgzc/202108/t20210815_8924290.htm#:~:text=Pomegranate%2C%20grape%2C%20olive%2C%20spinach,Iran%20formally%20established%20diplomatic%20relations. |access-date=11 October 2023 |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Islamic Republic of Iran}}</ref>
|-
|64
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|{{dts|25 October 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 2021 |title=Ambassador Cao Zhongming published an article on China Daily titled "Unity, openness and assistance" |url=http://be.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sghd/202110/t20211013_9544917.htm#:~:text=On%20Oct%2025%2C%201971%2C%20the,established%20diplomatic%20relations%20that%20day. |access-date=14 October 2023 |website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Kingdom of Belgium}}</ref>
|-
|65
|{{flag|Peru}}
|{{dts|2 November 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Acuerdo entre el Peru y China para el establecimiento de relaciones diplomaticas |url=https://apps.rree.gob.pe/portal/webtratados.nsf/Tratados_Bilateral.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=7416 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=Archivo Nacional de Tratados |language=es}}</ref>
|-
|66
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|{{dts|9 November 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Xi Jinping Exchanges Messages of Congratulations with Lebanese President Michel Aoun on the 50th Anniversary of the Establishment of China-Lebanon Diplomatic Relations |url=http://eu.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/mhs/202111/t20211109_10445969.htm |access-date=28 April 2023 |website=eu.china-mission.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
|67
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|{{dts|12 November 1971}}<ref>{{cite web |date=10 October 2006 |title=Rwanda |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183428.htm |access-date=23 July 2022 |website=[[China Internet Information Center]]}}</ref>
|-
|68
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|{{dts|7 December 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bilateral relations between China and Senegal |url=http://covid-19.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-02/06/content_7451716.htm |access-date=18 April 2023 |website=China Daily}}</ref>
|-
|69
|{{flag|Cyprus}}
|{{dts|14 December 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Embassy |url=http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/embassies/embassy_beijing.nsf/DMLembassy_en/DMLembassy_en?OpenDocument |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
|70
|{{flag|Iceland}}
|{{dts|14 December 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iceland – Establishment of Diplomatic Relations |url=https://www.government.is/ministries/ministry-for-foreign-affairs/protocol/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations/ |access-date=1 August 2021 |website=Government of Iceland}}</ref>
|-
|71
|{{flag|Malta}}
|{{dts|31 January 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=China – Joint communique of the government of China and the government of Malta on the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Malta |url=https://foreign.gov.mt/treaty/china-joint-communique-of-the-government-of-china-and-the-government-of-malta-on-the-establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-china-and-malta/ |access-date=3 October 2023 |website=foreign.gov.mt}}</ref>
|-
|72
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|{{dts|14 February 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 February 2022 |url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202202/14/WS6209af01a310cdd39bc865d0.html |title=Mexico, China celebrate 50 years of friendship |website=China Daily – Global Edition |access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
|73
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{dts|16 February 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biblioteca Digital de Tratados |url=https://tratados.cancilleria.gob.ar/busqueda.php |access-date=27 June 2023 |language=es}}</ref>
|-
|74
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|{{dts|15 April 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the People's Republic of China and Mauritius |url=https://lawinfochina.com/display.aspx?id=7505&lib=tax&SearchKeyword=&SearchCKeyword= |access-date=23 July 2023 |archive-date=12 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412113838/https://lawinfochina.com/display.aspx?id=7505&lib=tax&SearchKeyword=&SearchCKeyword= }}</ref>
|-
|75
|{{flag|Greece}}
|{{dts|5 June 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China|url=https://www.mfa.gr/en/blog/greece-bilateral-relations/china/|access-date=15 May 2023|website=mfa.gr}}</ref>
|-
|76
|{{flag|Guyana}}
|{{dts|27 June 1972}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations|url=http://www.minfor.gov.gy/diplomatic-relations/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216065040/https://www.minfor.gov.gy/diplomatic-relations/|archive-date=16 February 2019|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>
|-
|77
|{{flag|Togo}}
|{{dts|19 September 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Togo|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183414.htm|access-date=4 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|78
|{{flag|Japan}}
|{{dts|29 September 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Countries & Regions|url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/index.html|access-date=16 July 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan}}</ref>
|-
|79
|{{flag|Germany}}
|{{dts|11 October 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dcg.de/runge/kooperation.html|title=Kooperation im Wandel: 30 Jahre diplomatische Beziehungen Bundesrepublik Deutschland – Volksrepublik China|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=8 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408121121/http://dcg.de/runge/kooperation.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|80
|{{flag|Maldives}}
|{{dts|14 October 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 May 2023|title=Countries with which the Republic of Maldives has established Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.gov.mv/en/files/dpl-full-country-list-as-of-11-may-2023--8993.pdf|access-date=7 July 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Maldives|archive-date=29 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629032804/https://www.gov.mv/en/files/dpl-full-country-list-as-of-11-may-2023--8993.pdf}}</ref>
|-
|81
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|{{dts|6 November 1972}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183437.htm|title=Madagascar – china.org.cn|website=China.org.cn|access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref>
|-
|82
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
|{{dts|16 November 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=November–December 1972|title=Bulletin de documentation (1972/9)|url=https://sip.gouvernement.lu/dam-assets/publications/bulletin/1972/BID_1972_9/BID_1972_9.pdf|access-date=23 May 2023|website=sip.gouvernement.lu|page=9|language=fr}}</ref>
|-
|83
|{{flag|Jamaica}}
|{{dts|21 November 1972}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries with which Jamaica has Established Diplomatic Relations|url=http://mfaft.gov.jm/jm/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308040029/http://mfaft.gov.jm/jm/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations|archive-date=8 March 2016|date=16 April 2021}}</ref>
|-
|84
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|24 November 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Congo (DRC)|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183553.htm|access-date=23 June 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|85
|{{flag|Chad}}
|{{dts|28 November 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Les dates de l'établissement des relations diplomatiques entre la Chine et les autres pays|url=http://french.china.org.cn/china/archives/fetenationale09/2009-08/10/content_18307254_2.htm|access-date=12 May 2023|website=french.china.org.cn|language=fr}}</ref>
|-
|86
|{{flag|Australia}}
|{{dts|21 December 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2017|title=Celebrating 45 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Australia and China|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/news/news/Pages/celebrating-45-years-since-the-establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-australia-and-china|access-date=19 October 2023|archive-date=27 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027153614/https://www.dfat.gov.au/news/news/Pages/celebrating-45-years-since-the-establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-australia-and-china}}</ref>
|-
|87
|{{Flag|New Zealand}}
|{{dts|22 December 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and New Zealand|url=http://nz.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zxgx/200310/t20031027_882006.html|access-date=15 June 2023|website=The Embassy of the People's Republic of China in New Zealand}}</ref>
|-
|88
|{{flag|Spain}}
|{{dts|9 March 1973}}<ref name=":45">{{Cite news|date=10 March 1973|title=Spain Announces Establishment of Diplomatic Ties With Peking|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/10/archives/spain-announces-establishment-of-diplomatic-ties-with-peking.html|access-date=13 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
|89
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|{{dts|15 September 1973}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRn6iWW3GrYC&dq=Joint+Communique+on+Establishment+of+Diplomatic+Relations+Between+People%27s+Republic+of+China+and+Republic+of+Upper+Volta&pg=PA124|title=Current Background, Issues 1004–1008|publisher=American Consulate General|year=1974}}</ref>
|-
|90
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|{{dts|15 March 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political relations People's Republic of China and Guinea-Bissau|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183519.htm}}</ref>
|-
|91
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|{{dts|20 April 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gabon – china.org.cn|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183529.htm|access-date=29 October 2021|website=china.org.cn}}</ref> 
|-
|92
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{dts|31 May 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Senarai tarikh penubuhan hubungan diplomatik Malaysia dan negara – negara luar|url=https://www.data.gov.my/data/dataset/30411e5d-8c25-47fb-940e-0d51149afe20/resource/fc684f56-c8bb-4f65-ab65-8eb5e68c9b5d/download/01-tarikh-penubuhan-hubungan-diplomatik-malaysia.xlsx|access-date=13 November 2021|language=ms|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141021/https://www.data.gov.my/data/dataset/30411e5d-8c25-47fb-940e-0d51149afe20/resource/fc684f56-c8bb-4f65-ab65-8eb5e68c9b5d/download/01-tarikh-penubuhan-hubungan-diplomatik-malaysia.xlsx}}</ref>
|-
|93
|{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
|{{dts|20 June 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 July 2016|title=Trinidad and Tobago and China committed to continue strengthening and deepening their bilateral relationship – 13th July, 2016|url=https://foreign.gov.tt/resources/news/trinidad-and-tobago-and-china-committed-continue-strengthening-and-deepening-their-bilateral-relationship-13th-july-2016/|access-date=6 June 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs|archive-date=5 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605231811/https://foreign.gov.tt/resources/news/trinidad-and-tobago-and-china-committed-continue-strengthening-and-deepening-their-bilateral-relationship-13th-july-2016/}}</ref>
|-
|94
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|{{dts|28 June 1974}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Libro amarillo correspondiente al año ...: presentado al Congreso Nacional en sus sesiones ordinarias de ... por el titular despacho|publisher=Venezuela. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores|year=2003|pages=528–529|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|95
|{{flag|Niger}}
|{{dts|20 July 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political Relations People's Republic of China and Republic of Niger|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183430.htm}}</ref>
|-
|96
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{dts|15 August 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brasil e China estabeleceram relações diplomáticas em 15 de agosto de 1974.|url=https://www.gov.br/mre/pt-br/embaixada-pequim/a-embaixada|access-date=4 June 2023|website=gov.br Embaixada Pequim|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|97
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|{{dts|14 December 1974}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=China and Gambia|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/2913_665441/2994_664004/|access-date=27 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
|98
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|{{dts|6 January 1975}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 April 2002|title=Joint Communique Regarding the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Botswana|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679059.html|access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>
|-
|99
|{{flag|Philippines}}
|{{dts|9 June 1975}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Banlaoi|first1=Rommel C.|author1-link=Rommel Banlaoi|title=Security Aspects of Philippines-China Relations: Bilateral Issues and Concerns in the Age of Global Terrorism|date=2007|publisher=[[Rex Bookstore, Inc.]]|isbn=978-971-23-4929-4|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC&pg=PA53 53-55]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC|access-date=23 March 2023|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420103013/https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|100
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|{{dts|25 June 1975}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Southern African Political History A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1999|page=215}}</ref>
|-
|101
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|{{dts|1 July 1975}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=ความสัมพันธ์ทวิภาคี|url=https://www.mfa.go.th/th/content-category/5d5bcb4e15e39c3060006870|access-date=5 July 2023|language=th|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806075509/https://www.mfa.go.th/th/content-category/5d5bcb4e15e39c3060006870}}</ref>
|-
|102
|{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
|{{dts|12 July 1975}}<ref name="Shinn-2023"/>
|-
|103
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}
|{{dts|4 October 1975}}<ref name="MFA" />
|-
|104
|{{flag|Fiji}}
|{{dts|5 November 1975}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Formal diplomatic relations list|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.gov.fj/images/FDR_LIST_version_of_6_June_2016.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827171052/http://www.foreignaffairs.gov.fj/images/FDR_LIST_version_of_6_June_2016.pdf|archive-date=27 August 2019|access-date=31 March 2018}}</ref>
|-
|105
|{{flag|Samoa}}
|{{dts|6 November 1975}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries with Established Diplomatic Relations with Samoa|url=http://www.mfat.gov.ws/embassies/countries-with-established-diplomatic-relations-with-samoa/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214005624/https://www.mfat.gov.ws/embassies/countries-with-established-diplomatic-relations-with-samoa/|archive-date=14 February 2020|access-date=19 August 2018|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade – Samoa}}</ref>
|-
|106
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|{{dts|13 November 1975}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Comoros|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183558.htm|access-date=30 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|107
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|{{dts|25 April 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 October 2006|title=Cape Verde|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183574.htm|access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
|108
|{{flag|Suriname}}
|{{dts|17 May 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lijst van Diplomatieke Betrekkingen en Visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten|url=http://www.gov.sr/media/12102008/lijst-van-diplomatieke-betrekkingen-en-visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416134520/http://www.gov.sr/media/12102008/lijst-van-diplomatieke-betrekkingen-en-visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2019|access-date=22 December 2021|website=gov.sr|language=nl}}</ref>
|-
|109
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|{{dts|30 June 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 April 2002|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Seychelles|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679072.html|access-date=22 July 2023}}</ref>
|-
|110
|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
|{{dts|12 October 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 November 2000|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and Papua New Guinea|url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2631_665276/200011/t20001115_600058.html|access-date=10 July 2023}}</ref>
|-
|111
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|{{dts|17 February 1977}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral Relations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Liberia)|url=http://lr.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sbgx/202011/t20201130_6299793.htm}}</ref>
|-
|112
|{{flag|Jordan}}
|{{dts|7 April 1977}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 April 2022|title=Chinese embassy celebrates 45 years of Sino-Jordanian relations|url=https://jordantimes.com/news/local/chinese-embassy-celebrates-45-years-sino-jordanian-relations|access-date=25 December 2023|website=The Jordan Times}}</ref>
|-
|113
|{{flag|Barbados}}
|{{dts|30 May 1977}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://foreign.gov.bb/documents/foreign-policy/22-countries-with-diplomaic-relations-with-barbados/file|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WITH WHICH BARBADOS HAS DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BY REGIONS|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (Barbados)|access-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813184054/https://www.foreign.gov.bb/documents/foreign-policy/22-countries-with-diplomaic-relations-with-barbados/file|archive-date=13 August 2017}}</ref>
|-
|114
|{{flag|Oman}}
|{{dts|25 May 1978}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Joseph A. Kechichian|title=Countries with which Oman has diplomatic relations|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2007/MR680.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022025822/http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2007/MR680.pdf|archive-date=22 October 2014|access-date=24 November 2023|website=Oman and the World The emergence of an independent foreign policy|pages=319–322}}</ref>
|-
|115
|{{flag|Libya}}
|{{dts|9 August 1978}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPw39oy7hf8C&dq=People%27s+Republic+of+China+and+Libya+established+diplomatic+relations+9+August+1978&pg=PA75|title=Directory of Officials of the People's Republic of China A Reference Aid · Volumes 7–13|publisher=National Foreign Assessment Center|year=1978|page=75|access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|116
|{{flag|United States}}
|{{dts|1 January 1979}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=All Countries|url=https://history.state.gov/countries/all|access-date=12 November 2021|website=Office of the Historian}}</ref>
|-
|117
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|{{dts|8 January 1979}}<ref name="Mfacdt">{{cite web|title=Diplomatic Ties Between China and African Countries|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceza/eng/zghfz/zfgx/t165322.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228165554/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceza/eng/zghfz/zfgx/t165322.htm|archive-date=28 December 2016|access-date=22 March 2015|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China}}</ref>
|-
|118
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|{{dts|2 February 1979}}<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last1=Wan|first1=Po-San|title=Gambling Dynamism: The Macao Miracle|last2=Zheng|first2=Victor|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2013|page=50}}</ref>
|-
|119
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|{{dts|22 June 1979}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilateral Relations between China and Ireland|url=http://ie.china-embassy.org/eng/SinoIrishRelations/t112822.htm|publisher=Embassy of China in Ireland|access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref>
|-
|120
|{{flag|Ecuador}}
|{{dts|2 January 1980}}<ref name="UNDL">{{Cite web|title=Diplomatic relations between China and ...|url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/search?ln=en&as=1&m1=p&p1=Diplomatic+relations+between+China+and+...&f1=series&op1=a&m2=a&p2=&f2=&op2=a&m3=a&p3=&f3=&dt=&d1d=&d1m=&d1y=&d2d=&d2m=&d2y=&rm=&action_search=Search&sf=year&so=a&rg=100&c=United+Nations+Digital+Library+System&of=hb&fti=0&fti=0|publisher=United Nations Digital Library|access-date=27 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|121
|{{flag|Colombia}}
|{{dts|7 February 1980}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=ASIA PACÍFICO|url=https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/internacional/politica/regiones/asia-pacifico|access-date=29 June 2023|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|122
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|{{dts|18 April 1980}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=16 August 2004|title=China and Zimbabwe|url=http://zw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zjgx/200408/t20040816_6408562.htm|access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref>
|-
|123
|{{flag|Kiribati}}
|{{dts|25 June 1980}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China Kiribati Notes Establishing Diplomatic Relations|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/China_Kiribati_Notes_Establishing_Diplomatic_Relations|access-date=7 July 2023|website=[[Wikisource]]}}</ref>
|-
|124
|{{flag|Vanuatu}}
|{{dts|26 March 1982}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=17 March 2017|title=35 years of diplomatic relations|url=https://dailypost.vu/news/35-years-of-diplomatic-relations/article_bb4a35fc-60a8-5f10-8189-c1fd76814d90.html|access-date=5 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
|125
|{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
|{{dts|1 January 1983}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Government of Antigua and Barbuda|title=Chronology of Antigua and Barbudas Bilateral relations|url=http://www.un.int/antigua/bilachro.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117180614/http://www.un.int/antigua/bilachro.htm|archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=24 February 2011}}</ref>
|-
|126
|{{flag|Angola}}
|{{dts|12 January 1983}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the People's Republic of Angola (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China)|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/2913_665441/2914_663834/2915_663836/200204/t20020425_542636.html}}</ref>
|-
|127
|{{flag|Ivory Coast}}
|{{dts|2 March 1983}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique Regarding The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of the Ivory Coast|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679055.html|access-date=10 May 2023|website=fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
|128
|{{flag|Lesotho}}
|{{dts|30 April 1983}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679068.html|title=Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Lesotho|website=fmprc.gov.cn|access-date=8 November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|129
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|{{dts|1 November 1984}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republics of China and the United Arab Emirates|url=http://ae.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sbgx/200408/t20040817_1051166.htm|access-date=20 April 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Arab Emirates}}</ref>
|-
|130
|{{flag|Bolivia}}
|{{dts|9 July 1985}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|131
|{{flag|Grenada}}
|{{dts|1 October 1985}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Grenada|access-date=27 January 2010|date=12 July 2005|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/ldmzs_664952/gjlb_664956/glnd_665078/}}</ref>
|-
|132
|{{flag|Nicaragua}}
|{{dts|7 December 1985}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sino-Latin American Economic and Trade Relations|publisher=Springer|year=2019|editor-last=Chai|editor-first=Yu|page=6|editor-last2=Chai|editor-first2=Yunxia}}</ref>
|-style="background:#D3D3D3"
|—
|{{flag|Belize}} (suspended)
|{{dts|6 February 1987}}<ref>{{Cite journal |date=15 July 2014 |title=History of Relations between China and Latin American and Caribbean Countries |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9789811252525_bmatter?download=true&srsltid=AfmBOorMb5J8FItav7pwTIP_3pJbb6ejQhzQSArCAEd3NByE9o_YOfk5 |website=[[World Scientific Publishing]] |access-date=25 May 2025 |page=28 |doi=10.1142/9789811252525_bmatter |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
|-
|133
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|{{dts|3 February 1988}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|134
|{{flag|Qatar}}
|{{dts|9 July 1988}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2631_665276/200011/t20001115_600054.html|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the State of Qatar|website=fmprc.gov.cn|access-date=20 June 2023}}</ref>
|-
|—
|{{Flag|State of Palestine}}
|{{dts|20 November 1988}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=China's Foreign Affairs|publisher=World Affairs Press|year=2005|page=557}}</ref>
|-
|135
|{{flag|Bahrain}}
|{{dts|18 April 1989}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations|url=https://www.mofa.gov.bh/Default.aspx?tabid=73&language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505195337/https://www.mofa.gov.bh/Default.aspx?tabid=73&language=en-US|archive-date=5 May 2012|access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
|136
|{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
|{{dts|11 September 1989}}<ref>{{cite web|title=FSM Diplomatic Relations List|url=http://www.fsmgov.org/diprel.html|access-date=13 November 2022|publisher=Government of the Federated States of Micronesia}}</ref>
|-
|137
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|{{dts|22 March 1990}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Mushelenga|first=Samuel Abraham Peyavali|year=2008|title=Foreign policy-making in Namibia: the dynamics of the smallness of a state|url=https://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2703/dissertation_mushelenga_%20s.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y|pages=254–259}}</ref>
|-
|138
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|{{dts|21 July 1990}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Communique Concerning the Estabushment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Repulbic of China and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/2675_665437/2878_663746/2879_663748/200011/t20001115_534593.html|access-date=17 April 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China}}</ref>
|-
|139
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|{{dts|3 October 1990}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-style="background:#D3D3D3"
|—
|{{flag|Marshall Islands}} (suspended)
|{{dts|16 November 1990}}<ref>{{Cite web |author= |date= |title=中国同马绍尔群岛的关系 |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/dyz_681240/1206_681492/sbgx_681496/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116131904/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/dyz_681240/1206_681492/sbgx_681496/ |archive-date=2018-11-16 |publisher=中華人民共和國外交部 |language=zh-cn |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|140
|{{flag|San Marino}}
|{{dts|8 June 1991}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rapporti bilaterali della Repubblica di San Marino|url=https://www.esteri.sm/pub2/EsteriSM/Relazioni-Internazionali/Rapporti-Bilaterali.html|access-date=15 December 2021|language=it}}</ref>
|-
|141
|{{flag|Estonia}}
|{{dts|11 September 1991}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 January 2018|title=Diplomaatiliste suhete (taas)kehtestamise kronoloogia|url=https://www.vm.ee/rahvusvaheline-suhtlus-uleilmne-eestlus/suhted-teiste-riikidega/diplomaatiliste-suhete|access-date=26 October 2022|language=et}}</ref>
|-
|142
|{{flag|Latvia}}
|{{dts|12 September 1991}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 July 2021|title=Dates of establishment and renewal of diplomatic relations|url=https://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/dates-establishment-and-renewal-diplomatic-relations|access-date=5 October 2022|website=mfa.gov.lv}}</ref>
|-
|143
|{{flag|Lithuania}}
|{{dts|14 September 1991}}<ref>{{cite web|title=List of countries with which Lithuania has established diplomatic relations|url=https://jp.mfa.lt/default/en/list-of-countries-with-which-lithuania-has-established-diplomatic-relations|url-status=live|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110123939/https://jp.mfa.lt/default/en/list-of-countries-with-which-lithuania-has-established-diplomatic-relations}}</ref>
|-
|144
|{{flag|Brunei}}
|{{dts|30 September 1991}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|145
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
|{{dts|2 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=States with Which the Republic of Uzbekistan Established Diplomatic Relations |url=https://2014-2024.mfa.uz/en/pages/strani-kotoriye-uzbekistan-ustanovil-diplomaticheskiye-otnosheniya |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Uzbekistan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan]] |access-date=6 February 2025}}</ref>
|-
|146
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
|{{dts|3 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Страны, установившие дипломатические отношения с Республикой Казахстан|url=http://mfa.kz/ru/content-view/spisok-stran-ustanovivshikh-diplomaticheskie-otnosheniya-s-rk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220233503/http://mfa.kz/ru/content-view/spisok-stran-ustanovivshikh-diplomaticheskie-otnosheniya-s-rk|archive-date=20 February 2020|access-date=30 April 2022|language=ru}}</ref>
|-
|147
|{{flag|Tajikistan}}
|{{dts|4 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF STATES WITH WHICH THE REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS|url=https://mfa.tj/uploads/main/2023/04/11,04,2023,15,37.pdf|access-date=13 November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|148
|{{flag|Ukraine}}
|{{dts|4 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://china.mfa.gov.ua/en/partnership/political-relations-between-ukraine-and-china|title=Political Relations between Ukraine and China|website=Посольство України в Китаї|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|149
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|{{dts|5 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Список стран, с которыми КР установил дипломатические отношения|url=https://mfa.gov.kg/kg/osnovnoe-menyu/vneshnyaya-politika/mezhdunarodnye-dogovory/spisok-stran-s-kotorymi-ustanovleny-dipotnosheniya/spisok-stran-s-kotorymi-kr-ustanovil-diplomaticheskie-otnosheniya|access-date=10 October 2021|language=ru}}</ref>
|-
|150
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
|{{dts|6 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=STATES WITH WHICH TURKMENISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS|url=https://www.mfa.gov.tm/en/articles/55?breadcrumbs=no|access-date=17 March 2022|archive-date=8 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508101911/https://www.mfa.gov.tm/en/articles/55?breadcrumbs=no|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|151
|{{flag|Belarus}}
|{{dts|20 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=19 January 2017|title=Cui Qiming: China and Belarus are close friends and sincere partners|work=Belarus.by|url=https://www.belarus.by/en/press-center/speeches-and-interviews/cui-qiming-china-and-belarus-are-close-friends-and-sincere-partners_i_0000051745.html|access-date=29 July 2021|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729141352/https://www.belarus.by/en/press-center/speeches-and-interviews/cui-qiming-china-and-belarus-are-close-friends-and-sincere-partners_i_0000051745.html}}</ref>
|-
|152
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{dts|24 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint Communique of the Government of the People's Republic of China |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/gjhdq_665435/2675_665437/2828_663646/2829_663648/202406/t20240607_11408791.html |access-date=1 July 2025 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs People's Republic of China}}</ref>
|-
|153
|{{flag|Moldova}}
|{{dts|30 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations|url=https://mfa.gov.md/en/content/republic-afghanistan|access-date=31 July 2021|website=MFA Moldova|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624002439/https://mfa.gov.md/en/content/republic-afghanistan}}</ref>
|-
|154
|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}
|{{dts|2 April 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=The People's Republic of China|url=https://mfa.gov.az/en/category/asia-and-oceania/china|website=Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|155
|{{flag|Armenia}}
|{{dts|6 April 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China – Bilateral Relations|url=https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/cn|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|156
|{{flag|Slovenia}}
|{{dts|12 May 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Đogić|first=Mojca Pristavec|date=September 2016|title=Priznanja samostojne Slovenije|url=https://fotogalerija.dz-rs.si/datoteke/Publikacije/Zborniki_RN/2016/Priznanja_samostojne_Slovenije_.pdf|access-date=11 July 2023|language=sl|archive-date=26 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426044554/https://fotogalerija.dz-rs.si/datoteke/Publikacije/Zborniki_RN/2016/Priznanja_samostojne_Slovenije_.pdf}}</ref>
|-
|157
|{{flag|Croatia}}
|{{dts|13 May 1992}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilateral relations – Date of Recognition and Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=https://mvep.gov.hr/foreign-policy/bilateral-relations/date-of-recognition-and-establishment-od-diplomatic-relations/22800|access-date=5 February 2022|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Croatia}}</ref>
|-
|158
|{{flag|Georgia}}
|{{dts|9 June 1992}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Relations between Georgia and the People's Republic of China|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=381&lang_id=ENG|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Georgia)]]|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905063657/http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=381&lang_id=ENG|archive-date=5 September 2011}}</ref>
|-
|159
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{dts|24 August 1992}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|160
|{{flag|Slovakia}}
|{{dts|1 January 1993}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Štáty a teritóriá|url=https://www.mzv.sk/staty|access-date=26 May 2023|language=sk}}</ref>
|-
|161
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|{{dts|24 May 1993}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint Communique Between the People's Republic of China and Eritrea on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zy/gb/202405/t20240531_11367118.html |access-date=1 July 2025 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs People's Republic of China}}</ref>
|-
|162
|{{flag|North Macedonia}}
|{{dts|12 October 1993}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations|url=http://www.mfa.gov.mk/default1.aspx?ItemID=310|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930040551/http://www.mfa.gov.mk/default1.aspx?ItemID=310|archive-date=30 September 2011|access-date=3 April 2021|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of North Macedonia}}</ref>
|-
|163
|{{flag|Andorra}}
|{{dts|29 June 1994}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations|url=https://www.exteriors.ad/en/101-continguts-angles/diplomatic-representations/diplomatic-relations|access-date=3 July 2021|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Andorra}}</ref>
|-
|164
|{{flag|Monaco}}
|{{dts|16 January 1995}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Rapport de Politique Extérieure 2007|url=https://www.gouv.mc/Action-Gouvernementale/Monaco-a-l-International/Publications/Rapports-de-Politique-Exterieure|page=44|language=fr|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref>
|-
|165
|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|{{dts|3 April 1995}}<ref>{{Cite web|year=2022|title=Datumi priznanja i uspostave diplomatskih odnosa|url=https://mvp.gov.ba/vanjska_politika_bih/bilateralni_odnosi/datumi_priznanja_i_uspostave_diplomatskih_odnosa/?id=6|access-date=26 April 2022|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|language=bs}}</ref>
|-
|166
|{{flag|Bahamas}}
|{{dts|23 May 1997}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|—
|{{flag|Cook Islands}}
|{{dts|25 July 1997}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2022|title=Joint Communique Between the People's Republic of China and the Cook Islands on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=http://nz.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/jbwzlm/kkqd/200310/t20031027_961282.html|access-date=21 May 2023}}</ref>
|-style="background:#D3D3D3"
|—
|{{flag|Saint Lucia}} (suspended)
|{{dts|1 September 1997}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.stlucia.gov.lc/pr1997/saint_lucia_establishes_diplomatic_relations_with_china.htm |title=Saint Lucia Establishes Diplomatic Relations with China |website=stlucia.gov.lc |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|167
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{dts|1 January 1998}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 January 1998|title=Joint Communique Between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of South Africa on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=http://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/tenthanniversary/199801/t19980101_7636234.htm|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|-
|168
|{{flag|Tonga}}
|{{dts|2 November 1998}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 November 2018|title=Ambassador Wang Baodong Published Signed Article on the 20th Anniversary of China-Tonga Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/ceto//eng/zt/CCTDT/t1610024.htm}}</ref>
|-
|169
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
|{{dts|20 May 2002}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China, East Timor Establish Diplomatic Relations|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/FR/32953.htm|url-status=live|access-date=25 December 2021|archive-date=19 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119070400/http://www.china.org.cn/english/FR/32953.htm}}</ref>
|-
|170
|{{flag|Nauru}}
|{{dts|21 July 2002}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Jul/37318.htm|title=China, Nauru Establish Diplomatic Relations|website=china.org.cn|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|171
|{{flag|Dominica}}
|{{dts|23 March 2004}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 March 2004|title=China, Commonwealth of Dominica establish diplomatic ties|url=http://chicago.china-consulate.gov.cn/eng//zt/aboutchina/200403/t20040330_5422381.htm|access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref>
|-
|172
|{{flag|Montenegro}}
|{{dts|6 July 2006}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Tabela priznanja i uspostavljanja diplomatskih odnosa|url=https://mvp.gov.me/rubrike/bilateralni-odnosi/Tabela-priznanja-i-uspostavljanja-diplomatskih-odn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213235103/https://mvp.gov.me/rubrike/bilateralni-odnosi/Tabela-priznanja-i-uspostavljanja-diplomatskih-odn|archive-date=13 February 2020|access-date=16 April 2021|publisher=Montenegro Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration}}</ref>
|-
|173
|{{flag|Costa Rica}}
|{{dts|1 June 2007}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 February 2008|title=Costa Rica y Palestina acordaron hoy el establecimiento de relaciones diplomáticas.|url=https://www.rree.go.cr/files/includes/files.php?id=169&tipo=relacion|access-date=6 July 2023|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|—
|{{flag|Niue}}
|{{dts|12 December 2007}}<ref>{{cite web|date=12 December 2007|title=China, Niue establish diplomatic ties|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236556.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012153105/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236556.htm|archive-date=12 October 2012|access-date=3 August 2014|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=12 December 2007|title=Full text of joint communique on the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Niue|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236560.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212547/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236560.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016|access-date=3 August 2014|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]}}</ref>
|-
|174
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|{{dts|28 December 2007}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=29 December 2022|title=Chinese Ambassador H.E. Long Zhou: "Strive for New Glory of China-Malawi Relations"|url=http://mw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sghdhzxxx/202212/t20221229_10998309.htm#:~:text=On%2028%20December%202007%2C%20the,Malawi%20formally%20established%20diplomatic%20relations.|access-date=13 July 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Malawi}}</ref>
|-
|175
|{{flag|South Sudan}}
|{{dts|9 July 2011}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/news/china-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-south-sudan-news-international-lhkb4cachjh.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826102940/http://www.sify.com/news/china-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-south-sudan-news-international-lhkb4cachjh.html|archive-date=26 August 2015|title=China establishes diplomatic relations with South Sudan|website=[[Sify]]|date=10 July 2011|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref>
|-
|176
|{{flag|Panama}}
|{{dts|12 June 2017}}<ref>{{cite web|title=RELACIONES DIPLOMÁTICAS DE LA REPÚBLICA DE PANAMÁ|url=http://www.mire.gob.pa/sites/default/files/documentos/Trasnsparencia/gestion-anual-2011-2012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806131148/https://mire.gob.pa/sites/default/files/documentos/Trasnsparencia/gestion-anual-2011-2012.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2020|access-date=30 November 2021|page=195}}</ref>
|-
|177
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
|{{dts|1 May 2018}}<ref>{{cite news|editor=Mo Hong'e|title=China, Dominican Republic establish diplomatic relations|url=http://www.ecns.cn/2018/05-01/300989.shtml|access-date=1 May 2018|work=ECNS|date=1 May 2018}}</ref>
|-
|178
|{{flag|El Salvador}}
|{{dts|21 August 2018}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=REGISTRO DE FECHAS DE ESTABLECIMIENTO DE RD|url=https://www.transparencia.gob.sv/institutions/rree/documents/338286/download|access-date=9 March 2022|language=es|archive-date=28 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228020506/https://www.transparencia.gob.sv/institutions/rree/documents/338286/download}}</ref>
|-
|179
|{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
|{{dts|21 September 2019}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2019 |title=China and Solomon Islands Establish Diplomatic Relations |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg_663340/bmdyzs_664814/xwlb_664816/202406/t20240606_11402124.html |access-date=2 July 2025 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs People's Republic of China}}</ref>
|-
|180
|{{flag|Honduras}}
|{{dts|26 March 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 March 2023|title=Comunicado Conjunto entre la República Popular China y la República de Honduras sobre el Establecimiento de Relaciones Diplomáticas|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/esp/wjdt/gongbao/202303/t20230326_11049280.html|access-date=23 September 2023|website=Ministry of foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|language=es}}</ref>
|}

==Relations by region and country==
Generally, the political and [[Face (sociological concept)|sociological concept of face]] has a significant role in Chinese diplomacy.<ref name=":102">{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Kerry|title=China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One|date=2023|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]]|isbn=978-1-350-26724-4|location=London|author-link=Kerry Brown (historian)}}</ref>{{Rp|page=123}}

===Africa===
{{Main|Africa–China relations}}

{{Flagicon|AU}}{{Flagicon|China}}

China has diplomatic relations with 53 of the 54 countries which are generally recognized in Africa.<ref name="Shinn-2023"/>{{Rp|page=22}} It has embassies in each of these 53 African countries, and each of those likewise have embassies in Beijing.<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=22}} China does not maintain relations with [[Eswatini]], which recognizes Taiwan instead of the PRC.<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=22}} China also does not recognize [[Western Sahara]], a disputed territory which is claimed and administered by [[Morocco]].<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=22}}

Following the [[Cold War]], Chinese interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy.<ref>The Heritage Foundation {{unfit|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100308044713/http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg1916.cfm China's Influence in Africa: Implications for the United States]}}</ref>

The [[Forum on China–Africa Cooperation|Forum on China-Africa Cooperation]] (FOCAC) is the primary multi-lateral coordination mechanism between African countries and China.<ref name="Murphy-2022b">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=56|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> Chinese foreign aid is a significant area of interaction within FOCAC.<ref name="Murphy-2022c" /> Through FOCAC, China provides aid in the forms of debt forgiveness, aid grants, concessional loans, and interest-free loans.<ref name="Murphy-2022c">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=84|oclc=1249712936}}</ref>

In addition to the mechanism of FOCAC, China engages with subregional multilateral groups in Africa, including the [[ECOWAS|Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) and the [[East African Community]] (EAC).<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=11}}

==== Diplomatic history ====
Early modern bilateral relations were mainly affected by the Cold War and the ideology of [[communism]]. The establishment of modern Sino-African relations dates back to the late 1950s when China signed the first official bilateral trade agreement with Algeria, Egypt, Guinea, Somalia, Morocco and Sudan. Zhou Enlai made a ten-country tour to Africa between December 1963 and January 1964. Zhou Enlai visited Ghana and established close relations with [[Kwame Nkrumah]], a leader who strived for a united Africa.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Savage|first1=Joel|title=The Confused Moments of Nkrumah in China After The Coup|work=modernghana.com|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/876767/the-confused-moments-of-nkrumah-in-china-after-the-coup.html|url-status=live|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427041712/https://www.modernghana.com/news/876767/the-confused-moments-of-nkrumah-in-china-after-the-coup.html|archive-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> Relations at that time were often reflective of Chinese foreign policy in general: China "began to cultivate ties and offer[...] economic, technical and military support to African countries and liberation movements in an effort to encourage [[wars of national liberation]] and revolution as part of an international united front against both superpower".<ref>Muekalia 2004, p.6</ref> In 1965 [[Ben Bella]] was overthrown in Algeria, with a result that the Soviets gained influence in North Africa and the Middle East. Kwame Nkrumah, the most prominent leader of sub-Saharan Africa, was deposed while on a trip to China in early 1966.  The new rulers shifted Ghana to the West's side of the Cold War.<ref>Odd Arne Westad, ''The Global Cold War'' (2005) p 107.</ref>

China originally had close ties with the [[apartheid|anti-apartheid]] and [[liberation movement]], [[African National Congress]] (ANC), in [[South Africa]], but as China's relations with the [[Soviet Union]] worsened and the ANC moved closer to the Soviet Union, China shifted away from the ANC towards the [[Pan Africanist Congress of Azania|Pan-Africanist Congress]].<ref>Taylor 2000, p. 93</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity. China adopted several principles, among them supporting the independence of African countries while investing in infrastructure projects. The [[Somali Democratic Republic]] established good relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War era. When Somalia sought to create a [[Greater Somalia]], it [[Ogaden War|declared war]] on [[Ethiopia]], with the aid of the Soviet Union, Somalia took [[Ogaden]] in three months, but the Soviet Union shifted its support from Somalia to Ethiopia, and Ethiopia retook the Ogaden region. This angered [[Siad Barre]], and expelled all Soviet advisors and citizens from Somalia, but Somalia maintained good relations with China, which [[Sino-Soviet split|segregated]] with the traditional [[Marxism–Leninism|Soviet Communism]]. China and [[Zaire]] shared a common goal in Central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to the [[FNLA]] (and later, [[UNITA]]) in order to prevent the [[MPLA]], who were supported and augmented by [[Cuba]], from coming to power. During the Cold War, a few smaller nations also entered in alliances with China, such as [[Burundi]] under [[Michel Micombero]].

The [[political status of Taiwan]] has been a key political issue for the People's Republic of [[China]] (PRC). In 1971, the support of African nations was crucial in the PRC joining the United Nations (UN), taking over the seat of the ROC on Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eg.china-embassy.org/eng/zagx/t274327.htm|title=From "brothers" to "partners": China, Africa building strategic ties|access-date=14 March 2009|work=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Arab Republic of Egypt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508171410/http://eg.china-embassy.org/eng/zagx/t274327.htm|archive-date=8 May 2013}}</ref> However, while many African countries such as [[Algeria]], [[Egypt]] and [[Zambia]] have stressed their support to the PRC's one-China policy, [[Eswatini]] maintains relations with [[Taipei]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/22427|title=China woos Taiwan's African friends|access-date=14 March 2009|work=afrol.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314083923/http://www.afrol.com/articles/22427|archive-date=14 March 2012}}</ref> For the quest of a permanent [[UN Security Council]] seat for Africa, Nigeria, the most populous African country, relies on Chinese support while Egypt looks to U.S. backing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa and the UN Security Council Permanent Seats|url=http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/aumonitor/27913|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508111435/http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/aumonitor/27913|archive-date=8 May 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|work=[[Pambazuka News]]}}</ref>

In its relations with African countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller African countries.<ref name=":102"/>{{Rp|page=107}}

====Economic relations====
{{Main|Africa–China economic relations}}

[[File:Belt and Road Initiative participant map.svg|thumb|Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the [[Belt and Road Initiative]]]]
In 1980, the total Sino-African trade volume was US$1 billion. By 1999, it had reached US$6.5 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaembassy.org.zw/eng/zt/zflt/t150398.htm|title=chinaembassy.org.zw ''Sino-African Relations''|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616025604/http://www.chinaembassy.org.zw/eng/zt/zflt/t150398.htm|archive-date=16 June 2013}}</ref> By 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the U.S., which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. China also passed the traditional African economic partner and [[French colonial empire#Africa|former colonial power]] France, which had trade worth US$47 billion.<ref name="csmonitor">{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/|title=China boosts African economies, offering a 'second opportunity'|access-date=14 March 2009|work=The Christian Science Monitor|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624051028/http://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/|archive-date=24 June 2009}}</ref> In 2010, trade between Africa and China was worth US$114 billion and in 2011, US$166.3 billion.<ref name="allafrica">{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201212090143.html|title=Mozambique-China Trade Continues to Grow|date=9 December 2012|access-date=9 December 2012|work=allafrica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118150104/http://allafrica.com/stories/201212090143.html|archive-date=18 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In the first 10 months of 2012 it was US$163.9 billion.<ref name="allafrica" />

There are an estimated 800 Chinese corporations doing business in Africa, most of which are private companies investing in the infrastructure, energy and banking sectors.<ref name="FT">{{cite web|title=Africa, China Trade|url=http://media.ft.com/cms/e13530f4-c9df-11dc-b5dc-000077b07658.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311160010/http://media.ft.com/cms/e13530f4-c9df-11dc-b5dc-000077b07658.pdf|archive-date=11 March 2009|access-date=14 March 2009|work=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years)<ref name="MondeDiplo">{{cite web|date=May 2005|title=China's trade safari in Africa|url=http://mondediplo.com/2005/05/11chinafrica|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126203347/http://mondediplo.com/2005/05/11chinafrica|archive-date=26 January 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]]}}</ref> have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans.<ref name="FT" /> Since 2000, more than US$10 billion in debt owed by African nations to China has been canceled.<ref name="MondeDiplo" />

====Military relations====
Military cooperation goes back to the Cold War period when China was keen to help [[Decolonization of Africa#Timeline|African liberation movements]]. Apart from some traditional allies such as [[Somalia]] and [[Tanzania]], China also had military ties with [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned countries]] such as Egypt. Military equipment worth $142 million was sold to African countries between 1955 and 1977.<ref name="MondeDiplo" /> Two decades after the collapse of the Soviet Union, military relations are now{{Update after|2010|11}} based on business interests rather than ideology.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

In 2004, China deployed around 1,500 soldiers under the UN umbrella, dispatched between [[Liberia]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name="MondeDiplo" /> China is also present via its [[military attaché]]s; as of 2007, it has 14 attachés in 14 different African countries while there are 18 African countries who maintain their attachés in [[Beijing]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Susan Puska|title=Military backs China's Africa adventure|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/china/if08ad02.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721210713/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/china/if08ad02.html|archive-date=21 July 2012|access-date=14 March 2009|work=Asia Times}}</ref> Apart from peacemaking, China provides military training and equipment to a few countries, though this does not require military forces to be deployed.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 October 2021|title=Chinese Government TV Showcases Foreign Cadets Training in Chinese Military Academies|url=https://www.memri.org/reports/chinese-government-tv-showcases-foreign-cadets-training-chinese-military-academies|access-date=1 March 2022|website=[[Middle East Media Research Institute]]}}</ref>

==== Culture ====
Africa is a host of three Chinese cultural centers. The first overseas Chinese center was opened in [[Mauritius]] in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/culture/2009-02/17/content_17288743.htm|title=Out of Africa|access-date=14 March 2009|work=China Daily|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004153822/http://www.china.org.cn/culture/2009-02/17/content_17288743.htm|archive-date=4 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Two other followed in Egypt and [[Benin]]. The [[Confucius Institute]], which focuses on the promotion of the [[Chinese language]] and [[Chinese culture|culture]], has 20 centers distributed around 13 African countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cri.cn/4406/2009/02/17/1122s454769.htm|title=Confucius Institute Bridges Friendship between China and Africa|access-date=14 March 2009|work=cri.com.cn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016190603/http://english.cri.cn/4406/2009/02/17/1122s454769.htm|archive-date=16 October 2012}}</ref>

Historically, little is known about early African immigration to China, although there is no doubt and much consensus that the human species was originally from Africa. Due to recent developments in relations,{{Ambiguous|date=July 2011}}<!-- There needs to be an explanation of the immigration laws here, I think --> many{{Quantify|date=March 2009}} have been relocating for better opportunities. Places dubbed 'Little Africa' and 'Chocolate city' are increasingly receiving new immigrants, mostly Nigerians. Most of the African immigrants are concentrated in the area of [[Guangzhou]] with an estimated number of 20,000.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/09/the-promised-land-2|first=Evan|last=Osnos|author-link=Evan Osnos|title=The Promised Land|date=9 February 2009|access-date=16 November 2014|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006120726/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/09/the-promised-land-2|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that there are around 10,000 illegal African immigrants in China and police crackdowns have intensified since early 2009.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tom Mackenzie, Mitch Moxley|title=China's 'Little Africa' is under pressure|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/china-and-its-neighbors/090219/chinas-little-africa-under-pressure|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228140945/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/china-and-its-neighbors/090219/chinas-little-africa-under-pressure|archive-date=28 February 2009|access-date=14 March 2009|work=[[GlobalPost]]}}</ref>

In contrast, early modern Chinese immigration to the African continent is slightly better documented. In 1724, a few Chinese convicts were brought as laborers to South Africa from the [[Dutch East Indies]] (modern-day Indonesia) by the [[Dutch Empire]]. In the early 19th century, another wave of immigrants came to South Africa as workers brought by the [[British people|British]] to work in agriculture, infrastructure building and mining.<ref name="migration">{{cite web|date=6 August 2008|title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129114909/http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690|archive-date=29 January 2014|access-date=14 March 2009|website=[[Migration Policy Institute]]}}</ref> In recent years, there has been an increasing presence of [[Chinatowns in Africa|Chinese in Africa]]. Estimates vary by source though [[Xinhua]], China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa.<ref name="migration" /> The number of Chinese illegal immigrants remains unknown.

Due to the low prices of Chinese-made weaponry and military equipment, an increasing number of African countries shifted their source of supply from traditional providers such as Russia to China.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian, Chinese weapons compete in Africa|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Security/2008/12/19/russian_chinese_weapons_compete_in_africa/5472/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513035926/http://www.upiasia.com/Security/2008/12/19/russian_chinese_weapons_compete_in_africa/5472/|archive-date=13 May 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|agency=[[United Press International]]}}</ref> However, the selling of arms to some states accused by Western countries of war crimes, such as [[Sudan]], have prompted criticism in the West.<ref>{{cite news|date=13 July 2008|title=China 'is fuelling war in Darfur'|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7503428.stm|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305011237/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7503428.stm|archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>

====Criticism====
The Zimbabwean example is relevant. Relations between China and [[Robert Mugabe]]'s regime in [[Zimbabwe]] have also been the focus of criticism by a few Western countries. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with jet fighters, vehicles and other military equipment.<ref>{{cite news|last=Beresford|first=David|date=18 April 2008|title=Chinese ship carries arms cargo to Mugabe regime|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/18/china.armstrade|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305005843/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/18/china.armstrade|archive-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> China declared in 2007 that it was dropping all kinds of assistance and limiting assistance to [[humanitarian aid]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Spencer (journalist)|date=31 August 2007|title=China is to withdraw backing for Mugabe|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1561824/China-is-to-withdraw-backing-for-Mugabe.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415150301/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1561824/China-is-to-withdraw-backing-for-Mugabe.html|archive-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> In July 2008, the Chinese diplomacy asked Mugabe "to behave" though critics see that as a way for China to protect its own interests in the country should there be a regime change.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/2461693/Robert-Mugabe-forced-into-talks-with-opposition-after-China-told-him-to-behave.html|title=Robert Mugabe forced into talks with opposition after China told him 'to behave'|access-date=14 March 2009|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Ian|last=Evans|date=26 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415150357/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/2461693/Robert-Mugabe-forced-into-talks-with-opposition-after-China-told-him-to-behave.html|archive-date=15 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Chinese role in Africa has sparked much criticism, including accusations of [[neocolonialism]] and racial discrimination.<ref>{{cite news|last=Blair|first=David|author-link=David Blair (journalist)|date=31 August 2007|title=Why China is trying to colonise Africa|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3642345/Why-China-is-trying-to-colonise-Africa.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415083339/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3642345/Why-China-is-trying-to-colonise-Africa.html|archive-date=15 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China as Africa's 'angel in white'|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HK03Cb04.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509142243/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HK03Cb04.html|archive-date=9 May 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|work=[[Asia Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/world/africa/kenya-china-racism.html|title=Kenyans Say Chinese Investment Brings Racism and Discrimination|last=Goldstein|first=Joseph|date=15 October 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=8 June 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608154734/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/world/africa/kenya-china-racism.html|archive-date=8 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> As a response to such criticism, China issued the ''Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardise Enterprises' Overseas Investment'', a charter and guide of conduct to Chinese companies operating abroad.<ref>{{cite web|last=Barry Sautman, Yan Hairong|date=Spring 2008|title=The Forest for the Trees: Trade, Investment and the China-in-Africa Discourse|url=https://ira.lib.polyu.edu.hk/bitstream/10397/5416/1/forest_for_the_trees_Pacific%20Affairs.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611215941/https://ira.lib.polyu.edu.hk/bitstream/10397/5416/1/forest_for_the_trees_Pacific%20Affairs.pdf|archive-date=11 June 2020|work=[[Hong Kong Polytechnic University]] Institutional Research Archive|location=Hong Kong}}</ref> Other criticism include the flooding of the African markets with low-cost Chinese-made products, thus harming the growth and the survival of local industries and businesses.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 2008|title=China in Africa – Is China Gaining Control of Africa's Resources?|url=http://www.gpc.edu/~gpcglobe/Forms/ChinainAfrica.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528172646/http://www.gpc.edu/~gpcglobe/Forms/ChinainAfrica.pdf|archive-date=28 May 2010|access-date=14 March 2009|work=gpc.edu|publisher=[[CQ Press]]}}</ref>

=====Egypt=====
{{main|China–Egypt relations}}

{{Flagicon|Egypt}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Sudan=====
{{main|China–Sudan relations}}

{{Flagicon|Sudan}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Ethiopia=====
{{main|China–Ethiopia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Ethiopia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Somalia=====
{{main|China–Somalia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Somalia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Tanzania=====
{{main|China–Tanzania relations}}

{{Flagicon|Tanzania}}{{Flagicon|China}}

===Americas===
====Latin America and the Caribbean====
{{See also|China–Latin America relations}}

[[File:Plenário do Congresso (14524505490).jpg|thumb|[[Xi Jinping]] delivered a speech at the National Congress of [[Brazil]], 16 July 2014]] 
[[File:Cristina Fernández y Xi Jinping en Argentina.jpg|thumb|[[Cristina Fernández]] and Xi Jinping in [[Argentina]], 18 July 2014]]

Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in [[South America]] and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina, [[Chile]], and Cuba in November 2004, Chinese leader Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade.<ref>[[The Heritage Foundation]] {{unfit|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090122220834/http://www.heritage.org/Research/TradeandForeignAid/tst040605a.cfm China's Influence in the Western Hemisphere]}}</ref><ref>[[Columbia Daily Tribune]] [http://www.showmenews.com/2005/Feb/20050220News014.asp Caribbean sees China acquire more influence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314195307/http://www.showmenews.com/2005/Feb/20050220News014.asp|date=14 March 2007}}</ref> For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing as Cuba's second-largest trading partner after [[Venezuela]] in 2005.<ref>United Transportation Union [http://www.utu.org/worksite/detail_news.cfm?ArticleID=26869 Cuba turns to China for transport needs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722115924/http://www.utu.org/worksite/detail_news.cfm?ArticleID=26869 |date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American and Caribbean region military personnel, mainly due to a three-year-old [[United States and the International Criminal Court|U.S. law]] surrounding the [[International Criminal Court]] that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region.<ref name="NationNews">{{cite news|url=http://www.nationnews.com/story/296599452302703.php|title=US calls off Barbados ban|access-date=24 October 2008|first=Tony|last=Best|date=24 October 2008|work=[[The Daily Nation (Barbados)|Nation Newspaper]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185950/http://www.nationnews.com/story/296599452302703.php|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>

In its relations with Latin American countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller Latin American countries.<ref name=":102"/>{{Rp|page=107}}

{{Further|Caribbean–China relations}}
[[Caribbean]] regional relations with China are mostly based on [[trade]], [[Credit (finance)|credits]], and [[investment]]s which have increased significantly since the 1990s.  For many Caribbean nations the increasing ties with China have been used as a way to decrease long time over-dependence on the United States.

Additionally, China's policy in the region was the utilization of "[[dollar diplomacy]]" or the attempts to switch many nations from recognizing Taiwan as an independent nation instead to the recognition of the "One China" policy in exchange for Chinese investment.

More recently, during various visits by several Chinese diplomats to the Caribbean region a deal was signed for China to help establish the Confucius Institute at the [[University of the West Indies]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Stronger link|first=Alicia|last=Dells|url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=6402|newspaper=[[Barbados Advocate]]|location=Bridgetown, Barbados|date=27 September 2009|access-date=27 September 2009|quote=The acting Prime Minister added that Barbados looks forward to welcoming the Guangdong Art Troupe to the island next month and noted that Barbados was keen on having a Confucius Institute for the teaching of Mandarin and Chinese history at the UWI Cave Hill Campus in the near future.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226124446/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=6402|archive-date=26 February 2012}}</ref> These agreements are part of the basis of teaching [[Mandarin Chinese]] language courses at the regional University.<ref>[http://www.caribbeanworldnews.com/middle_top_news_detail.php?mid=2260 Chinese And Caribbean Relations]{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – By David Jessop, CaribbeanWorldNews.com (Friday 20 March 2009)</ref><ref>[http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/article.php?news_id=14272 Confucius Institute opens at UWI in Jamaica] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218135907/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/article.php?news_id=14272 |date=18 February 2009 }}, CaribbeanNetNews.com, (Saturday, 14 February 2009)</ref>

China has also expanded several levels of cooperation with the Caribbean region. China and the Government of the [[Trinidad and Tobago|Republic of Trinidad and Tobago]] were said to have formed an agreement where [[Bitumen|asphalt]] from Trinidad and Tobago would be exported to China during its construction boom in preparation for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Trinidad and Tobago recognizes China's full market economy status|work=People's Daily|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200502/01/eng20050201_172519.html|access-date=1 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007091635/http://english.people.com.cn/200502/01/eng20050201_172519.html|archive-date=7 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business_mag?id%3D161210725|title=Trinidad News, Trinidad Newspaper, Trinidad Sports, Trinidad politics, Trinidad and Tobago, Tobago News, Trinidad classifieds, Trinidad TV, Sports, Business|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120095546/http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business_mag?id=161210725|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> In exchange, China has led several construction projects in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean region via Chinese owned construction companies. Trinidad and Tobago have also mooted the idea of starting direct shipments of [[oil]] and [[liquid natural gas]] direct from Trinidad and Tobago to China, to fuel the latter's growing need for resources to fuel their economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bnamericas.com/en/features/spotlight-chinas-footprint-in-caribbean-infrastructure|title=BNamericas – Spotlight: China's footprint in Caribbean in}}</ref>

Several capital-works or infrastructural projects across the Caribbean region have also been financed by the [[Chinese government]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 March 2021|title=China Regional Snapshot: The Caribbean|url=https://gop-foreignaffairs.house.gov/china-snapshot-project-the-caribbean/|access-date=3 May 2021|website=[[House Foreign Affairs Committee]] – Republicans}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=====Antigua and Barbuda=====
{{Flagicon|Antigua and Barbuda}}{{Flagicon|China}}

Both countries have established diplomatic relations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/ldmzs_664952/gjlb_664956/3448_664958/|title=Antigua and Barbuda|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819070828/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/ldmzs_664952/gjlb_664956/3448_664958/|archive-date=19 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Barbados=====
{{Main|Barbados–China relations}}

{{Flagicon|Barbados}}{{Flagicon|China}}

Diplomatic relations between [[Barbados]] and the People's Republic of China were [[Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China#1970s 2|established on]] 30 May 1977.<ref name="CEIB">{{cite web|url=http://bb.chineseembassy.org/eng/zbgx/t261184.htm|title=Summary of China-Barbados Bilateral Relations|author=Ambassador|date=30 May 2008|publisher=Embassy of the People's Republic of China: Barbados|location=Bridgetown, Barbados|access-date=16 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102191143/http://bb.chineseembassy.org/eng/zbgx/t261184.htm|archive-date=2 January 2014}}</ref> China began providing Barbados with diplomatic aide with the construction of the Sir [[Garfield Sobers Gymnasium]] (1986), and other projects such as: construction assistance for the Sir [[Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre]] (1994), and renovating [[Bridgetown]]'s Cheapside Market building (2005). In 2005, China exported US$19.19 million worth of goods, while importing only $211,000 from Barbados.<ref name="CEIB" />

The current Chinese Ambassador to Barbados is Xu Hong,<ref>{{cite news|title=China marks 63 years|first=A.|last=N.|url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=27071|newspaper=[[Barbados Advocate]]|date=28 September 2012|access-date=29 September 2012|quote="Since I assumed my post as the Chinese Ambassador April this year, I have been much impressed by the sound friendship between our two countries and two peoples, as well as the great potential for future development," Ambassador Xu Hong stated.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027115600/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=27071|archive-date=27 October 2013}}</ref> who heads the embassy in [[Christ Church, Barbados|Christ Church]], Barbados. Hong replaced the former Ambassador Wei Qiang<ref name="FMPRC">{{cite web|title=Chinese embassy to Barbados|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|date=30 December 2011|access-date=17 January 2012|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zwjg/2490/2497/t14518.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231082811/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zwjg/2490/2497/t14518.htm|archive-date=31 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2012. The current Barbadian Ambassador to Beijing, China is the country's former Prime Minister Sir [[Lloyd Erskine Sandiford]].<ref name="BAIC">{{cite news|title=Chinese president accepts credentials from five new ambassadors|agency=Xinhua News Agency|date=3 March 2010|access-date=17 January 2012|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/03/c_13195842.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307062717/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/03/c_13195842.htm|archive-date=7 March 2010}}</ref>

In 2004 Barbados obtained Approved Destination Status by the government in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/2009/08/approved-destination-status/|title=List of Chinese countries with ADS status|website=[[China Travel Trends]]|date=6 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103150756/http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/2009/08/approved-destination-status/|archive-date=3 January 2011}} ([http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/ADS-countries-and-territories.pdf list])</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=What China Means for Caribbean Tourism|url=http://www.caribjournal.com/2011/12/17/what-china-could-mean-to-caribbean-tourism/|work=Caribbean Journal|date=17 December 2011|access-date=30 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812060049/http://www.caribjournal.com/2011/12/17/what-china-could-mean-to-caribbean-tourism/|archive-date=12 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese tourism remains a goal|first=A.|last=N.|url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=25056|newspaper=[[Barbados Advocate]]|date=1 June 2012|access-date=30 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718102047/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=25056|archive-date=18 July 2014}}</ref> Barbados and China are members of the [[United Nations]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states|title=Member States|publisher=United Nations|access-date=25 June 2022|quote=Barbados}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://protocol.un.org/dgacm/pls/site.nsf/files/BB306/$FILE/bb306.pdf|title=Blue Book "Permanent Missions to the United Nations No.&nbsp;306"|date=June 2016|publisher=United Nations|access-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031222127/https://protocol.un.org/dgacm/pls/site.nsf/files/BB306/$FILE/bb306.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> and the [[Caribbean Development Bank]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.caribank.org/countries-and-members/borrowing-members|title=Borrowing Members|website=Caribbean Development Bank|access-date=25 June 2022|quote=BORROWING MEMBERS […] Barbados}}</ref>

Following the [[2008 Sichuan earthquake]], the Barbadian prime minister visited the Chinese Embassy to personally sign the book of condolence to the nation.<ref>[http://bb.china-embassy.org/eng/xwdt/t460379.htm Prime Minister David Thompson signed condolence book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222102406/http://bb.china-embassy.org/eng/xwdt/t460379.htm |date=22 February 2012 }}, 21 May 2008</ref>

[[File:Wildey Gymnasium, Barbados.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The Wildey Gymnasium in Barbados which was built in 1992 with assistance of the P.R.C.]]
Over the years a number of building projects have been carried out with Chinese government assistance these include: The Garfield Sobers Gymnasium,<ref>{{cite news|title=Wildey Gym Spruce-up|url=http://bb2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200509/20050900403271.html|agency=Ministry of Commerce of P.R. China|newspaper=Nation Newspaper|date=15 September 2005|access-date=30 November 2009|quote=[ . . . ] The lighting will be improved, and the air-conditioning should be better now," Walrond said. He noted that the experienced technical team from the People's Republic of China would be working with China State Construction who built the gym, as well as with about 30 Barbadians. [ . . . ]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707040721/http://bb2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200509/20050900403271.html|archive-date=7 July 2011}}</ref> two adjustments on the Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre, a Home Vegetable Growing Experimental Center, embroidery, grass weaving and feather handicraft. A consideration was also giving according to the Prime Minister of Barbados, David Thompson for China to assist with the opening of a new cruise ship facility in Barbados.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.bb/index.pl/article1?id=1333244|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307081022/http://cbc.bb/index.pl/article1?id=1333244|archive-date=7 March 2016|title=Barbados to open embassy in China|publisher=Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=15 May 2009}}</ref>

Chinese Premier Wen said that China would like to join hands with Barbados in deepening cooperation in the areas of trade, tourism, architecture, and cultural exchange.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3376_665447/3463_664988/3465_664992/200706/t20070608_594417.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219144744/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3376_665447/3463_664988/3465_664992/200706/t20070608_594417.html|archive-date=19 February 2023|title=Wen Jiaobao Holds Talks with Prime Minister of Barbados Arthur at the Great Hall of the People|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>

China's export volume to Barbados in 1999 reached US$2,035,000, while imports from Barbados were at US$13,000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Product Exports by China to Barbados 1999|url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CHN/Year/1999/TradeFlow/Export/Partner/BRB/Product/All-Groups|access-date=16 September 2020|website=[[World Integrated Trade Solution]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Product Imports by China from Barbados 1999|url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CHN/Year/1999/TradeFlow/Import/Partner/BRB/Product/All-Groups|access-date=16 September 2020|website=World Integrated Trade Solution}}</ref>

Both nations have additionally signed bilateral agreements including a [[tax treaty|Double taxation agreement]] and a Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments treaty.<ref>{{Cite web |last=EDIT |title=Barbados - China BIT (1998) - Electronic Database of Investment Treaties (EDIT) |url=https://edit.wti.org/document/show/b50a7553-21c3-4990-a80f-4f231ee69135 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=edit.wti.org}}</ref>

The Chinese government remains one of the main stakeholders in the Barbados-based Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), which lends to the various territories throughout the Caribbean region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caribank.org/about-cdb/member-countries/nonregional-members/china|title=Caribbean Development Bank (CDB): Non-Regional Members|access-date=9 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628125102/http://www.caribank.org/about-cdb/member-countries/nonregional-members/china|archive-date=28 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Closer cooperation likely between China and Barbados|url=http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-14318--26-26--.html|newspaper=CaribbeanNetNews.com|date=17 February 2009|access-date=10 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505132748/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-14318--26-26--.html|archive-date=5 May 2009}}</ref>

=====Cuba=====
{{main|China–Cuba relations}}

{{Flagicon|Cuba}}{{Flagicon|China}}

China-Cuban relations are based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. China is Cuba's second largest trading partner after Venezuela. At a ceremonial trade gathering in [[Havana]] in early 2006, China's ambassador to Cuba said "Our government has a firm position to develop trade co-operation between our countries. The policy, the orientation, has been determined. What's left is the work to complete our plans."<ref>Marc Frank, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513081922/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=7189 "Trade With China Primes Cuba's Engine for Change"], ''Financial Times'', 29 March 2006</ref>

Bilateral trade between China and Cuba in 2005 totaled US$777 million, of which US$560 million were Chinese exports to Cuba.<ref>"Trade with China helps Cuba to move up a gear," Financial Times, 8 March 2006</ref> China is sending a growing amount of durable goods to Cuba. Chinese goods have become the primary tools both in the planned revitalization of [[Transport in Cuba|Cuban transport]] infrastructure and in the "Energy Revolution" of 2006 to provide electricity to the Cuban populace.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

[[Sinopec]], the Chinese state [[oil company]], has an agreement with state-owned [[Cupet]] (Cuba Petroleum) to develop oil resources. As of mid-2008, SINOPEC had done some seismic testing for oil resources on the island of Cuba, but no drilling.<ref name="McClatchy-11June2008">{{cite web|last1=Bolstad|first1=Erika|last2=Hall|first2=Kevin G.|date=11 June 2008|title=GOP claim about Chinese oil drilling off Cuba is untrue|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/40776.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208154630/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/40776.html|archive-date=8 December 2009|website=[[Mcclatchydc.com]]}}</ref> The company also has a contract for joint production in one of Cuba's offshore areas of high potential yield, off the coast of [[Pinar del Río]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Firman Cuba y China contrato para producción compartida de petróleo|newspaper=Granma Internacional|date=31 January 2005|language=es}}</ref> but had done no off-shore drilling as of mid-2008.<ref name="McClatchy-11June2008" />

In November 2005, [[PetroChina]] Great Wall Drilling Co., Ltd. and CUPET held a ceremony for the signing of two drilling service contracts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5016208/PetroChina-Great-Wall-Drilling-Co.html|title=PetroChina Great Wall Drilling Co. wins contracts in Cuba|work=China Chemical Reporter|date=26 November 2005|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517191641/http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5016208/PetroChina-Great-Wall-Drilling-Co.html|archive-date=17 May 2011}}</ref> Great Wall Drilling has provided [[drilling rig]]s for [[oil exploration]] on Cuba's north coast.<ref>{{cite news|title=CNPC: Inked Pact with Cuba State Oil Firm for greater cooperation|work=Dow Jones Institutional News|date=7 June 2011|location=New York, N.Y.}}</ref>

===== El Salvador =====
{{Main|China-El Salvador relations}}

{{Flagicon|El Salvador}}{{Flagicon|China}}

===== Honduras =====
{{Main|China-Honduras relations}}

{{Flagicon|Honduras}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Venezuela=====
{{main|China–Venezuela relations}}

{{Flagicon|Venezuela}}{{Flagicon|China}}

====United States====
{{main|China–United States relations}}

{{Flagicon|United States}}{{Flagicon|China}}

Once the UN issue was resolved, relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972, President [[Richard Nixon]] [[1972 Nixon visit to China|visited China]]. China backed away from support of North Vietnam in the Vietnam War.{{dubious|date=September 2016}} In late 1978, China became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]]. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought an inconclusive border war with Vietnam (February–March 1979).<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Stout|first=David|date=15 May 2014|title=The Last Time China Got into a Fight With Vietnam, It Was a Disaster|url=https://time.com/100417/china-vietnam-sino-vietnamese-war-south-china-sea/|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref>

Formal diplomatic relations were established with the U.S. in 1979, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of antagonistic relations over such issues as Taiwan, [[balance of trade]], [[intellectual property rights]], [[nuclear proliferation]], [[currency intervention]], [[securities fraud]] and [[human rights]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/timeline/us-relations-china|title=Timeline: U.S.-China Relations}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-obama-currency-idUSTRE49S7FQ20081029|title=Obama says China must stop manipulating currency|work=Reuters|date=29 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiafinancial.com/china-keen-to-beef-up-laws-against-bond-securities-fraud|title=China keen to beef up laws against bond, securities fraud|date=26 May 2020}}</ref>

===Asia===
Generally speaking, China's relations with Central and South Asia have resulted in steadily increasing interdependence and a modestly improved regional integration.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fingar|first=Thomas|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=25|chapter=China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform|oclc=939553543|author-link=Thomas Fingar}}</ref>

====Arab World====
{{See also|Sino-Arab relations}}
{{Flagicon|Arab League}}{{Flagicon|China}}

[[File:China’s Critical Sea Lines of Communication.png|thumb|300px|right|China's Critical [[Sea lines of communication]]. In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese [[crude oil]] imports transited the [[Strait of Malacca]], with less than 2 percent transiting the [[Lombok Strait]].]]

Sino-Arab relations have extended historically back to the first [[Rashidun Caliphate|Caliphate]], with important trade routes, and good diplomatic relations. Following the age of [[Imperialism]], the Sino-Arab relations were halted for several centuries, until both gained independence in the 19th and 20th century. Modern relations are evolving into a new era, with the [[China–Arab States Cooperation Forum|China-Arab States Cooperation Forum]] (CASCF) as the major multi-lateral cooperation mechanism between China and the Arab League states.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's Rise in the Global South: The Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|year=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=56}}</ref>

On 10 March 2023, Saudi Arabia and Iran announced that they had agreed to normalize their relations in a deal brokered by China.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gans|first=Jared|date=11 March 2023|title=Five things to know about the Iran-Saudi deal brokered by China|url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/3895412-five-things-to-know-about-the-iran-saudi-deal-brokered-by-china/|access-date=14 March 2023|website=The Hill}}</ref>

Within the first ten years of the BRI, China signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] with every Arab country.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=70}} China describes this as a signal of the Arab countries' recognition of the BRI as "an important international public product and a platform for international cooperation."<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=70}}

=====Medieval Era=====
During the [[Tang dynasty]], when relations with Arabs were first established, the Chinese called Arabs "Dàshí" ({{Lang|zh|大食}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/dashi.html|title=Chinese History – Dashi 大食|author=Ulrich Theobald|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029020558/http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/dashi.html|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://asiecentrale.revues.org/index623.html|title=A century of Chinese research on Islamic Central Asian history in retrospect|journal=Cahiers d'Asie Centrale|issue=9|pages=115–129|author=Yingsheng, Liu|access-date=19 February 2015|date=July 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727215118/http://asiecentrale.revues.org/index623.html|archive-date=27 July 2011}}</ref> In modern Chinese, Dashi means Great Food. The modern term for Arab is "Ālābó" ({{Lang|zh|阿拉伯}}).<ref>{{Cite web|title=English translation of 阿拉伯半岛 ( Alabo Bandao / Ālābó Bàndăo ) – Arabia in Chinese|url=https://dictionary.hantrainerpro.com/chinese-english/translation-alabobandao_arabia.htm|access-date=24 March 2023|website=dictionary.hantrainerpro.com}}</ref>

The Arab Islamic [[Caliph]] [[Uthman Ibn Affan]] (r. 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an.<ref>{{citation|last=Twitchett|first=Denis|editor-last=van de Ven|editor-first=Hans|chapter=Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy|title=Warfare in Chinese History|year=2000|publisher=Koninklijke Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-11774-7|pages=106–179 [125]}}</ref>

Although the Tang Dynasty and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] had [[Battle of Talas|fought at Talas]], on 11 June 758, an [[Abbasid]] embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghurs in order to pay tribute.<ref>{{citation|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|edition=1st paperback|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics|orig-date=1963|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|page=26|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-05462-2}}</ref>

The Caliphate was called "Dàshíguó" ({{Lang|zh|大食國}}).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog|quote=realm caliphs call ta shi kuo.|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog/page/n12 6]|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref>

An Arab envoy presented horses and a girdle to the Chinese in 713, but he refused to pay homage to the Emperor, said, he said "In my country we only bow to God never to a Prince". The first thing the court was going to do was to murder the envoy, however, a minister intervened, saying "a difference in the court etiquette of foreign countries ought not to be considered a crime." A second Arab envoy performed the required rituals and paid homage to the Emperor in 726 A.D. He was gifted with a "purple robe and a girdle".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog|quote=713 envoy appeared from ta shi.|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON|page=[https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog/page/n14 8]|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref>

There was a controversy between the Arab ambassadors and [[Uyghur Khaganate]] ambassadors over who should go first into the Chinese court, they were then guided by the Master of Ceremonies into two different entrances. Three Da shi ambassadors arrived at the Tang court in 198 A.D. A war which was raging between the Arabs and Tibetans from 785 to 804 benefited the Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog|quote=hui ho ambassadors 798 three ta shi ambassadors came.|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON|page=[https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog/page/n16 10]|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref>

According to Professor Samy S. Swayd, [[Fatimid]] missionaries made their [[Dawah]] in China during the reign of [[Al-Aziz Billah]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical dictionary of the Druzes|author=Samy S. Swayd|edition=illustrated|volume=3 of Historical dictionaries of people and cultures|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8108-5332-4|access-date=4 April 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlCHg5EblxEC&q=druze+china&pg=PR41|publisher=Scarecrow Press|quote=The fifth caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah (r.975-996). . . In his time, the Fatimi "Call" or "Mission" (Da'wa) reached as far east as India and northern China.|page=xli}}</ref>

=====Trade=====
In Islamic times Muslims from Arabia traded with China.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/islamicdeskrefer00donz_0|url-access=registration|access-date=26 December 2011|title=Islamic desk reference|year=1994|author=E. J. van Donzel|editor=E. J. van Donzel|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicdeskrefer00donz_0/page/67 67]|isbn=978-90-04-09738-4|quote=China (A. al-Sin):. . .After the coming of Islam, the existing trade was continued by the peoples of the South Arabian coast and the Persian Gulf, but the merchants remained on the coast.}}</ref> For instance, China imported frankincense from southern Arabia via [[Srivijaya]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJibpHfnw94C&pg=PA130|access-date=26 December 2011|title=Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea|year=2010|volume=10 of East Asian Economic and Socio-cultural Studies – East Asian Maritime History|author=Ralph Kauz|editor=Ralph Kauz|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|page=130|isbn=978-3-447-06103-2}}</ref>

=====20th century=====
[[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China]] under the [[Kuomintang]] had established relations with [[Egypt]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] in the 1930s. The Chinese government sponsored students like [[Wang Jingzhai]] and [[Muhammad Ma Jian]] to go the [[Al-Azhar University]] to study. Pilgrims also made the [[Hajj]] to [[Mecca]] from China.<ref name="Masumi">{{cite web|url=http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|title=The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam|last=Masumi|first=Matsumoto|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724054724/http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|archive-date=24 July 2011|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]].<ref name="Masumi" /> The Fuad Muslim Library in China was named after King [[Fuad I of Egypt]] by the [[Hui people|Chinese Muslim]] Ma Songting.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C&q=ma+fuxiang+military+academy&pg=PA251|title=Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication|author1=Stéphane A. Dudoignon|author2=Hisao Komatsu|author3=Yasushi Kosugi|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=251|isbn=978-0-415-36835-3|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> In 1939 [[Isa Yusuf Alptekin]] and Ma Fuliang were sent by the Kuomintang to [[Middle East]]ern countries such as Egypt, [[Turkey]], and [[Syria]] to gain support during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|author1-link=Lin Hsiao-ting|author=Hsiao-ting Lin|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-58264-3|page=90}}</ref>

The Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] cut off diplomatic relations with the Republic of China and established ties with the People's Republic of China in 1956. China accelerated its programme of fostering diplomatic relations throughout the Middle East from 1977 onwards as the country took [[Reform and opening up|a more pragmatic approach]] to geopolitics.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guang |first=Pan |date=Winter 1997 |title=China’s Success in the Middle East |url=https://www.meforum.org/middle-east-quarterly/chinas-success-in-the-middle-east |journal=[[Middle East Forum|Middle East Quarterly]] |volume=4 |issue=1 |access-date=28 October 2025}}</ref> In 1990, Saudi Arabia decided to cut ties with the ROC, with which it had maintained a formal relationship since 1944 (making it Taiwan's longest-standing partner in the Arab world).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Makio |date=April 2015 |title=Islam, Energy, and Development: Taiwan and China in Saudi Arabia, 1949–2013 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44289075 |journal=[[American Journal of Chinese Studies]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=77-98 |access-date=28 October 2025}}</ref> With the Saudi move, all Arab states had come to recognize the People's Republic of China as the legitimate Chinese government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Singh |first=Avaani |date=16 July 2025 |title=Taiwan’s Potential for Defense Cooperation with Middle Eastern Nations |url=https://globaltaiwan.org/2025/07/taiwans-potential-for-defense-cooperation-with-middle-eastern-nations |website=Global Taiwan Institute |access-date=28 October 2025}}</ref>

The relations between China and the [[Arab League]] as an organization officially started in 1956. However, it was in 1993, when the Arab League opened its first office in China, that former Secretary General Essmat Abdel Megeed went to an official visit to Beijing. In 1996, the Chinese leader [[Jiang Zemin]] visited the Arab League headquarters during his passage in [[Cairo]], becoming the first Chinese leader to be hosted by the organization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cascf.org/ara/gyam/zgyamgx/|title=中华人民共和国中阿合作论坛|publisher=Cascf.org|access-date=29 May 2020|archive-date=9 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109035743/http://www.cascf.org/ara/gyam/zgyamgx/}}</ref> China has continued to pay greater attention to the Middle East since the 2000s.<ref name="Atature-2023">{{Cite book|last=Atatüre|first=Süha|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=[[Routledge]]|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=The US and China as Main Powers in Multipolar World Order 2.0|oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40}} With China, Middle Eastern countries benefit from a potential investment source and long-term buyer of oil and gas without the political complications that come with dealing with the [[United States]].<ref name="Atature-2023" />{{Rp|page=40}}

After the [[Arab Spring]], the consensus of Chinese foreign policymakers and academics was that China should be more actively involved in the region's security mechanisms to better safeguard Chinese [[Expatriate|expats]] and commercial interests in the region.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=23}}

===== China-Arab States Cooperation Forum =====
The core political norms that China advocates within CASCF are its [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]]: mutual respect for territory and sovereignty, mutual nonaggression, mutual noninterference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful co-existence.<ref name="Murphy-2022">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=59|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> These principles are a conservative interpretation of the [[Westphalian sovereignty|Westphalian norms]] of state sovereignty.<ref name="Murphy-2022" />

The most prominent political issue advocated through CASCF is a Middle East peace process aimed at resolving the [[Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab-Israeli conflict]] (including the territorial disputes that Lebanon and Syria each have with Israel).<ref name="Murphy-2022a">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=61|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> Other issues which have emerged following the Arab Spring include the [[Syrian civil war]], and issues in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, Sudan, and Somalia.<ref name="Murphy-2022a" /> In recent years, CASCF documents have noted Arab states' support for China's approach in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|date=2022|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=270|oclc=1249712936}}</ref>

In the opening ceremony of the Forum in 2004, Chinese foreign minister [[Li Zhaoxing]] said that the [[Arab world]] is an important force in the international arena, and that China and Arab countries enjoy a time-honored friendship, remarking "Similar histories, common objectives and wide-ranging shared interests have enabled the two sides to strengthen cooperation," he said. "No matter how the international situation changes, China has always been the sincere friend of the Arab world."<ref>{{Cite web|title=1st Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum Ministerial Meeting Held|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2004/Sep/107188.htm|access-date=8 December 2021|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>

"The PRC has submitted four proposals. First, maintaining mutual respect, equitable treatment and sincere cooperation on the political front. Second, promoting economic and trade ties through cooperation in investment, trade, contracted projects, labor service, energy, transportation, telecommunications, agriculture, environmental protection and information. Third, expanding cultural exchanges. Finally, conducting personnel training," he said. 
Arab foreign ministers attending the meeting agreed that the formal inauguration of the forum was a significant event in the history of Arab ties with China. They submitted a variety of proposals on promoting Sino-Arab friendship and cooperation. 
At the conclusion of the meeting, Li and Arab League Secretary General [[Amr Moussa]] signed a declaration and an action plan for the forum. 
Li arrived in [[Cairo]] on Sunday evening for a three-day visit to Egypt, the last leg of a [[Middle East]] tour that has taken him to Saudi Arabia, [[Yemen]] and [[Oman]].{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

=====The Joint Communiqué=====
One of the major Joint Projects involves the Environment, the AL and PRC signed the Executive Program of the Joint Communiqué between the Environmental Cooperation for 2008–2009{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

The League of Arab States and the Government of People's Republic of China signed the Joint Communiqué on Environmental Cooperation (referred to as the Joint Communiqué) on 1 June 2006. The Joint Communiqué is an important instrument that aims to deepen the regional environmental partnership between the two parties. Since the signing of the Joint Communiqué, the [[Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China|Chinese Ministry of Commerce]] and the [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China|Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection]] have co-organized two environmental protection training courses in June 2006 and June 2007 respectively, in China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bricspolicycenter.org/en/forum-de-cooperacao-china-paises-arabes/|title=China Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF)}}</ref>

This treaty was signed by Arab Ambassador [[Ahmed Benhelli]] Under secretary general Am Moussa's Approval, and [[Xu Qinghua]] Director General Department for International Cooperation, Ministry of Environmental Protection.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arableagueonline.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720072016/http://www.arableagueonline.org/las/arabic/details_ar.jsp?art_id=5057&level_id=725|title=Arab League – Sportwetten – Beste Singlebörsen im Vergleich|archive-date=20 July 2011|website=Arab League – Sportwetten – Beste Singlebörsen im Vergleich}}</ref>

====West Asia====
In 2016, Xi Jinping stated that China would take a "Three Nos" position towards the Middle East: (1) not seeking proxies, (2) not seeking spheres of influence, and (3) not seeking to fill a power vacuum.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Chuchu |title=China's Changing Role in the Middle East: Filling a Power Vacuum? |date=2025 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-032-76275-3 |series=Changing Dynamics in Asia-Middle East Relations series |location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=6-7}}

China proposes "peace through development" in the Middle East, an approach that Xi articulated during a visit to [[Arab League]] headquarters.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=56}} This approach proposes that sustainable peace in the Middle East requires comprehensive development initiatives.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=56}} Chinese narratives of peace through development in the Middle East cite the fact that attempts by outside actors to create prosperity through the development of democratic institutions in Iraq and Afghanistan failed.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=56}}

China frames its economic cooperation with the Middle East countries as part of [[South–South cooperation|South-South cooperation]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=57}} It seeks to differentiate its economic cooperation from that of Western powers by emphasizing China's lack of political conditionality in its economic cooperation with the region.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=57}} Among the platforms for development of economic ties is the annual China-Arab States Expo in [[Yinchuan]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=176}}

===== Iran =====
{{main|China–Iran relations}}

{{Flagicon|Iran}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Turkey=====
{{main|China–Turkey relations}}

{{Flagicon|Turkey}}{{Flagicon|China}}

====Central Asia====
{{Main|China–Kazakhstan relations|China–Kyrgyzstan relations|China–Tajikistan relations|China–Turkmenistan relations|China–Uzbekistan relations}}

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the newly independent Central Asian countries inherited the border disagreements with China, which had themselves been inherited from czarist Russia and the Qing dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peyrouse|first=Sebastien|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=218|chapter=China and Central Asia|oclc=939553543}}</ref> In the years after the independence of the Central Asian countries, China negotiated bilaterally to resolve its borders with them individually.<ref name="Peyrouse-2016">{{Cite book|last=Peyrouse|first=Sebastien|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=233|chapter=China and Central Asia|oclc=939553543}}</ref> Ultimately, China obtained territory significantly less than it had originally claimed.<ref name="Peyrouse-2016" /> Resolution of these disputes on territorial terms generally favorable to the Central Asian countries created goodwill for China, avoided conflict, and also resulted in recognition that the czarist era borders were imposed unjustly on China.<ref name="Peyrouse-2016" />

Access to energy and natural resources are important priorities for China in its Central Asian relations.<ref name="Alfred-2023">{{Cite book|last=Alfred|first=Gerstl|title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower?|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2023|isbn=978-1-03-239508-1|editor-last=Kironska|editor-first=Kristina|chapter=China in its Immediate Neighborhood|editor-last2=Turscanyi|editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=215}} China is one of the main energy partners of the Central Asian countries.<ref name="Pron-2023">{{Cite book|last=Proń|first=Elżbieta|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=[[Routledge]]|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=China in Central Asia: New Developments in 2013-2021|oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|page=94}} Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields,<ref name="Alfred-2023" />{{Rp|page=215}} China and [[Kazakhstan]] have constructed an [[Kazakhstan–China oil pipeline|oil pipeline from Kazakhstan to China]] and are planning to construct a natural gas pipeline. In [[Tajikistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]], China has invested in hydroelectric projects.<ref name="Pron-2023" />{{Rp|page=94}}

China also seeks to improve land connections with Eurasia through its relations with the Central Asian countries.<ref name="Alfred-2023" />{{Rp|page=215}} [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|General Secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]] has called China's efforts to build trade links that extend through Central Asia to the Middle East a New [[Silk Road]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chen|first1=Yo-Jung|date=15 January 2014|title=China's Westward Strategy|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/chinas-westward-strategy/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117211640/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/chinas-westward-strategy/|archive-date=17 January 2014|access-date=18 January 2014|website=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]}}</ref> In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries.

The [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]], of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power.<ref>[[YaleGlobal Online]] [http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=4930 Central Asia: China's Mounting Influence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410163921/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=4930|date=10 April 2009}}</ref> The [[terrorist attacks of 11 September]] changed China's view of Central Asia, causing China to pay increasing attention to potential concerns of terrorism, separatism, and extremism arising from the region.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Huasheng|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|pages=173–174|chapter=Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking|oclc=939553543}}</ref> One of China's main interests in Central Asia therefore is stability in Xinjiang, which shares a border with three Central Asian countries.<ref name="Alfred-2023" />{{Rp|page=215}} The Central Asian countries cooperate with China in suppressing support for separatist groups like the [[Turkistan Islamic Party|East Turkestan Islamic Movement]].<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=116}} Following the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|invasion of Afghanistan by the United States]] and the increased involvement of Russia in the region, China's foreign policy makers began to view the Central Asia as both an area for cooperation and competition between major powers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Huasheng|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=174|chapter=Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking|oclc=939553543}}</ref>

[[China plus Central Asia]] (also depicted as China + Central Asia; C+C5) is a meeting of the Foreign Ministers' of China and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. It was started in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hashimova|first=Umida|date=20 July 2020|title=China Launches 5+1 Format Meetings With Central Asia|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/china-launches-51-format-meetings-with-central-asia/|access-date=16 June 2021|website=The Diplomat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=20 May 2021|title=China and Central Asia: Bilateral Trade Relationships and Future Outlook|url=https://www.china-briefing.com/news/china-and-central-asia-bilateral-trade-relationships-and-future-outlook/|access-date=16 June 2021|website=China Briefing News}}</ref> In 2023, Xi Jinping and leaders of the five Central Asian countries held the [[China-Central Asia Summit]] in [[Xi'an]], and the summit resulted in 54 agreements, 19 new cooperation mechanisms and platforms, and nine multilateral documents.<ref>{{cite web|date=24 May 2023|author=Stefan Wolff|url=https://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035|title=How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west|work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref>

====East Asia====
As of 2022, the general trend is that China and the other East Asian countries have increased their ties with each other, especially in economic matters and in conducting joint military exercises.<ref name=":Ma&Kang">{{Cite book|last1=Ma|first1=Xinru|title=Beyond Power Transitions: The Lessons of East Asian History and the Future of U.S.-China Relations|last2=Kang|first2=David C.|date=2024|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|isbn=978-0-231-55597-5|series=Columbia Studies in International Order and Politics|location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=173–175}} Trade with China comprised 39% of all East Asia regional trade as of 2020.<ref name=":Ma&Kang" />{{Rp|page=171}}

=====Japan=====
{{main|Sino–Japanese relations|History of Sino-Japanese relations}}

Having fought two wars against Japan ([[First Sino-Japanese War|1894–95]] and [[Second Sino-Japanese War|1937–45]]), China's long-standing concern about the level of Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's refusal to present a full version of the [[Japanese history textbook controversies|atrocities of World War II in its textbooks]] is a perennial issue.  The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its [[World War II|wartime]] past to the satisfaction of China. [[Historical revisionism|Revisionist]] comments made by prominent Japanese officials and some Japanese history textbooks regarding the 1937 [[Nanjing Massacre]] have been a focus of particular controversy. Sino-Japanese relations warmed considerably after [[Shinzō Abe]] became the [[Prime Minister of Japan]] in September 2006, and a joint historical study conducted by China and Japan released a report in 2010 which pointed toward a new consensus on the issue of [[Japanese war crimes]].<ref name="Ref_ac">[https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/09/nanjing_by_the_numbers ''Nanjing by the Numbers''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024071131/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/09/nanjing_by_the_numbers |date=24 October 2014 }}. Foreign Policy. 9 February 2010.</ref> However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable [[rare earth element]]s.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/mining/7970872/Backlash-over-China-curb-on-metal-exports.html "Backlash over the alleged China curb on metal exports"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415150316/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/mining/7970872/Backlash-over-China-curb-on-metal-exports.html |date=15 April 2018 }}. ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', London, 29 August 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.</ref>

=====North Korea=====
{{main|China–North Korea relations|History of Sino-Korean relations}}

{{Flagicon|North Korea}}{{Flagicon|China}}

[[File:North Korea - China friendship (5578914865).jpg|thumb|240px|The close China-DPRK relationship is celebrated at the [[Arirang Festival|Mass Games]] in Pyongyang, 2010]]China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "[[six-party talks]]" (North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan, the U.S., and China) to resolve tensions on the [[Korean Peninsula]]. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ASEAN countries and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as [[China's peaceful rise]]. On 15 November 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development.  Hu's critics say that his government was overly aggressive in asserting its new power, overestimated its reach, and raised the ire of the United States and its allies who are close in proximity to China, such as India, and Japan.<ref name="econo">{{cite news|date=19 November 2011|title=America in the Asia-Pacific: We're back|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2011/11/19/were-back|url-status=live|access-date=2 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101111329/http://www.economist.com/node/21538803|archive-date=1 January 2012}}</ref>

=====South Korea=====
{{main|China–South Korea relations}}

Diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China and [[South Korea]] were formally established on 24 August 1992.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2|location=Stanford, California|page=69|oclc=1332788951}}</ref> Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s the PRC recognized only North Korea while South Korea in turn recognized only the [[Republic of China]] in Taiwan. South Korea was the last Asian country to establish relations with the People's Republic of China. In recent years, China and South Korea have endeavored to boost their strategic and cooperative partnership in numerous sectors, as well as promoting high level relationship. Trade, tourism and multiculturalism, in specific, have been the most important factors of strengthening two neighbouring countries cooperative partnership.<ref name="Jung-2020">{{Cite journal|last=Jung|first=H. Pak|author-link=Jung H. Pak|date=July 2020|title=Trying to loosen the linchpin: China's approach to South Korea|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/FP_20200606_china_south_korea_pak_v2.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Global China|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030214819/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/FP_20200606_china_south_korea_pak_v2.pdf|archive-date=30 October 2020|via=Brookings.edu}}</ref>

While the dispute of [[THAAD]] had initiated conflicts between the two countries in various sectors, at the end of October 2017, the two countries ended the 1-year-long diplomatic dispute and have been working swiftly to get their relationship back on track since, strengthening exchanges and cooperation between each other, creating harmony of interests, and agreed to resume exchanges and cooperation in all areas. All economic and cultural bans from China towards South Korea were also lifted as a result, with political and security cooperation, businesses and cultural exchanges between the two countries getting back to healthy state.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Upon resumption of relationship, China and South Korea have been organizing presidential and governmental visits, working together on the Korean Peninsula, assisting with the development of other countries, and cooperating in numerous areas.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

====South Asia====
China's current trade volume with all [[South Asia]]n nations reaches close to $187.554 billion a year.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0282167|doi-access=free|title=A study on the belt and road initiative's trade and its influencing factors: Evidence of China-South Asia's panel data|year=2023|last1=Zhou|first1=Ling|last2=Mao|first2=Yanghai|last3=Fu|first3=Qinyi|last4=Xu|first4=Danlu|last5=Zhou|first5=Jiaqi|last6=Zeng|first6=Shaolong|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=18|issue=4|article-number=e0282167|pmid=37058500|pmc=10104349|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1882167Z}}</ref>

Beijing runs trade surpluses with many partners, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, Chinese Authorities have helped Pakistan establish nuclear power plants of its own to meet its nuclear needs, which officially consist primarily of energy requirements, although, as per certain perspectives, this could be used for Pakistani and Chinese military, quite possibly defence, purposes. China also lends to and invests in South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal<ref>UCLA Asia Institute [http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=23468 China's March on South Asia] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416183745/http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=23468 |date=16 April 2014 }}</ref>

=====Bangladesh=====
{{main|Bangladesh–China relations}}

{{Flagicon|Bangladesh}}{{Flagicon|China}}

Early relations with the People's Republic of China were cold due to China's veto at the United Nations Security Council to block Bangladesh's accession to the United Nations. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors. Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the [[Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement]] (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favor. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bangladesh, Pakistan Team Up With China on Space Cooperation|url=http://www.physorg.com/news7697.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330072007/http://www.physorg.com/news7697.html|archive-date=30 March 2012|access-date=19 February 2015|website=[[Phys.org]]}}</ref>

=====India=====
{{main|Foreign relations of India#China|China–India relations}}

{{Flagicon|India}}{{Flagicon|China}}

[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru Trust Port.jpg|thumb|A Chinese container ship unloads cargo at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port]] in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries surpassed US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single largest trading partner of India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=39431|title=Indo-China trade to surpass $60 bn before 2010|work=Business Standard|date=6 June 2008|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006140815/http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=39431|archive-date=6 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], 1967 [[Nathu La and Cho La clashes]] and continuing boundary disputes over [[Ladakh]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-kashmir-idUSKBN1XA0M9|title=India, China clash over Kashmir as it loses special status and is divided|date=31 October 2019|work=Reuters|last1=Bukhari|first1=Zeba Siddiqui}}</ref> Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations.<ref>John W.  Garver,  ''Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century'' (2001), post 1950</ref>

A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, General Secretary [[Jiang Zemin]] visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from China. However, in June 1999, during the [[Kargil War|Kargil]] crisis, then-External Affairs Minister [[Jaswant Singh]] visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between China and India were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from [[Tibet]] to India of the 17th [[Karmapa]] in January 2000 with delicacy and tact.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India.<ref>{{cite news|author=Saibal Dasgupta|date=17 January 2008|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2706372,prtpage-1.cms|title=China is India's largest trade ally – International Business – Biz|work=The Times of India|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024093515/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2706372,prtpage-1.cms|archive-date=24 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The increasing economic reliance between China and India has also brought the two nations closer politically, with both China and India eager to resolve their boundary dispute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668|title=news.outlookindia.com|publisher=Outlookindia.com|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050425231736/http://outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668|archive-date=25 April 2005}}</ref> They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]'s [[Doha Development Round|Doha round]] in 2008<ref>{{cite news|date=29 July 2008|title=US blames India, China for blocking Doha talks|work=[[Business Standard]]|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=329920|url-status=live|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331142407/http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=329920|archive-date=31 March 2012}}</ref> to regional free trade agreement.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2798864,prtpage-1.cms|title=India, China to work on FTA recommendations- Foreign Trade-Economy-News|work=The Economic Times|date=20 February 2008|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522033948/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2798864,prtpage-1.cms|archive-date=22 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Similar to [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement|Indo-US nuclear deal]], China and India have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/15/stories/2008011555490100.htm|title=Front Page: India, China to promote cooperation in civil nuclear energy|date=15 January 2008|access-date=21 November 2009|location=Chennai, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105061635/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/15/stories/2008011555490100.htm|archive-date=5 November 2012|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest investors in Africa<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30143539_ITM|title=Article: India, China top Asian FDI list in Africa. &#124; AccessMyLibrary – Promoting library advocacy|publisher=AccessMyLibrary|date=28 March 2007|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135056/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30143539_ITM|archive-date=16 December 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> and have competed for control over its large natural resources.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200711160462.html Africa: China's Africa Overture Needs Common Touch] [[AllAfrica]] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010204148/http://allafrica.com/stories/200711160462.html|date=10 October 2012}}, 16 November 2007</ref>
China and India agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shukla|first=Saurabh|date=15 December 2010|title=Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao arrives in India, trade tops agenda|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/chinese-pm-s-india-visit/business/story/chinese-premier-wen-jiabao-arrives-in-india-trade-tops-agenda-87155-2010-12-15|access-date=3 May 2021|website=India Today}}</ref>

After years of competition, general distrust between the two, and several border conflicts, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most populous states stabilized, only for relations to suffer a massive hit in the late 2010s due to multiple border standoffs that resulted in deaths on both sides. While both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years, and China became India's largest trading partner in 2010, there is increasing unease in India regarding the perceived Chinese advantage in their trade relationship. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. The dispute over [[Aksai Chin]] (formerly a part of the Indian territory of [[Ladakh]]) and [[South Tibet]] (China) or [[Arunachal Pradesh]] (India) is not settled and plagues Sino-Indian relations. While New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival [[Pakistan]] and neighboring [[Bangladesh]], Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the U.S.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 August 2007 |title=Japan courts India to counter China: Analysts |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/Japan_courts_India_to_counter_China_Analysts/articleshow/2305041.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126115232/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/Japan_courts_India_to_counter_China_Analysts/articleshow/2305041.cms |archive-date=26 January 2009 |access-date=25 August 2007 |work=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=24 August 2007 |title=Wargame with India not to put China in a closet: US admiral |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200708240333.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102071341/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200708240333.htm |archive-date=2 November 2012 |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

Bilateral relations between the two became strained due to the [[2017 China–India border standoff|2017 Doklam standoff]] and then later by the [[2020–2021 China–India skirmishes]]. Relations were further strained by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Three Things to Know About China-India Tensions |url=https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/10/three-things-know-about-china-india-tensions |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020233341/https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/10/three-things-know-about-china-india-tensions |archive-date=20 October 2023 |access-date=26 October 2023 |website=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref>

=====Pakistan=====
{{main|Foreign relations of Pakistan|China–Pakistan relations}}

{{see also|China–Pakistan Economic Corridor}}
{{Flagicon|Pakistan}}{{Flagicon|China}}

Pakistan and China have enjoyed strong relations, which encompass military, economic and diplomatic ties, since the 1960s.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last=Nasser Amin|year=2019|title=The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present|url=https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53|access-date=10 May 2020|publisher=Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies, p51|publication-place=London Churchill College|archive-date=16 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716130610/https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53}}</ref> UK scholar Nasser Amin considers the Sino-Pak entente to be a special kind of relationship in the post-war global system, since there are no natural ties or affinities of culture, religion or ideology that have existed between Islamabad and Beijing; rather, the close relationship appears to substantiate a fundamental premise of the [[Neorealism (international relations)|Neo-Realist school of IR thought]]: namely, that states join in alliance with other states on the basis of power considerations, in this case a shared hostility to India.<ref name="auto" />

The [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor]] (CPEC) is a collection of infrastructure projects that are currently under construction throughout Pakistan.<ref>[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2997650 China Pakistan Economic Corridor.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603013419/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2997650 |date=3 June 2018 }}{{cite news|title=China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales|first1=Tom|last1=Hussain|newspaper=[[McClatchy News]]|date=19 April 2015|location=Islamabad|publisher=mcclatchydc}}</ref><ref name="Kiani">{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1287040|title=With a new Chinese loan, CPEC is now worth $62bn|newspaper=Dawn|location=Pakistan|date=30 September 2016|access-date=19 November 2016|first=Khaleeq|last=Kiani|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930033525/http://www.dawn.com/news/1287040|archive-date=30 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> CPEC is intended to rapidly modernize Pakistani infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and [[special economic zone]]s.<ref name="Kiani" /><ref>{{cite web|date=23 November 2016|title=CPEC: The devil is not in the details|url=http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153597/cpec-the-devil-is-not-in-the-details|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123090242/http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153597/cpec-the-devil-is-not-in-the-details|archive-date=23 November 2016|access-date=23 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/846370/economic-corridor-chinese-official-sets-record-straight/|title=Economic corridor: Chinese official sets record straight|date=2 March 2015|newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]]|access-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303061541/http://tribune.com.pk/story/846370/economic-corridor-chinese-official-sets-record-straight/|archive-date=3 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mcclatchydc">{{cite news|title=China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales|first1=Tom|last1=Hussain|newspaper=[[McClatchy News]]|date=19 April 2015|location=Islamabad|publisher=mcclatchydc}}</ref> The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting [[Kashgar]] to [[Khunjerab Pass|Khunjerab]] and [[Gwadar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/|title=Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier's go-ahead|date=16 August 2013|access-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924152121/https://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/|archive-date=24 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with Pakistan as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty-free export zone ([[Sust]] Dry Port) in Pakistan's [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of [[Gwadar Port]] – the country's 3rd most major port,<ref>[http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=8801&geo=2&theme=6&size=A {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929133910/http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=8801&geo=2&theme=6&size=A |date=29 September 2007 }} PAKISTAN – CHINA Chinese-funded port in [[Baluchistan, Pakistan]] to give Beijing direct access to the Middle East</ref> timber transhipments from Mozambique, as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IB24Df02.html|title=South Asia news: China-Pakistan rail link on horizon|access-date=21 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522132551/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IB24Df02.html|archive-date=22 May 2011}}</ref>
Trade and goodwill between Pakistan and China are relatively strong due to the bordered Muslims area of [[Xinjiang]], who used Pakistan as a transit to [[Mecca|Mecca/Makkah]] for pilgrimage. [[Pakistani]] students often go to China to study while Chinese workers come to Pakistan to work on infrastructure projects. Pakistan ceded a portion of [[Kashmir]] in the 1960s. They also share the [[Karakoram Highway]], one of the highest paved roads in the world. Pakistani and Chinese authorities collaborated on everything from nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

=====Sri Lanka=====
{{main|China–Sri Lanka relations}}

{{Flagicon|Sri Lanka}}{{Flagicon|China}}

====Southeast Asia====
{{see also|Bamboo network}}
China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent [[sphere of influence]]. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China – politically, economically, and militarily.<ref>[http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2005hearings/written_testimonies/05_07_21_22wrts/ott_marvin_wrts.pdf China's Strategic Reach Into Southeast Asia] [[US-China Commission]], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723191529/http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2005hearings/written_testimonies/05_07_21_22wrts/ott_marvin_wrts.pdf|date=23 July 2006}}</ref> China's [[Chinese economic reform|transformation]] into a [[Chinese Century|major economic power]] in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments in the [[bamboo network]], a network of [[overseas Chinese]] businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.<ref name="FT2">{{cite news|last=Quinlan|first=Joe|title=Insight: China's capital targets Asia's bamboo network|url=https://www.ft.com/content/67554d8a-920f-11dc-8981-0000779fd2ac|newspaper=Financial Times|date=13 November 2007|access-date=30 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423172454/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/67554d8a-920f-11dc-8981-0000779fd2ac.html|archive-date=23 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Weidenbaum">{{cite book|author=Murray L Weidenbaum|title=The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1996|publisher=Martin Kessler Books, Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-82289-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid/page/4 4]–8|access-date=15 November 2015}}</ref>

Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Malayan Communist Party]] during the [[Malayan Emergency|first]] and [[Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–89)|second]] communist insurgencies in [[Malaysia]], as well as the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] and [[30 September Movement]] in Indonesia. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the [[Sukarno]] government broke off in 1967, and were not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia were not established until 1974 and in 2015 Malaysia reached a status of comprehensive strategic partnership with China. China's invasion of [[Vietnam]] resulted in the [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] and other border conflicts; this war caused long-lasting animosity within Vietnam against China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Path|first=Kosal|date=3 July 2018|title=The Duality of Vietnam's Deference and Resistance to China|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09592296.2018.1491449|journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft|publication-place=[[Brooklyn College]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=499–521|doi=10.1080/09592296.2018.1491449|issn=0959-2296|s2cid=158561213|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Relations between the two states were only normalized in 1991 as Vietnam's closest ally, the Soviet Union, collapsed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Robert S.|author-link=Robert S. Ross|date=4 July 2021|title=China-Vietnamese Relations in the Era of Rising China: Power, Resistance, and Maritime Conflict|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary China]]|volume=30|issue=130|pages=613–629|doi=10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737|issn=1067-0564|s2cid=230609101|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Today, Vietnam and China have a healthy trade relationship, though tensions persist over the countries' boundaries in the South China Sea, among other disputes. Despite China's support of the [[Pol Pot]]'s [[Khmer Rouge]] regime in [[Cambodia]], which lasted long after its deposition, China enjoys a harmonious relationship with Cambodia. This relationship includes strong military and economic ties, with Cambodia defending China on the global stage; Cambodia's government has weak popular support, opening it to coercion by the Chinese government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Sung Chull|date=1 December 2019|title=China and Its Neighbors: Asymmetrical Economies and Vulnerability to Coercion|url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S1013251119500073|journal=Issues & Studies|volume=55|issue=4|page=1950007|doi=10.1142/S1013251119500073|s2cid=214499088|issn=1013-2511|url-access=subscription}}</ref> China's relationship with [[Singapore]] is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country, starting 17 April 2011.<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/90001/98649/7343316.html "China-Singapore visa-free agreement to take effect in April"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010063152/http://english.people.com.cn/90001/98649/7343316.html |date=10 October 2012 }} ''People's Daily'', 7 April 2011.</ref>

China is the largest trading partner of nearly all the Southeast Asian countries and one of the region's main sources of [[foreign direct investment]].<ref name=":Han">{{Cite book|last=Han|first=Enze|title=The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia|date=2024|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-769659-0|location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40}} Over the course of 2008 to 2009, China became the largest trading partner of ASEAN.<ref name=":Han" />{{Rp|page=40}}

==== Cambodia ====
{{main|Cambodia–China relations}}

{{Flagicon|Cambodia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Indonesia ====
{{main|China–Indonesia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Indonesia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Malaysia ====
{{main|China–Malaysia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Malaysia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Myanmar ====
{{main|China–Myanmar relations}}

{{Flagicon|Myanmar}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Philippines ====
{{main|China–Philippines relations}}

{{Flagicon|Philippines}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Singapore ====
{{main|China–Singapore relations}}

{{Flagicon|Singapore}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Thailand ====
{{main|China–Thailand relations}}

{{Flagicon|Thailand}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Vietnam ====
{{main|China–Vietnam relations}}

{{Flagicon|Vietnam}}{{Flagicon|China}}

===Europe===
{{see also|China–European Union relations}}
Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, were generally friendly in the early 21st century, with close political and trade relations with the [[European Union]] nations being a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s.

China's relationship with the Central and Eastern European Countries was generally limited during the Cold War period due to the Sino-Soviet Split and the Warsaw Pact membership of these countries.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Garlick|first=Jeremy|title=Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption|date=2024|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]]|isbn=978-1-350-25231-8}}</ref>{{Rp|page=138}} Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, these countries distanced themselves from their communist pasts and oriented towards the European Union.<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=138}} China's interest in Central and Eastern Europe has grown since most of those countries joined the European Union in 2004 because of the Chinese view that partnering with those countries would help Chinese economic integration with Europe more broadly.<ref name="Arezina-2023">{{Cite book|last=Arezina|first=Sanja|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=[[Routledge]]|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=China's Relations with Central and Eastern European Countries in a Multipolar World Order 2.0|oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|page=160}} After the [[2008 financial crisis]] caused capital investment by traditional European economic powers to fall, China established a significant presence in Central European and Eastern European markets.<ref name="Arezina-2023" />{{Rp|page=160}} Cooperation further increased following the institution of the [[Cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European Countries|16+1 mechanism]] in 2012.<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=138}} Generally, China's foreign relations are weaker in Central and Eastern Europe than other developing regions.<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=139}}

In the late 2010s, Europe took a more cautioned approach towards China, referring to the country as a "systemic rival" beginning in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last=von der Burchard|first=Hans|date=12 March 2019|title=EU slams China as 'systemic rival' as trade tension rises|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-slams-china-as-systemic-rival-as-trade-tension-rises/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002112737/https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-slams-china-as-systemic-rival-as-trade-tension-rises//|archive-date=2 October 2020|access-date=19 July 2020|website=[[Politico Europe]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 March 2019|title=Brussels officially labels China a 'systemic rival'|website=New Europe|url=https://www.neweurope.eu/article/brussels-officially-labels-china-a-systemic-rival/|access-date=19 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230035155/https://www.neweurope.eu/article/brussels-officially-labels-china-a-systemic-rival/|archive-date=30 December 2020}}</ref> The [[Comprehensive Agreement on Investment]], an investment agreement first proposed in 2013 and completed in 2020, was halted before its ratification after the [[European Commission]] announced plans in 2021 to reduce dependence on China in strategic areas of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=30 December 2020|title=EU and China reach agreement in principle on investment|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_2541|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113054629/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2541|archive-date=13 January 2021|access-date=20 January 2021|publisher=European Commission|quote="The EU and China have today concluded in principle the negotiations for a Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI). This deal follows a call between Chinese President Xi Jinping and European Commission President von der Leyen, European Council President Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel on behalf of the Presidency of the EU Council, as well as French President Emmanuel Macron."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Siebold|first1=Sabine|last2=Blenkinsop|first2=Philip|date=5 May 2021|title=EU puts up guard to Chinese firms, cools on trade deal|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/eu-executive-slows-push-china-investment-deal-2021-05-05/|access-date=6 May 2021}}</ref>

The European Union has been China's most reliable partner with regard to clean energy and addressing [[climate change]].<ref name="Lewis-2023">{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=Joanna I.|title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector|date=2023|publisher=The [[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0-262-54482-5|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>{{Rp|page=52}}
==== Finland ====
{{main|China–Finland relations}}

{{Flagicon|Finland}}{{Flagicon|China}}
* China has an embassy in [[Helsinki]].
* Finland has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Hong Kong and Shanghai.
==== France ====
{{main|China–France relations}}

{{Flagicon|France}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Italy ====
{{main|China–Italy relations}}

{{Flagicon|Italy}}{{Flagicon|China}}

In March 2019, during Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]]'s visit to [[Italy]], [[China]] signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] on China's [[Belt and Road Initiative|Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)]] with Italy. Additionally, with this memorandum, Italy became the only G7 country to join the BRI.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 July 2023|title=Italy's decision on China's Belt and Road Initiative and beyond|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/china-belt-and-road-italy-trade/}}</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{main|Sino-Russian relations since 1991}}

{{Flagicon|Russia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

The end of the long-held animosity between [[Moscow]] and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the [[Soviet Union]], China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of [[military technology]] for China, as well as for [[raw material]]s and [[trade]]. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the U.S.

==== Ukraine ====
{{Main|China–Ukraine relations|China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

As part of the Soviet Union, [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]] recognized the PRC in October 1949.<ref name="China-2009">[http://www.unian.net/eng/news/news-343479.html China, Ukraine agree to enhance cooperation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030155622/http://unian.net/eng/news/news-343479.html|date=30 October 2009}}, [[Ukrainian Independent Information Agency]] (28 October 2009)</ref> After [[1991 Ukrainian independence referendum|Ukraine gained independence]] from the Soviet Union in 1991, the two countries built formal diplomatic relations in 1992,<ref name="China-2009" /> and declared a strategic partnership in 2011.<ref name="Institut Montaigne-2022">{{Cite web|date=9 February 2022|title=The China-Ukraine Partnership: Surviving a Deteriorating Strategic Environment|url=https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/blog/china-ukraine-partnership-surviving-deteriorating-strategic-environment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302044103/https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/blog/china-ukraine-partnership-surviving-deteriorating-strategic-environment|archive-date=2 March 2022|access-date=2 March 2022|website=[[Institut Montaigne]]}}</ref>

During the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], China abstained in the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2623|related UN Security Council votes]] condemning Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|last=牛弹琴|date=4 March 2022|title=联大谴责俄罗斯 为什么这35个国家投了弃权票？|trans-title=The UN General Assembly condemns Russia. Why did these 35 countries abstain from voting?|url=https://news.ifeng.com/c/8E5esEzsqyL|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705133920/https://i.ifeng.com/c/8E5esEzsqyL|archive-date=5 July 2022|publisher=[[Phoenix Television]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Nichols|first1=Michelle|last2=Pamuk|first2=Humeyra|date=26 February 2022|title=Russia vetoes U.N. Security action on Ukraine as China abstains|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-vetoes-un-security-action-ukraine-china-abstains-2022-02-25/|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324064829/https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-vetoes-un-security-action-ukraine-china-abstains-2022-02-25/|archive-date=24 March 2022}}</ref> The Ukrainian embassy issued a statement in Chinese condemning Russia on [[Sina Weibo|Weibo]], which drew over 300 million views in a day.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vincent Ni|date=22 February 2022|title=Ukraine crisis poses dilemma for China but also opportunity|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/22/ukraine-crisis-poses-dilemma-for-china-but-also-opportunity|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302193058/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/22/ukraine-crisis-poses-dilemma-for-china-but-also-opportunity|archive-date=2 March 2022|access-date=2 March 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Chinese company [[NetEase]] has published anti-war videos from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2022|title=乌克兰华人接到噩耗痛哭：好朋友为国牺牲，同学弟弟奔赴战场|trans-title=Ukrainian Chinese cried bitterly after receiving the bad news: good friends sacrificed for the country, classmates and younger brothers rushed to the battlefield|url=https://www.163.com/v/video/VC0A51VMK.html|website=[[NetEase]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2022|title=西安生活7年的乌克兰留学生发声引热议：俄没资格为乌做决定|trans-title=A Ukrainian student who has lived in Xi'an for 7 years speaks out: Russia is not qualified to make decisions for Ukraine|url=https://www.163.com/v/video/VC0A51RTB.html|website=[[NetEase]]}}</ref> However, Beijing's failure to criticise Russia increased local hostility towards stranded Chinese in Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hille|first=Kathrin|date=2 March 2022|title=Chinese people stranded in Kyiv become target of Ukrainian anger|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/af0dbe39-e31a-4db0-8ea9-6e0cb842f7b4|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302003554/https://www.ft.com/content/af0dbe39-e31a-4db0-8ea9-6e0cb842f7b4|archive-date=2 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2022|title=中国网友不当言论引起乌克兰"排华浪潮"？我驻乌大使馆"跑路"？警惕流言，擦亮双眼！_政务_澎湃新闻|url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_16877818|website=[[The Paper (newspaper)|The Paper]]}}</ref>

In September 2022, [[Li Zhanshu]], the [[Orders of precedence in China|third highest-ranking member]] of the [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Politburo Standing Committee]], told a group of Russian legislators that the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] "understands and supports Russia...on the situation in Ukraine".<ref name="Ramzy-2022">{{Cite news|last=Ramzy|first=Austin|date=11 September 2022|title=Russia says that a senior Chinese official expressed support for the invasion of Ukraine.|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/11/world/russia-says-that-a-senior-chinese-official-expressed-support-for-the-invasion-of-ukraine.html|access-date=11 September 2022|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
{{Main|China–United Kingdom relations}}

[[File:Prime Minister Keir Starmer attends the G20 Summit in Brazil (54147616322).jpg|thumb|right|[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Keir Starmer]] with [[President of China|Chinese President]] [[Xi Jinping]] at a [[2024 G20 Rio de Janeiro summit|G20 summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]], November 2024.]]
China established [[Foreign relations of the United Kingdom|diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom]] on 17 June 1954. The United Kingdom was the first major Western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.<ref name="britain"/>
*China maintains an [[Embassy of China, London|embassy]] in [[London]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Diplomat Magazine|title=China|website=Diplomat Magazine|date=16 May 2018|url=https://diplomatmagazine.com/heads-of-mission/middle-east-asia/china/|access-date=21 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250314174301/https://diplomatmagazine.com/heads-of-mission/middle-east-asia/china/|archive-date=14 March 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>
*The United Kingdom is accredited to China through its [[Embassy of the United Kingdom, Beijing|embassy]] in Beijing, and [[Consulate General of the United Kingdom, Hong Kong|consulate generals]] in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and [[Shanghai]].<ref>{{cite web|title=British Embassy Beijing|website=[[gov.uk|GOV.UK]]|url=https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-embassy-beijing|access-date=15 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229180906/https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-embassy-beijing|archive-date=29 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>

The UK governed the territories of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], from 1841 to 1941 and 1945 to 1997, as well as [[British Weihaiwei|Weihaiwei]] from 1898 to 1930.

Both countries share common membership of the [[G20]], the [[United Nations Security Council|UNSC]] [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|P5]], the [[United Nations]], and the [[World Trade Organization]]. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement,<ref>{{cite web|author=[[HM Revenue and Customs]]|title=China: tax treaties|date=
17 December 2013|website=GOV.UK|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/china-tax-treaties|access-date=21 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250221093413/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/china-tax-treaties|archive-date=21 February 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> an Investment Agreement,<ref>{{cite web|title=China - United Kingdom BIT (1986)|website=[[UN Trade and Development]]|url=https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/bit/989/china---united-kingdom-bit-1986-|access-date=21 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501192452/https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/bit/989/china---united-kingdom-bit-1986-|archive-date=1 May 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]].

===Oceania===
{{Main|Sino-Pacific relations}}

China maintains diplomatic relations with ten countries in Oceania: [[Australia]], [[Fiji]], the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Kiribati]], [[New Zealand]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Samoa]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Tonga]] and [[Vanuatu]] whilst Taiwan has diplomatic relations with the other four. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries ([[Nauru]], [[Kiribati]], Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. the PRC also wants to establish a preeminent sphere of influence in the Pacific Islands.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

====Policy====
In 2003, China announced it intended to enhance its diplomatic ties with the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], and increase the economic aid package it provided to that organization. At the same time, Chinese delegate Zhou Whenzhong added: "[T]he PIF should refrain from any exchanges of an official nature or dialogue partnership of any form with Taiwan".<ref>[http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46835.htm "China announces initiatives to expand ties with PIF member countries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819190012/http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46835.htm |date=19 August 2017 }}, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 24 November 2003</ref>

In 2006, Chinese Premier [[Wen Jiabao]] announced that China would increase its economic cooperation with Pacific Island States. The PRC would provide more economic aid, abolish tariffs for exports from the Pacific's least developed countries, annul the debt of those countries, distribute free anti-[[malaria]] medicines, and provide training for two thousand Pacific Islander government officials and technical staff.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn">[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-04/05/content_560910.htm "China offers aid package to Pacific Islands"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006175713/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-04/05/content_560910.htm |date=6 October 2012 }}, ''China Daily'', 5 April 2006</ref>

Also in 2006, Wen became the first Chinese premier to visit the Pacific islands, which the ''Taipei Times'' described as "a longtime diplomatic battleground for China and Taiwan". Similarly, according to [[Ron Crocombe]], Professor of Pacific Studies at the [[University of the South Pacific]], "There have been more Pacific Islands minister visits to China than to any other country".<ref>[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/04/03/2003300678 "Chinese Premier Wen to visit the Pacific Islands"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912133356/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/04/03/2003300678 |date=12 September 2012 }}, ''Taipei Times'', 3 April 2006</ref>

In 2007, [[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]], the Chinese official press agency, stated that Pacific Islands Forum member countries had "spoke[n] highly of the generous assistance China has provided to the region over the past many years and expressed the hope for a further enhanced cooperation with China".<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/19/content_6909470.htm "China, Pacific islands countries ties important"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013083733/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/19/content_6909470.htm |date=13 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 19 October 2007</ref>

In December 2007, Dr John Lee—Visiting Fellow at the Sydney-based [[Centre for Independent Studies]]—opined in a column for ''[[Islands Business]]'':
:''"Why is China so interested in the Pacific? After all, despite the differences in size, population, wealth, and influence between China and islands in the region, the Chinese have literally rolled out the red carpet for Pacific leaders. Meetings between Chinese and Pacific leaders are not perfunctory 'meet and greets' in the bland boardrooms of hotels. They are often elaborate state functions with all the bells and whistles that state meetings can offer. [...] In a word, the Chinese want 'influence'. China sends more diplomats around the world than any other country. [...] In terms of the Pacific, there is a more disturbing game being played out, namely the 'chequebook diplomacy', that is taking place between China and Taiwan in their competition for diplomatic recognition at the expense of the other. Taiwan matters profoundly to China—and it is largely why China is interested in the Pacific."''<ref>[http://www.islandsbusiness.com/islands_business/index_dynamic/containerNameToReplace=MiddleMiddle/focusModuleID=17755/overideSkinName=issueArticle-full.tpl "What do the Chinese really want?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222025019/http://www.islandsbusiness.com/islands_business/index_dynamic/containerNameToReplace%3DMiddleMiddle/focusModuleID%3D17755/overideSkinName%3DissueArticle-full.tpl |date=22 February 2013 }}, Dr John Lee, ''Islands Business'', December 2007</ref>

That same month, John Henderson of the [[University of Canterbury]] stated that, in his view, many Pacific Islanders are worried "that their livelihood is being taken away by Chinese traders coming in, often getting in buying political privileges, playing a role in rigging elections". Henderson suggested that the [[2006 Nuku'alofa riots|2006 anti-Chinese riots in Tonga]] and [[Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands#Riots following 2006 general election|Solomon Islands]] could be repeated in countries such as Fiji and Vanuatu. He added that this might lead the PRC to increase its role in the region further, in order to protect ethnic Chinese Pacific Islanders.<ref>[http://www.tv3.co.nz/News/NationalNews/Pacficpoliticsexpertwarnsmoreriotspossible/tabid/184/articleID/41611/cat/64/Default.aspx "Pacific politics expert warns more riots possible"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728045628/https://www.threenow.co.nz/tv/threefans/home.html |date=28 July 2020 }}, [[TV3 New Zealand|TV3]] (New Zealand), 13 December 2007</ref> A spokesman for the Chinese embassy in Fiji, Hu Lihua, responded by stating: "China does not pose a military threat to any other country. China opposes all forms of hegemonism and power politics and will never seek hegemony or engage in expansion."<ref>[http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=76796 "China says it is for peace and not power politics"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512194925/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=76796 |date=12 May 2013 }}, ''Fiji Times'', 18 December 2007</ref> A representative of [[Chinese in Fiji|Fiji's Chinese community]] similarly rejected the idea that there might be anti-Chinese riots in Fiji, and added: "The Chinese in Fiji have an excellent relationship with locals and we contribute toward the economy. We have been successful in understanding local customs. Many of us have learnt the language and have assimilated."<ref>[http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=77086 "Chinese say they are at home"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512222538/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=77086 |date=12 May 2013 }}, ''Fiji Times'', 22 December 2007</ref>

The final report of the April 2008 [[Australia 2020 Summit]] addressed China's influence in the Pacific in the following terms:
:''"It was noted that so far China did not seem interested in exporting [[Socialism with Chinese Characteristics|its political values]]. Its interaction with the region was economically focused or motivated by rivalry winth Taiwan.''
:''Noting China's growing military power and its emerging role as a major aid donor in the region, participants agreed that while China's visibility had increased rapidly there remained uncertainty over what it was seeking to achieve, especially in the long term. Securing energy supplies was one obvious goal. One strand of thought that had emerged was that the Chinese themselves were not entirely clear about their aims in the region."''<ref>[http://www.australia2020.gov.au/final_report/index.cfm Australia 2020 final report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620120848/http://www.australia2020.gov.au/final_report/index.cfm |date=20 June 2012 }}, p.363, Australian government website</ref>

In June 2008, a report from the [[Lowy Institute for International Policy|Lowy Institute]] stated that China's aid policy towards the Pacific was almost certainly aimed solely at encouraging Pacific countries not to grant diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, and that there was no sign of the PRC attempting to increase its military influence or its access to the region's natural resources.<ref>[http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200806/s2270720.htm?tab=pacific "Report questions China aid to Pacific"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905105935/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200806/s2270720.htm?tab=pacific |date=5 September 2008 }}, ABC Radio Australia, 11 June 2008</ref> [[Reuters]] reports that, according to the institute's findings, "China's chequebook diplomacy in the South Pacific and secrecy over its aid programme to small island nations is having a destabilising impact on the region", due to "concerns that dollar diplomacy was influencing local politics."<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSYD18440 "China's aid diplomacy destabilises Pacific – report"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203113308/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSYD18440 |date=3 December 2008 }}, Reuters, 11 June 2008</ref> A spokesman of the Chinese Foreign Ministry responded: "This assistance is on the basis of mutual benefit. It must help the local economy to develop and promote people's livelihoods. China would never interfere in these countries' internal affairs."<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSPEK335715 "China rejects charge of aid diplomacy in Pacific"], Reuters, 12 June 2008</ref><ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com:80/english/2008-06/12/content_8356107.htm "No political pre-conditions attached in China's aid to Pacific island countries"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019205517/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/12/content_8356107.htm |date=19 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 12 June 2008</ref>

In June 2009, parliamentary delegations from four Pacific Island countries were jointly received by [[Wu Bangguo]], [[Chairman of the National People's Congress|Chairman]] of the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]]. The delegation comprised Isaac Figir, Speaker of the [[Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia]], Tu'ilakepa, Speaker of the [[Legislative Assembly of Tonga]], [[Manu Korovulavula]], head of the Public Accounting Commission of Fiji, and Billy Talagi, head of the Legislative Committee of [[Niue]] (a [[Associated state|dependent territory of New Zealand]]).<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/17/content_11557797.htm "China vows to enhance parliamentary exchanges with Pacific island nations"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112037/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/17/content_11557797.htm |date=2 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 17 June 2009</ref><ref>[http://french.cri.cn/720/2009/06/12/261s193970.htm "Prochaine visite en Chine de délégations parlementaires du Pacifique"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083741/http://french.cri.cn/720/2009/06/12/261s193970.htm |date=20 February 2012 }}, Radio Chine Internationale, 12 June 2009</ref> The delegation also met Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, who spoke of increased "economic and trade cooperation"; Xinhua reported that the Pacific Island legislators "expressed appreciation for China's assistance" and "reiterated their countries' adherence to the one-China policy".<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/16/content_11553009.htm "Chinese premier urges more economic cooperation with Pacific island countries"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112043/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/16/content_11553009.htm |date=2 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 16 June 2009</ref>

In August and September 2010, the [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] began an unprecedented "goodwill visit" to its Pacific allies, touring Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tonga, New Zealand and Australia. Its aim, as reported by the ''[[People's Daily]]'' during the ships' four-day stop in Tonga, was "enhancing friendship and strengthening military cooperation".<ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7128492.html "Chinese Navy ships makes first visit to Tonga"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012112622/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7128492.html |date=12 October 2012 }}, ''People's Daily'', 3 September 2010</ref>

In April 2011, the Lowy Institute issued a new report noting that China, in its approach to the Pacific, had been "shifting from grant aid to soft loans", which were "leading to increasing problems of indebtedness" and "making Pacific governments vulnerable to political pressure from Beijing". The report suggested that countries may struggle to repay the loans within the set timeframe, and that "outstanding loans may well tie Pacific countries to Beijing", in a context of diplomatic competition with Taipei. The report also noted, however, that some loans "are destined for projects that will create economic growth; growth that will create jobs, reduce poverty and help make repayments".<ref name="FEATURE: China in the Pacific">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120317204017/http://www.radioaustralianews.net.au/stories/201104/3182042.htm "FEATURE: China in the Pacific"]}}, ABC Radio Australia, 4 April 2011</ref>

In May 2011, addressing the University of the South Pacific in [[Suva]], PRC Ambassador to Fiji Han Zhiqiang stated that Sino-Pacific cooperation had resulted in "plenty of substantial outcomes and benefits for the people in this region". He indicated that the volume of trade between the PRC and Pacific Island countries had increased by about 50% between 2009 and 2010, reaching [[euro|€]] 2.46 billion. The value of PRC exports to the region that year was €1.74 billion (up by 42% from 2009), whilst the value of its imports from the Pacific Islands was €730 million, up almost 100%. PRC investments in the Pacific Islands in 2010 -primarily to Samoa, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji- had reached almost €72 million.<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/05/c_13859143.htm "China-Pacific island countries' ties of cooperation boom in many areas: Chinese ambassador"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107185239/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/05/c_13859143.htm |date=7 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 5 May 2011</ref>

In April 2012 China continued to widen its diplomatic influence with loans and aid with the region.<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303815404577334522576045372 China Seeks to Star in South Pacific; Beijing Widens Diplomatic Reach With Loans, Aid, in Challenge to U.S.; Subtle Reminders in Tonga] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107185404/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303815404577334522576045372 |date=7 November 2018 }} 27 April 2012</ref>

In late May 2022, Chinese Foreign Minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] announced that China was pursuing a regional Pacific&ndash;wide agreement known as the [[China-Pacific Island Countries Common Development Vision]] with ten Pacific Islands states. This multilateral agreement would cover various issues including law enforcement cooperation and training, communications infrastructure, cybersecurity, climate change, healthcare, and a proposed China-Pacific Islands Free Trade Area. In response, the [[President of the Federated States of Micronesia]] [[David Panuelo]] opposed the proposed agreement, claiming it would create a new "Cold War" between China and the West. The [[Prime Minister of Australia|Australian Prime Minister]] [[Anthony Albanese]] and [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Foreign Minister]] [[Penny Wong]] also vowed to increase Australian investment and developmental assistance to the Pacific Islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=China is pursuing a Pacific-wide pact with 10 island nations on security, policing and data – report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/25/china-is-pursuing-a-pacific-wide-pact-with-10-island-nations-on-security-policing-and-data-report|access-date=1 June 2022|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=25 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530042117/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/25/china-is-pursuing-a-pacific-wide-pact-with-10-island-nations-on-security-policing-and-data-report|archive-date=30 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Though China and the Pacific Islands states did not reach a consensus on the proposed multilateral agreement, Beijing succeeded in signing several bilateral agreements with Pacific states including separate security and civil aviation agreements with the Solomon Islands, ten bilateral agreements with the Solomon Islands, and an agreement to build a police fingerprint laboratory in Fiji.<ref>{{cite news|title=China, Pacific islands fail to reach consensus on security pact|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/30/china-pacific-islands-fail-to-reach-consensus-on-security-pact|access-date=1 June 2022|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531075305/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/30/china-pacific-islands-fail-to-reach-consensus-on-security-pact|archive-date=31 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Torress-Bennett|first1=Aileen|last2=Perry|first2=Nick|title=China falls short on big Pacific deal but finds smaller wins|url=https://apnews.com/article/suva-fiji-wang-yi-china-bb340b0386872a711ef6bb6c6468a73f|access-date=1 June 2022|work=[[Associated Press News]]|date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531011509/https://apnews.com/article/suva-fiji-wang-yi-china-bb340b0386872a711ef6bb6c6468a73f|archive-date=31 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Australia=====
{{main|Australia–China relations}}

As an emerging and developing economy, China is a very important trading partner and destination for Australian [[raw material]] export for the growth of Australian economy. The two countries are currently strengthening their economic relations. The 2007 election of [[Kevin Rudd]] as Prime Minister of Australia has been seen as favourable to Sino-Australian relations, notably since he is the first Australian Prime Minister to speak fluent Mandarin, and that closer engagement with Asia is one of the [[Kevin Rudd#Foreign affairs|"Three Pillars" of his foreign policy]].<ref>David S. G. Goodman, "Australia and the China threat: Managing ambiguity." ''Pacific Review'' 30.5 (2017): 769–782 https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2017.1339118 .</ref>

In 2004, Rudd, who at the time was Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, had delivered a speech in Beijing entitled "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050126165251/http://au.china-embassy.org/eng/zagx/t142076.htm "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century"], Kevin Rudd, 6 July 2004</ref>

In February 2008, Australia reportedly "chastised Taiwan for its renewed push for independence" and "reiterated its support for a one-China policy".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.theage.com.au/national/china-australia-hold-strategic-meeting-20080205-1q43.html|title=China, Australia hold strategic meeting|author=O'Malley, Sandra|date=5 February 2008|work=[[The Age]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809181937/http://news.theage.com.au/national/china-australia-hold-strategic-meeting-20080205-1q43.html|archive-date=9 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> In April, however, Rudd addressed Chinese students at [[Peking University]],<ref name="news.com.au_1111116026176">{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/top-stories/rudd-in-tough-tibet-talks/story-e6frfkp9-1111116026176|title=Rudd in tough Tibet talks|date=10 April 2008|work=[[News.com.au]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805050622/http://www.news.com.au/top-stories/rudd-in-tough-tibet-talks/story-e6frfkp9-1111116026176|archive-date=5 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and, speaking in [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]], referred to "significant human rights problems in Tibet".<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article3711490.ece "Australian PM Kevin Rudd warns China over human rights abuses in Tibet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709014617/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article3711490.ece|date=9 July 2008}}, Jane Macartney, ''[[The Times]]'', 9 April 2008</ref><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/leading-articles/leading-article-aussie-rules-806956.html "Aussie Rules"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013173712/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/leading-articles/leading-article-aussie-rules-806956.html |date=13 October 2008 }}, ''The Independent'', 10 April 2008</ref> Rudd also raised the issue in talks with Chinese [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] Wen Jiabao, in a context of "simmering diplomatic tension" according to [[TV3 (New Zealand)|TV3]].<ref>[http://www.tv3.co.nz/News/InternationalNews/KevinRuddraisesconcernsoverTibet/tabid/417/articleID/52122/cat/62/Default.aspx "Kevin Rudd raises concerns over Tibet"]{{dead link|date=January 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, TV3, 10 April 2008</ref> In August 2008, Rudd met Wen once more, and expressed his concerns on "questions of human rights, of religious freedom, of Tibet, of internet freedom".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.theage.com.au/world/rudd-expresses-concerns-to-china-20080808-3sce.html|title=Rudd expresses concerns to China|author=Ede, Charisse|date=8 August 2008|work=[[The Age]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521022118/http://news.theage.com.au/world/rudd-expresses-concerns-to-china-20080808-3sce.html|archive-date=21 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated issues and tensions between the countries, especially after Australia called for an international, independent inquiry into the origins of the disease.<ref name="reut_Aust">{{Cite web|title=Australia and China spat over coronavirus inquiry deepens|last1=Duran|first1=Paulina|last2=Needham|first2=Kirsty|work=[[Reuters]]|date=18 May 2020|access-date=29 December 2020|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronarivus-australia/australia-and-china-spat-over-coronavirus-inquiry-deepens-idUSKBN22V083}}</ref><ref name="reut_Aust2">{{Cite web|title=Australia says world needs to know origins of COVID-19|last=Packham|first=Colin|work=[[Reuters]]|date=25 September 2020|access-date=29 December 2020|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-australia-china/australia-says-world-needs-to-know-origins-of-covid-19-idUSKCN26H00T}}</ref> The subsequent changes that China made to its trade policies have been interpreted as political retaliation and economic [[coercion]] against Australia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52562549|title=Coronavirus: China's new army of tough-talking diplomats|publisher=BBC News|date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theage.com.au/politics/federal/china-relations-sour-over-tariff-threat-to-australian-barley-20200510-p54rjc.html|title=China relations sour over tariff threat to Australian barley|date=10 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="japa_Miti">{{Cite web|title=Mitigating China's economic coercion|last=Nagy|first=Stephen R.|newspaper=[[The Japan Times]]|date=21 May 2020|access-date=23 December 2020|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2020/05/21/commentary/mitigating-chinas-economic-coercion/|quote=economic coercion}}</ref><ref name="broo_Grea">{{Cite web|title=Great expectations: The unraveling of the Australia-China relationship|last=Kassam|first=Natasha|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]|date=20 July 2020|access-date=23 December 2020|url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/great-expectations-the-unraveling-of-the-australia-china-relationship/|quote=economic coercion}}</ref>

=====Fiji=====
{{main|China–Fiji relations}}

[[Fiji]] was the first Pacific Island country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1975.<ref name="news.xinhuanet.com">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-02/09/content_10787984.htm "Chinese vice president meets Fiji leaders on cooperative partnership"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190938/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-02/09/content_10787984.htm |date=3 March 2016 }}, Xinhua, 9 February 2009</ref> Among the [[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean|Pacific Islands]] countries, Fiji was, in 2010, the second largest importer of PRC exports, after Papua New Guinea, and had a trade deficit of [[Australian dollar|A$]]127m in its trade relations with China.<ref name="Pacific trade with China">[http://www.solomonstarnews.com/news/business/10150-pacific-trade-with-china "Pacific trade with China"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331150616/http://www.solomonstarnews.com/news/business/10150-pacific-trade-with-china |date=31 March 2012 }}, ''Solomon Star'', 17 February 2011</ref>

Fiji's foreign policy under Prime Minister [[Laisenia Qarase]] was to "look north" – i.e., strengthen the country's relations with Asia in general and China in particular. Following the [[2006 Fijian coup d'état|2006 military coup in Fiji]], China contrasted itself from Western countries which largely condemned the overthrow of Qarase's government. Post-coup prime minister [[Frank Bainimarama]] continued Qarase's "look north" policy. In July 2007, Finance Minister [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] responded to the contrast between Western criticism and Chinese support for Bainimarama's government:
:''"Fiji has friends in China, it has friends in [[Fiji–South Korea relations|Korea]], it has friends in [...] other Asian countries. We're no longer relying on [[Australia–Fiji relations|Australia]] and [[Fiji–New Zealand relations|New Zealand]]. And in any event, the [[Fiji–United States relations|United States]] was not doing much for Fiji anyway."''<ref>[http://www.niufm.com/?t=3&View=FullStory&newsID=2162 "Chaudhry breaks silence to slag New Zealand"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512152832/http://www.niufm.com/?t=3&View=FullStory&newsID=2162 |date=12 May 2013 }}, NiuFM, 9 July 2007</ref>

In 2007, a China/Fiji Trade and Economic Commission was set up to enhance economic relations between the two countries.<ref>[http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/09/03/03fijilive9.html "China/Fiji meeting, a success"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627214845/http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/09/03/03fijilive9.html |date=27 June 2013 }}, FijiLive, 3 September 2007</ref> A May 2008 article in ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' stated that "China's aid to Fiji has skyrocketed since the coup in December 2006", from €650,000 to over €100,000,000. The author of the article commented: "Just as Australia and other Western donors are trying to squeeze [Fiji's] rebel Government, China has dramatically stepped up its aid, effectively dissipating any pressure Western donors might have been generating."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/dont-ignore-the-big-new-player-in-fiji/2008/05/08/1210131163040.html?page=fullpage|title=Don't ignore the big new player in Fiji|author=Hanson, Fergus|date=9 May 2008|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026031511/http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/dont-ignore-the-big-new-player-in-fiji/2008/05/08/1210131163040.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1|archive-date=26 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Federated States of Micronesia=====
The [[Federated States of Micronesia]] opened an embassy in Beijing.<ref>[http://www.fsmgov.org/press/pr051007.htm "FSM Government opens embassy in China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125035819/http://www.fsmgov.org/press/pr051007.htm |date=25 January 2010 }}, [[Federated States of Micronesia|FSM]] government website, 10 May 2007</ref>

=====New Zealand=====
{{main|China–New Zealand relations}}

Diplomatic relations with [[New Zealand]] were first established in 1972. the PRC diplomatic representative to New Zealand, Zhang Limin, is also accredited to New Zealand's [[associated state|associated territories]], the [[Cook Islands]] and, since 2008, [[Niue]]. The People's Republic of China in December 2007 became the first country to establish official diplomatic relations with Niue,<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-10/18/content_10215471.htm "China's first ambassador to Niue presents credential to Niue PM"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116105311/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-10/18/content_10215471.htm |date=16 November 2013 }}, Xinhua, 18 October 2008</ref> and provides economic aid to the Cook Islands.<ref name="RNZI_41933">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=41933|title=Cook Islands to receive more aid from China|date=10 September 2008|work=[[Radio New Zealand International]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307215524/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=41933|archive-date=7 March 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2007, New Zealand reaffirmed its adherence to the "One China" policy.<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-09/25/content_6791476.htm "China, New Zealand vow to advance bilateral ties"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013130352/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-09/25/content_6791476.htm |date=13 October 2012 }}, 25 September 2007</ref>

In April 2008, New Zealand became the first [[developed country]] to sign a [[free trade]] agreement with the PRC.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/04/07/business/7tradefw.php "China and New Zealand sign free trade deal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212164653/http://iht.com/articles/2008/04/07/business/7tradefw.php |date=12 February 2009 }}, ''International Herald Tribune'', 7 April 2008</ref>

On 29 September 2008, New Zealand's delegate in United Nations openly praised the improving relations between the two governments of Beijing and Taipei.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/63/generaldebate/newzealand.shtml|title=UN General Assembly – 63rd Session General Debate – New Zealand|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016022618/http://www.un.org/en/ga/63/generaldebate/newzealand.shtml|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2009, Niuean [[premier of Niue|Premier]] [[Toke Talagi]] stated that, if development aid were not forthcoming from New Zealand, he would request aid from China instead.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10583605">{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10583605|title=PM faces blunt threat from Niue|author=Trevett, Claire|date=10 July 2009|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020231557/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10583605|archive-date=20 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Papua New Guinea=====
Diplomatic relations with [[Papua New Guinea]] were established in 1976, soon after Papua New Guinea became independent.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Huang|first1=Xiaoming|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jm6krAh2LS0C&dq=china+make+Diplomatic+relations+with+Papua+New+Guinea+in+1976%2C&pg=PA126|title=China and the International System: Becoming a World Power|last2=Patman|first2=Robert G.|date=20 March 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75639-9}}</ref>

Papua New Guinea is one of China's biggest trade partners in Oceania. Papua New Guinea exports far more to China than does any other [[Pacific Islands]] country, and imports three times more from China than does any other such country. It is also one of the few countries in the region to maintain a trade surplus in its relations with China; its surplus reached a record high of [[Australian dollar|A$]]427m in 2010.<ref name="Pacific trade with China" />

In 1999, the government of Prime Minister [[Bill Skate]] recognized Taiwan. Skate lost power less than a week later, and Papua New Guinea's diplomatic recognition reverted to China.<ref>[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/05/14/2003411855 "Spending money where it matters"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919125656/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/05/14/2003411855 |date=19 September 2012 }}, Bruce Jacobs, ''Taipei Times'', 14 May 2008</ref>

In 2003, Chinese embassy in [[Port Moresby]] published a statement of concern in reaction to comments in the Papua New Guinea press questioning the justification for PNG's relations with the People's Republic. The embassy statement insisted that relations between the two countries were mutually beneficial, reasserted Chinese claims to Taiwan, and concluded: "It is our sincere hope that the local [PNG] media will report on China and its relations with PNG in a just and objective way, so as to further enhance the mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of our two countries."<ref>[http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46834.htm "Press Release of the Embassy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143746/http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46834.htm |date=10 February 2012 }}, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 7 August 2003</ref>

In July 2003, PNG Governor General Sir [[Silas Atopare]] visited China, re-affirmed his country's adherence to the One China policy, and, according to a statement published by Chinese embassy, "thank[ed] the government and the people of China for their commitment in providing aid to PNG's development".<ref>[http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46833.htm "PNG Governor General Visits China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143753/http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46833.htm |date=10 February 2012 }}, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 28 July 2003</ref>

In 2005, relations cooled somewhat when Papua New Guinea, along with Fiji, supported Taiwan's wish to join the [[World Health Organization]].<ref name="archives.pireport.org">[http://archives.pireport.org/archive/2006/August/tcp-fiji.htm "Melanesia in Review: Issues and Events 2005"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216145246/http://archives.pireport.org/archive/2006/August/tcp-fiji.htm|date=16 February 2012}}, Alumita L Durutalo, ''[[The Contemporary Pacific]]'', vol. 18, n°2, autumn 2006, pp.396–399</ref>

It was announced that members of the [[Papua New Guinea Defence Force]] would receive training provided by China. Traditionally, military training aid in Papua New Guinea had been provided by [[Western world|Western countries]], namely, [[Australia–Papua New Guinea relations|Australia]], New Zealand and the U.S.<ref name="RNZI_39839">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=39839|title=Concern in PNG at defence training links with China|date=19 May 2008|work=[[Radio New Zealand International]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223170519/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=39839|archive-date=23 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Samoa=====
The diplomatic relations between China and [[Samoa]] were established in 1975.<ref name="english.cri.cn">[http://english.cri.cn/6909/2011/04/10/2021s631192.htm "Chinese Ambassador Describes China-Samoa Ties as Friendly Partnership"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020104633/http://english.cri.cn/6909/2011/04/10/2021s631192.htm |date=20 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 4 April 2011</ref>

In the late 1980s, China began sending doctors to the Samoan National Hospital, and sent over a hundred over the following two decades.<ref name="english.cri.cn" /> Samoa significantly increased its volume of imports from China in the late 2000s, while also increasing its exports to that country. In 2010, Samoa reached a record trade deficit in its relations with China, at [[Australian dollar|A$]]70m.<ref name="Pacific trade with China" /> In 2007, China provided Samoa with an x-ray machine and several volunteer doctors.<ref name="RNZI_35612">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=35612|title=Samoa national hospital to get Chinese funded x-ray machine|date=8 October 2007|work=[[Radio New Zealand International]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213172837/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=35612|archive-date=13 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2008, China donated over €1,360,000 to Samoa to fund its education policies.<ref name="RNZI_37542">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=37542|title=China to give Samoa more money for education|date=20 January 2008|work=[[Radio New Zealand International]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213172846/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=37542|archive-date=13 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2008, following unrest in Tibet, the speaker of the Samoan [[Fono]] (legislative assembly), Tolofuaivalelei Falemoe Leiataua, stated that foreign leaders should not interfere with China as it deals with "internal affairs", and that they should not meet the [[Dalai Lama]].<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-03/27/content_6568524.htm "World leaders voice support for China's handling of riots"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009054653/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-03/27/content_6568524.htm |date=9 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 27 March 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.samoaobserver.ws/ "Samoa backs China's handling of Tibet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117152536/http://www.samoaobserver.ws/ |date=17 January 2013 }}, ''Samoa Observer'', 27 March 2008</ref>

In June 2008, Samoa announced it would be opening diplomatic missions in China and Japan – the country's first diplomatic offices in Asia.<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/23/content_8423639.htm "Samoa to establish diplomatic offices in China, Japan"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051535/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/23/content_8423639.htm |date=4 March 2016 }}, Xinhua, 23 June 2006</ref> In September, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement indicating that China and Samoa have always "conducted fruitful cooperation in the fields of economy, trade, agriculture, sports, culture, education and health, as well as international affairs", and that China intended to "make more tangible efforts to support Samoa's economic and social development".<ref>[http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx/t513637.htm "President Hu Jintao Meets with Samoan Prime Minister"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214194642/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx/t513637.htm |date=14 February 2012 }}, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 17 September 2008</ref>

In 2010, the Chinese government-funded China-Samoa Agricultural Demonstration Farm was established in Nu'u with an aim "to train the Samoan farmers on voluntary basis through Chinese agricultural planting techniques". About 500 Samoan farmers received training from Chinese agricultural experts.<ref name="english.cri.cn" />

In 2011, 57 Samoan students were studying in China on a Chinese government sponsorship.<ref name="english.cri.cn" />

=====Tonga=====
{{main|China–Tonga relations}}

Relations with [[Tonga]] were first established in 1998. In 2000, noble [[Sialeʻataongo Tuʻivakanō|Tuʻivakano]] of Nukunuku (later to become [[Prime Minister of Tonga|Prime Minister]]) banned all Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District. This followed alleged complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.<ref>[http://www.tongatapu.net.to/tonga/news/briefs/20000819.htm "No More Chinese!"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630094452/http://www.tongatapu.net.to/tonga/news/briefs/20000819.htm |date=30 June 2012 }}, Tongatapu.net</ref> In 2001, Tonga and China decided to strengthen their "military relations".<ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200105/15/eng20010515_70060.html "China, Tonga Vow to Further Military Ties"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609041409/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200105/15/eng20010515_70060.html |date=9 June 2013 }}, ''People's Daily'', 15 May 2001</ref> In 2008, China provided Tonga with military supplies worth over €340,000.<ref>"Chinese Government Donates Military Supplies to TDS", Tonga Now, 9 January 2008</ref>

In 2006, rioters caused severe damage to shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in [[Nukuʻalofa|Nuku{{Okina}}alofa]].<ref name="radioaustralia.net.au">[http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/infocus/s1842245.htm "The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104024039/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/infocus/s1842245.htm |date=4 November 2007 }}, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, 7 February 2007</ref><ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/200611/17/eng20061117_322437.html "Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512170138/http://english.people.com.cn/200611/17/eng20061117_322437.html |date=12 May 2013 }}, ''People's Daily'', 17 November 2006</ref>

In April 2008, Tongan King [[George Tupou V]] visited China, reaffirmed his country's adherence to the "One China" policy, and, according to the Chinese State news agency [[Xinhua]], "supported the measures adopted to handle [[2008 Tibetan unrest|the incident]] in [[Lhasa (prefecture-level city)|Lhasa]]".<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/10/content_7954657.htm "Tonga supports China's stance on Taiwan, Tibet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014071057/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/10/content_7954657.htm |date=14 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 10 April 2008</ref> King Tupou V also met Chinese Defense Minister [[Liang Guanglie]] to "enhance exchange and cooperation between the two militaries". Xinhua stated that China and Tonga have "fruitful cooperation in politics, economy, trade, agriculture and education, and kept a sound coordination in regional and international affairs".<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/15/content_7981846.htm "Chinese Defense Minister meets Tongan King"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016060355/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/15/content_7981846.htm |date=16 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 15 April 2008</ref>

In early 2010, Chinese aid to Tonga included assistance in the reconstruction of Nuku'alofa's central business district; "an agricultural project in [[Vaini]]"; health clinics set up in [[Vavaʻu]] and Vaini; the provision of seven Chinese doctors for a two-year period; and an allocation of €2.2&nbsp;million "for social and economic development", including "soft loans and interest free loans to the Tonga Government".<ref name="RNZI_52337">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=52337|title=China to send doctors to Tonga|date=8 March 2010|work=[[Radio New Zealand International]]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609192423/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=52337|archive-date=9 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2011, the [[Lowy Institute for International Policy|Lowy Institute]] reported that, of all Pacific countries, Tonga was carrying the highest burden of debt from Chinese loans, amounting to 32% of Tonga's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Simultaneously, the [[International Monetary Fund]] warned Tonga was "facing debt distress", a "very high possibility that Tonga [would] be unable to service its debts in the future".<ref name="FEATURE: China in the Pacific" />

=====Vanuatu=====
{{main|China–Vanuatu relations}}

In 2006, Vanuatu signed an economic cooperation agreement with China, whereby the latter was to assist Vanuatu's economic development, and remove tariffs on imports from Vanuatu. China also added Vanuatu to its list of approved tourism destinations for Chinese tourists. Ni-Vanuatu trade minister James Bule said his country had also requested China's assistance "in supplying machines so we can establish a plant in Vanuatu to produce bio fuel".<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143746/http://vanuatudaily.com/news/currentweek.php?misc=search&subaction=showfull&id=1144793205&archive=&cnshow=news&ucat=1&start_from=& "Vanuatu looks to China for markets"]}}, ''Vanuatu Daily'', 11 April 2006</ref> By contrast, Opposition leader Serge Vohor has said China is exerting too much influence on the ni-Vanuatu government's policy.<ref name="vanuatudaily.com">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143743/http://vanuatudaily.com/news/currentweek.php?misc=search&subaction=showfull&id=1142202701&archive=&cnshow=news&ucat=1&start_from=& "Chinese influence corrupting government: opposition leader"]}}, ''Vanuatu Daily'', 12 March 2006</ref>

In May 2009, Vanuatu appointed its first ever ambassador to China, former Minister of Finance [[Willie Jimmy]].<ref>[http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4668 "Minister confirms appointment"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623114911/http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4668 |date=23 June 2013 }}, ''[[Vanuatu Daily Post]]'', 22 May 2009</ref> Jimmy "call[ed] [...] for China to have a foot firmly planted in the Pacific through [[Port Vila]]", which -the ''[[Vanuatu Daily Post]]'' remarked- "no doubt caused ruffled feathers among other foreign diplomatic partners".<ref>[http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4834 "Chinese Club donate Vt1.4m supplies to landslide victims"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623135002/http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4834 |date=23 June 2013 }}, ''Vanuatu Daily Post'', 23 June 2009</ref>

In July 2010, Chinese Ambassador Cheng Shuping announced that China would fund a number of projects in Vanuatu, "including the National Convention Centre and the expansion of Prime Minister's Offices", as well as "the design and reconstruction of the Francophone Wing of the [[University of the South Pacific]] Emalus Campus".<ref>[http://www.dailypost.vu/ArticleArchives/tabid/56/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/6722/categoryId/3/China-commits-to-fund-Vanuatu-projects.aspx "China commits to fund Vanuatu projects"]{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''Vanuatu Daily Post'', 23 July 2010</ref>

== Countries without diplomatic relations with the PRC ==
China recognizes all 193 UN member states, the Holy See and Palestine, as sovereign states. However, it does not have diplomatic relations with 12 UN member states, nor with the Holy See.  These sovereign entities, except Bhutan, recognize the Republic of China as the sole legitimate Chinese state.

The following countries do not recognize the People's Republic of China. Instead, these countries except Bhutan recognize the Republic of China.<ref>Pasha L. Hsieh, "Rethinking non-recognition: Taiwan's new pivot to ASEAN and the one-China policy."'Cambridge Review of International Affairs'' 33.2 (2020): 204–228 [https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgiviewcontent.cgi?article=4911&context=sol_research online].</ref>

{{static row numbers}}{{sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable static-row-numbers sticky-header col1left"
|-
! Name
! Previous relations with the PRC
! Duration of previous relations with the PRC
! References
|-
  | {{flag|Belize}}
  | {{yes}}
  | 1987–1989
  | Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 2 February 1987 and severed on 23 October 1989. Belize terminated the recognition of the PRC and then recognized the ROC on 11 October 1989.
|-
  | {{flag|Bhutan}}
  | {{no}}
  | N/A
  | 
|-
  | {{flag|Eswatini}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Guatemala}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Haiti}}
  | {{no}}
  | N/A
  |In 1996, the Bureau of Commercial Development of the PRC in the Republic of Haiti and Bureau of Commercial Development of the Republic of Haiti in the PRC were established in [[Port-au-Prince]] and Beijing as the assignment between two countries.
|-
  | {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
  | {{yes}}
  | 1990–1998
  | Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 16 November 1990 and severed on 11 December 1998. Marshall Islands recognized the ROC on 20 November 1998.
|-
  | {{flag|Palau}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Paraguay}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Saint Lucia}}
  | {{yes}}
  | 1997–2007
  | The relations with the ROC were first established in 1984 and severed in 1997.  Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 1 September 1997 and severed on 5 May 2007. Saint Lucia resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 30 April 2007.
|-
  | {{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Tuvalu}}
  | {{no}}
  |N/A
  |
|-
  | {{flag|Vatican City}}
  | {{no}}
  | N/A<ref>[[Holy See]] has no diplomatic relations with the PRC. In 1950, the ambassador of Holy See moved to [[Taipei]].</ref>
  | Since the establishment of the PRC, Catholicism has been permitted to operate only under the supervision of the [[State Administration for Religious Affairs|SARA]]. All worship must legally be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association|CPA]], which does not accept the [[Primacy of the Bishop of Rome]]. The Holy See was banished from China following the incident around the death of [[Antonio Riva (pilot)|Antonio Riva]] in 1951. 
In 2016, negotiation of diplomatic relations between the [[Holy See]] and the PRC started. See [[China–Holy See relations]].
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|China}}
* [[List of diplomatic missions in China]]
* [[List of diplomatic missions of China]]
* [[List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty]]
* [[Panda diplomacy]]
* [[Stadium diplomacy]]
* ''[[Ten Major Relationships]]''
* [[Arctic policy of China]]
* [[China foreign aid]]
* [[Foreign relations of Hong Kong]]
* [[Foreign relations of Macau]]
* [[Foreign relations of Taiwan]]
* [[Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy]]
* [[Chinese school of international relations]]
* [[List of projects of the Belt and Road Initiative]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}

*Alden, Christopher. '' China Returns to Africa: A Superpower and a Continent Embrace'' (2008)
* Amin, Nasser. "The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present"  ''Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies'' 7 (2019): 51–66 [https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716130610/https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53 |date=16 July 2020 }}
* Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds. ''Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations'' (Routledge, 2020). [https://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Handbook-China-India-Relations-Bajpai-ebook/dp/B0855JQYJJ/ excerpt]
*Cohen, Warren I. '' America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations'' (2010) [https://www.amazon.com/Americas-Response-China-Sino-American-Relations/dp/0231150776/ excerpt and text search]
* Doshi, Rush.  ''The Long Game: China's Grand Strategy to Displace American Order'' (Oxford UP, 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57102 online review]
* Fenby, Jonathan. ''The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present'' (3rd ed. 2019) popular history.
* Ferdinand, Peter. "Westward ho—the China dream and 'one belt, one road': Chinese foreign policy under Xi Jinping." ''International Affairs'' 92.4 (2016): 941–957. [https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-pdf/92/4/941/9235232/inta12660.pdf online]
*[[Joshua A. Fogel|Fogel, Joshua]].  ''Articulating the Sino-sphere: Sino-Japanese relations in space and time'' (2009)
* Fravel, M. Taylor. ''Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949'' (Princeton University Press, 2019) [https://issforum.org/to/ir11-12 online reviews]
* Garver, John W. ''China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic'' (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. [https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Quest-History-Relations-Republic/dp/0190884355/ excerpt]
* Garver, John W. ''Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century' (2001), post 1950''
* {{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Weixing|year=2019|title=Xi Jinping's 'Major Country Diplomacy': The Role of Leadership in Foreign Policy Transformation|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=28|issue=115|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/10670564.2018.1497904|s2cid=158345991}}
* Lampton, David M. ''Following the Leader: Ruling China, from Deng Xiaoping to Xi Jinping'' (U of California Press, 2014).
* Lanuzo, Steve L. "The Impact of Political Liberalization on Sino Myanmar Cooperation" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) [https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1059977.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728045608/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1059977.pdf |date=28 July 2020 }}.
* Liu, Guoli, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-yEuDwAAQBAJ Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition].'' (Transaction, 2004).  {{ISBN|0-202-30752-2}}
* Lu, Ning. ''The dynamics of foreign-policy decisionmaking in China'' (Routledge, 2018).
* Meijer, Hugo. ''Awakening to China's Rise: European Foreign and Security Policies toward the People's Republic of China'' (Oxford University Press, 2022) [http://issforum.org/to/RE93 online review of this book]
* Quested, Rosemary K.I. ''Sino-Russian relations: a short history'' (Routledge, 2014) [https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315018898 online]
* Ryan, Keegan D. "The Extent of Chinese Influence in Latin America" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) [https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1069724.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714184138/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1069724.pdf |date=14 July 2019 }}.
* Sutter, Robert G. ''Historical Dictionary of Chinese Foreign Policy'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Dictionaries-Diplomacy-Relations/dp/0810868601/ excerpt and text search]
*Sutter, Robert G. ''Foreign Relations of the PRC: The Legacies and Constraints of China's International Politics Since 1949'' (Rowman & Littlefield; 2013) 355 pages [https://www.amazon.com/Foreign-Relations-PRC-Constraints-International/dp/1442220163/ excerpt and text search]
* Swaine, Michael D. "Chinese views of foreign policy in the 19th party congress." ''China Leadership Monitor'' 55 (2018).  [https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/research/docs/clm55-ms-final.pdf online] re 2017 Congress
*Westad, Odd Arne. ''Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750'' (Basic Books; 2012) 515 pages; comprehensive scholarly history
* Woo, Hunje. "Increased Chinese Economic Influence and its Impact on the Changing Security Environment on the Korean Peninsula" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) [https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1069836.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628011237/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1069836.pdf |date=28 June 2020 }}
*Yahuda, Michael. ''End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy After Mao''  (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016)

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