View source for Foreign worker

{{short description|Person working in a country where they do not have citizenship}}
{{See also|Expatriate|Migrant worker}}
[[File:Migrant Worker by David Shankbone.JPG|thumb|Foreign farmworker in [[New York (state)|New York]]]]

'''Foreign workers''' or '''guest workers''' are people who work in a country other than one of which they are a [[citizen]]. Some foreign workers use a [[guest worker program]] in a country with more preferred job prospects than in their home country. Guest workers are often either sent or invited to work outside their home country or have acquired a job before leaving their home country, whereas [[migrant workers]] often leave their home country without a specific job in prospect.

Tens of millions of people around the world operate as foreign workers. As of 2018, according to reports from the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], there is an estimated 28 million foreign-born workers in the [[United States]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Look at the Foreign-Born Labor Force in the US|url=https://www.pgpf.org/blog/2020/01/the-foreign-born-labor-force-of-the-united-states|access-date=2020-11-19|website=www.pgpf.org|language=en}}</ref> which draws most of its immigrants from [[Mexico]], including 4 or 5 million [[illegal aliens|undocumented workers]]. In 2016, over 15 million foreign workers lived in the [[European Union]], half a million in [[Japan]], and around 5 million in [[Saudi Arabia]]. Between January and June in 2019, 2.4 million foreigners arrived to work in [[Russia]].<ref>
{{cite news
| title                 = Russia's FSB Publishes Foreign Worker Statistics for First Time in 20 Years
| url                   = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/08/16/russias-fsb-publishes-foreign-worker-statistics-for-first-time-in-20-years-a66895
| work                  = The Moscow Times
| publication-date      = 16 August 2019
| access-date           = 18 July 2020
| quote                 = The FSB border service data says that 2.4 million migrants have arrived in Russia for work between January and June 2019, according to a tally by the RBC news website.
}}
</ref>
In some cases, large numbers of dependents accompany international workers, though this tendency varies with ethnicity – for instance, Arab non-nationals are more likely than Asian ones to bring their families to the Gulf States.<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Peterson|first=Diane Michelle|title=The Arab Gulf: Indicators of economic dependence on migrant communities|publisher=[[The University of Arizona]]|year=1990|url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/291485/azu_td_1339673_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref>

Some foreign workers migrate from former colonies to a former colonial [[metropole]] (France, for example).<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Taras
 | first1 = Raymond
 | author-link1 = Raymond Taras
 | title = Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe
 | date = 30 June 2012
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PZVvAAAAQBAJ
 | location = Edinburgh
 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press
 | publication-date = 2012
 | page = 81
 | isbn = 9780748654895
 | access-date = 18 July 2020
 | quote = The demographics of a number of European states – France, Britain, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, ''inter alia'' – have been profoundly shaped by their colonial past, in particular when migration from the periphery to the postcolonial metropole accelerated.
}}
</ref>
[[Chain migration]] may operate in building guest-worker communities.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Schrover
 | first1 = Marlou
 | chapter = Labour Migration
 | editor1-last = Hofmeester
 | editor1-first = Karin
 | editor2-last = van der Linden
 | editor2-first = Marcel
 | editor2-link = Marcel van der Linden
 | title = Handbook Global History of Work
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gElADwAAQBAJ
 | series = De Gruyter Reference
 | date = 20 November 2017
 | location = Oldenburg
 | publisher = Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
 | publication-date = 2017
 | page = 461
 | isbn = 9783110424584
 | access-date = 18 July 2020
 | quote = Especially in the later period of the guest worker migration regime [in North Western Europe], migrants came via chain migration structures. Employers delegated recruitment to the workers who had been in their employment for a while, whom they trusted and whom they expected to help the new immigrants.
}}
</ref>

== Foreign workers by country or broader region ==

=== Canada ===
{{Further|Temporary resident (Canada)}}
Foreign nationals are permitted to enter Canada on a temporary basis if they have a [[student visa]], are [[seeking asylum]], or possess special permits. The largest category, however, is called the [[Temporary foreign worker program in Canada|Temporary Foreign Worker Program]] (TFWP), under which workers are brought to Canada by their employers for specific jobs.<ref name=Canada1>Sharma, Nandita. Home Economics: Nationalism and the Making of 'Migrant Workers' in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006</ref> In 2000, the [[Immigrant Workers Centre]] was founded in [[Montreal]], Québec.<ref>{{cite web |title=Justice for Immigrant Workers! |url=http://canadiandimension.com/articles/1855 |accessdate=April 8, 2012|author=Jill Hanley |author2=Eric Shragge |date=May 6, 2006}}</ref> In 2006, 265,000 foreign workers worked in Canada. Amongst those of working age, there was a 118% increase from 1996. By 2008, the intake of non-permanent immigrants (399,523, the majority of whom are TFWs) had overtaken the intake of permanent immigrants (247,243).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2010002/article/11166-eng.htm |title=Foreign nationals working temporarily in Canada |publisher=Statcan.gc.ca |access-date=2014-01-01}}</ref> To hire foreign workers, Canadian employers must complete a Labour Market Impact Assessment administered by Employment and Social Development Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-11-07 |title=What is a Labour Market Impact Assessment? |url=https://www.cic.gc.ca/english/helpcentre/answer.asp?qnum=163&top=17 |access-date=2023-07-31 |website=www.cic.gc.ca |publisher=Government of Canada; Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada }}</ref>

===United States===
{{Further|Guest worker program}}
The United States issues a number of employment-based immigrant visas. These include the [[H-1B visa]] to employ foreign workers in speciality occupations temporarily and the [[H-2A visa]] for temporary agricultural work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Employment-Based Immigrant Visas |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/us-visas/immigrate/employment-based-immigrant-visas.html |access-date=2023-07-31 |website=travel.state.gov}}</ref>

Over one million undocumented immigrants work in agriculture in the United States, while roughly 250,000 are admitted under the H-2A visa, as of 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jordan |first1=Miriam |title=Farmworkers, Mostly Undocumented, Become 'Essential' During Pandemic |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/us/coronavirus-undocumented-immigrant-farmworkers-agriculture.html |access-date=7 March 2021 |work=New York Times |date=2 April 2020}}</ref>

[[Green card workers]] are individuals who have requested and received legal permanent residence from the government in the United States and intend to work in the United States permanently. The United States’ [[Diversity Immigrant Visa]] Lottery program authorises up to 50,000 immigrant visas to be granted each year. This help facilitates foreign nationals with low rates of immigration to the United States a chance to participate in a random drawing for the possibility of obtaining an immigration visa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usa.gov/green-cards|title=Green Cards and Permanent Residence in the U.S. {{!}} USAGov|website=www.usa.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-11-15}}</ref>

===Germany===
{{Main|Gastarbeiter}}
In Nazi Germany, from 1940 to 1942, [[Organization Todt]] began its reliance on guest workers, [[Internment|military internees]], [[Zivilarbeiter]] (civilian workers), [[Ostarbeiter]] (Eastern workers) and [[Hilfswillige]] ("volunteer") POW workers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Çakı|first1=Caner|last2=Gazi |first2=Mehmet Ali|title=A Examination on Propaganda Activities of The Todt Organization in Italy|journal=International Journal of Labour Life and Social Policy|date=22 December 2018|volume=1|issue=2 |pages=37–47}}</ref>

The significant migration phase of labour migrants in the 20th century began in Germany during the 1950s, as the sovereign Germany, since 1955 after repeated pressure from NATO partners, has yielded to the request for closure of the so-called 'Anwerbe' Agreement ([[German language|German]]: Anwerbeabkommen).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hansen |first=Randall |date=August 2003 |title=Migration to Europe since 1945: Its History and its Lessons |journal=The Political Quarterly |volume=74 |issue=s1 |pages=25–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-923x.2003.00579.x |issn=0032-3179}}</ref>

The initial plan was a rotation principle: a temporary stay (usually two to three years), followed by returning to their homeland.<ref name="Governance">{{cite book|last=Czepek|first=Judith|editor1-last=Heyes|editor1-first=Jason|editor2-last=Rychły|editor2-first=Ludek|title=The Governance of Labour Administration: Reforms, Innovations and Challenges|year=2021|publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]]|isbn=9781802203158 |pages=238–254|chapter=Labour Market Integration of Migrants in Germany?}}</ref> The rotation principle proved inefficient for industry because inexperienced ones constantly replaced experienced workers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pusch |first1=Barbara |editor1-last=Sirkeci |editor1-first=Ibrahim |editor2-last=Pusch |editor2-first=Barbara |title=Turkish Migration Policy |date=2016 |publisher=Transnational Press London |location=[[London]] |isbn=978-1-910781-13-5 |pages=205–226 |chapter=Legal membership on the Turkish side of the transnational German-Turkish space}}</ref> The companies asked for legislation to extend the residence permits.<ref name="Governance" /> Many foreign workers were followed by their families in the following period and stayed. Until the 1970s, more than four million migrant workers and their families thus came to Germany, mainly from the Mediterranean countries of Italy, Greece, the former Yugoslavia and Turkey.<ref>{{cite book|last=Molnar|first=Christopher A.|title=Memory, Politics, and Yugoslav Migrations to Postwar Germany|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|year=2019|pages=129–131|isbn=9780253037756}}</ref>

Since about 1990, the disintegration of the Soviet bloc and the enlargement of the European Union allowed guest workers from Eastern Europe to Western Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wallace|first=Clair|chapter=The New Migration Space as a Buffer Zone?|title=Patterns of Migration in Central Europe|pages=72–83|editor-first1=Claire|editor-last1=Wallace|editor-first2=Dariusz|editor-last2=Stola|year=2001}}</ref>

Some host countries set up a program to invite guest workers, as did [[West Germany]] from 1955 to 1973, when over one million guest workers (German: [[Gastarbeiter]]) arrived, mostly from [[Turkey]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Towers |first=Brian |date=January 2007 |title=The Global Evolution of Industrial Relations: Events, Ideas and the IIRA — Bruce E. Kaufman |journal=Industrial Relations Journal |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=89–93 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2338.2007.00437_1.x |issn=0019-8692}}</ref>
===Switzerland===

The underestimation of the required [[Social integration|integration]] services by the state and the host countries' society and by the migrants themselves. Switzerland's transformation into a country of immigration was not until after the accelerated industrialization in the second half of the 19th century.<ref name=":1" /> Switzerland was no longer a purely rural Alpine area but became a European vanguard in various industries at that time, first of [[textile]], later also the mechanical and chemical industries. Since the middle of the 19th century, mainly German academics, self-employed and craftsmen, but also Italians, who found a job in science, industry, construction and infrastructure construction migrated to Switzerland.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=D'amato|first1=Gianni|title=Historische und soziologische Übersicht über die Migration in der Schweiz |issue=27–2|pages=177–195|url=https://journals.openedition.org/sjep/pdf/340|journal=Schweizerisches Jahrbuch für Entwicklungspolitik|access-date=4 April 2015|date=December 2008|doi=10.4000/sjep.340 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Asia–Pacific===
In Asia, some countries in [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] offer workers. Their destinations include Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia. A 2020 [[Greenpeace]] investigation found significant evidence for the abuse of foreign laborers in the Taiwanese distant water fishing industry.<ref name="Choppy Waters2">{{cite web|title=Choppy Waters, Forced Labour and Illegal Fishing in Taiwan's Distant Water Fisheries|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/b87c6229-2020-choppy-waters-en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422161842/https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/b87c6229-2020-choppy-waters-en.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=3 April 2020 |website=www.greenpeace.org |publisher=Greenpeace}}</ref> Taiwanese conglomerate [[FCF Co., Ltd.|FCF]] was specifically singled out for links to [[illegal fishing]] and [[forced labor]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Monaghan|first=Elizabeth|title=Who is FCF? Taiwan's biggest tuna trader linked to forced labour and illegal fishing|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/29409/who-is-fcf-taiwans-biggest-tuna-trader-linked-to-forced-labour-illegal-fishing/|access-date=3 April 2020 |website=www.greenpeace.org|publisher=[[Greenpeace]]}}</ref> 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; height: 200px;"
|+ Foreign workers from selected Asian countries, by destination, 2010–11: Thousands<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2012/foreign-workers-from-selected-asian-countries-by-destination-2010-11_migr_outlook-2012-table75-en#page1|title=Foreign workers from selected Asian countries, by destination, 2010-11: Thousands|archive-date=16 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140816051235/http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2012/foreign-workers-from-selected-asian-countries-by-destination-2010-11_migr_outlook-2012-table75-en|series=International Migration Outlook 2012|publisher=[[OECD]]}}</ref>
!
! colspan="9" scope="col" | Source Country
|-
! scope="col" | Destination 
! scope="col" | {{NPL}}
! scope="col" | {{BGD}}
! scope="col" | {{IDN}}
! scope="col" | {{LKA}}
! scope="col" | {{THA}}
! scope="col" | {{IND}}
! scope="col" | {{PAK}}
! scope="col" | {{PHI}}
! scope="col" | {{VNM}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{BRU}}
| 0 || 2 || 11 || 0 || 3 || 1 || 66 || 8 ||
|-
! scope="row" | {{TWN}}
|  || || 76 || || 48 || || || 37 || 28
|-
! scope="row" | {{HKG}}
| 0 || || 50 || 0 || 3 || || 22 || 101 ||
|-
! scope="row" | {{MAS}}
| 106 || 1 || 134 || 4 || 4 || 21 || 2 || 10 || 12
|-
! scope="row" | {{SIN}}
| 0 || 39 || 48 || 1 || 11 || || 16 || 70 ||
|-
! scope="row" | {{JPN}}
| 1 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 9 ||  || 45 || 6 || 5
|-
! scope="row" | {{KOR}}
| 4 || 3 || 11 || 5 || 11 ||  || 2 || 12 || 9
|}

=== Arab Gulf states ===
In 1973, an oil boom in the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]]<ref group="note">The Gulf Cooperation Council is composed of [[United Arab Emirates|the UAE]], [[Oman Air|Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], and [[Bahrain]].</ref> created an unprecedented demand for labour in the oil, construction and industrial sectors.<ref name=Abella>{{cite book|last=Abella|first=Manolo|title=Asian migrant and contract workers in the Middle East|year=1995|pages=418–423|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=[[Cambridge]]}}</ref> Development demanded a labor force. This demand was met by foreign workers, primarily those from the Arab states, with a later shift to those from Asia-Pacific countries.<ref name=Kapiszewski>{{cite conference|last=Kapiszewski|first=Andrzej|title=Arab versus Asian migrant workers in the GCC countries|conference=United Nations Expert Group Meeting on International Migration and Development in the Arab Region|date=May 2006}}</ref> A rise in the standards of living for citizens of western Asian countries also created a demand for domestic workers in the home.

Since the 1970s, foreign workers have become a large percentage of the population in most nations in the Persian Gulf region. Growing competition with nationals in the job sector, along with complaints regarding the treatment of foreign workers, has led to rising tensions between the national and foreign populations in these nations.

[[Remittance]]s are becoming a prominent source of external funding for countries that contribute foreign workers to the GCC countries. On average, the top recipients globally are India, the Philippines, and Bangladesh. In 2001, $72.3 billion was returned as remittances to the countries of origin of foreign workers, equivalent to 1.3% of the world GDP. The source of income remains beneficial as remittances are often more stable than private capital flows. Despite fluctuations in the economy of GCC countries, the amount of dollars in remittances is usually stable.<ref name=Ratha>{{cite report|last=Ratha|first=Dilip|title=Workers' remittances: an important and stable source of external development finance|publisher=[[World Bank]]|year=2005}}</ref>

The spending of remittances is seen in two ways. Principally, remittances are sent to the families of guest workers. Though often put towards consumption, remittances are also directed to investment. Investment is seen to lead to the strengthening of infrastructure and facilitating international travel.<ref name=Ratha />

With this jump in earnings, one benefit that has been seen is the nutritional improvement in households of migrant workers. Other benefits are the lessening of underemployment and unemployment.<ref name=Shah>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Nasra M.|title=Pakistani Workers in the Middle East: Volume, Trends and Consequences|journal=International Migration Review|year=1983|volume=17|issue=3|pages=410–424|jstor=2545795|doi=10.2307/2545795|pmid=12279724}}</ref>

In detailed studies of Pakistani migrants to West Asia in the early 1980s, the average foreign worker was 25–40 years old. Seventy per cent were married, while families accompanied only 4 per cent. Two-thirds hailed from rural areas, and 83 per cent were production workers. At the time, 40 per cent of Pakistan's foreign exchange earnings came from its migrant workers.<ref name=Shah />

Domestic work is the single most important category of employment among women migrants to [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|the Arab Gulf States]], Lebanon<ref>{{cite report|editor-first1=Simel|editor-last1=Esim|editor-first2=Monica|editor-last2=Smith|title=Gender and Migration in Arab States: The Case of Domestic Workers|chapter=Women Migrant Domestic Workers in Lebanon|first=Ray|last=Jureidini|publisher=[[International Labour Organization]]|year=2004}}</ref> and Jordan.<ref name="Exporting">{{cite thesis|first=Elizabeth|last=Frantz |publisher=The London School of Economics and Political Science|year=2011|degree=Doctor of Philosophy|title=Exporting Subservience: Sri Lankan Women's Migration for Domestic Work in Jordan}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|last=Dai|first=Diana|title=Working on the Inside, Living on the Outside: Migrant Domestic Workers in Jordan|date=April 2017|publisher=[[Duke University]]|degree=Graduate}}</ref> The increase of Arab women in the labour force, and changing conceptions of women's responsibilities, have resulted in a shift in household responsibilities to hired domestic workers. Domestic workers perform an array of work in the home: cleaning, cooking, child care, and eldercare. Common work traits include an average 100-hour work week and virtually non-existent overtime pay. Remuneration differs greatly according to nationality, oftentimes depending on language skills and education level. This is seen with Filipina domestic workers receiving a higher remuneration than Sri Lankan and Ethiopian nationals.<ref name=Manseau>{{cite journal|last=Manseau|first=Gwennan|title=Contractual solutions for migrant labourers: The case of domestic workers in the Middle East|journal=Human Rights Law Commentary|year=2007|pages=25–47}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittance payments in the world. Similar to other GCC countries, remittance payments from Saudi Arabia rose during the oil boom years of the 1970s and early 1980s but declined in the mid-1980s. As oil prices fell, budget deficits mounted, and most governments of GCC countries put limits on hiring foreign workers. Weaknesses in the financial sector and government administration impose substantial transaction costs on migrant workers who send them. Although difficult to estimate, costs consist of salaries and the increased spending required to expand educational and health services, housing, roads, communications, and other infrastructure to accommodate the basic needs of the newcomers. The foreign labour force is a substantial drain of the GCC states' hard currency earnings, with remittances to migrants' home countries in the early 2000s amounting to $27 billion per year, including $16 billion from Saudi Arabia alone. It has been shown that the percentage of the GDP that foreign labour generates is roughly equal to what the state has to spend on them.<ref name=Ratha />

The main concerns of developed countries regarding immigration centres are:<ref name=Ratha />
# the local job seekers' fear of competition from migrant workers
# the fiscal burden that may result on native taxpayers for providing health and social services to migrants
# fears of erosion of cultural identity and problems of assimilation of immigrants
# national security

In immigrant-producing countries, individuals with less than a high school education continue to be a fiscal burden to the next generation. Skilled workers, however, pay more in taxes than what they receive in social spending from the state. The emigration of highly skilled workers has been linked to skill shortages, reductions in output, and tax shortfalls in many developing countries. These burdens are even more apparent in countries where educated workers largely emigrated after receiving a highly subsidised technical education.<ref name=Ratha /> "Brain Drain refers to the emigration (out-migration) of knowledgeable, well-educated and skilled professionals from their home country to another country, [usually because of] better job opportunities in the new country."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.studymode.com/essays/Brain-Drain-48420204.html |title=Brain Drain|author=KevinJ6 |work=StudyMode}}</ref>

As of 2007, 10 million workers from Southeast Asia, South Asia, or Africa live and work in the countries of the Persian Gulf region.<ref name=Manseau /> Xenophobia in receiving nations is often rampant, as menial work is often allocated only to foreign workers. In host countries, expatriate labour is treated with prejudice despite government attempts to eradicate malpractice and [[exploitation of labour|exploitation of workers]]. Emigrants are offered substandard wages and living conditions and must work overtime without extra payment. Workers or their dependents are not paid due to compensation regarding injuries and death. Citizenship is rarely offered, and labour can oftentimes be acquired below the legal minimum wage. Foreign workers often lack access to local labour markets. Oftentimes these workers are legally attached to a sponsor/employer until completion of their employment contract, after which a worker must either renew a permit or leave the country.<ref name=Abella />

Racism is prevalent towards migrant workers. With an increasing number of unskilled workers from Asia and Africa, the market for foreign workers became increasingly racialised and dangerous, or "dirty" jobs became associated with Asian and African workers noted by the term "Abed", meaning dark skin.<ref name=Shah />

Foreign workers migrate to the Gulf, Lebanon and Jordan<ref name="Exporting"/> as contract workers by means of the ''[[Kafala system|kafala]]'', or "sponsorship" system.<ref name=Ruhs>{{cite report|last=Ruhs|first=Martin|title=Temporary Foreign Worker Programmes: Policies, adverse consequences, and the need to make them work|publisher=[[International Labour Organization]]|year=2002}}</ref> Migrant work is typically for two years.<ref name=Kapiszewski /> Recruitment agencies in sending countries are the main contributors of labour to GCC countries. Through these agencies, sponsors must pay a fee to the recruiter and pay for the worker's round-trip airfare, visas, permits, and wages. Recruiters charge high fees to prospective employees to obtain employment visas, averaging between $2,000 and $2,500 in such countries as Bangladesh and India. Contract disputes are also common. In Saudi Arabia, foreign workers must have employment contracts written in Arabic and have them signed by the sponsor and themselves to be issued a work permit. Contracts may be written or oral with other GCC countries, such as Kuwait.<ref name=Ruhs />

Dependence on the sponsor (''kafeel'') naturally creates room for violations of the rights of foreign workers.<ref name=Ruhs /> Debt causes workers to work for a certain period of time without a salary to cover these fees. This bondage encourages the practice of international labour migration as women in situations of poverty can find jobs overseas and pay off their debts through work.<ref name=Manseau /> It is common for the employer or the sponsor to retain the employee's passport and other identity papers as a form of insurance for the amount an employer has paid for the worker's work permit and airfare. Kafeels sell visas to foreign workers with the unwritten understanding that the foreigner can work for an employer other than the sponsor.<ref name=Ruhs />

When a two-year work period is over, or with a job loss, workers must find another employer willing to sponsor them or return to their nation of origin within a short time. Failing to do this entails imprisonment for violation of immigration laws. Protections are nearly non-existent for migrant workers.<ref name=Manseau />

The population in the current GCC states has grown more than eight times during 50 years. Foreign workers have become the primary, dominant labour force in all sectors of the economy excluding the government bureaucracy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hertog|first=Steffen|chapter=The Oil-Driven Nation-Building of the Gulf States after the Second World War|title=The Emergence of the Gulf States|series=Studies in Modern History|year=2016|page=341|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|editor-first=John|editor-last=Peterson}}</ref> With rising unemployment, GCC governments embarked on formulating labour market strategies to improve this situation, create sufficient employment opportunities for nationals, and limit the dependence on expatriate labour. Restrictions have been imposed: the sponsorship system, the rotational system of expatriate labour to limit the duration of foreigners' stay, curbs on naturalization and the rights of those who have been naturalised, etc. This has also led to efforts to improve the education and training of nationals. Localization remains low among the private sector, however. This is due to the traditionally low income the sector offers. Also included are long working hours, a competitive work environment, and a need to recognise an expatriate supervisor, often difficult to accept.<ref name=Kapiszewski />

In 2005, low-paid Asian workers staged protests, some violent, in Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar for not receiving salaries on time. In March 2006, hundreds of mostly south Asian construction workers stopped work and went on a rampage in Dubai, UAE, to protest their harsh working conditions, low or delayed pay, and general lack of rights. Sexual harassment of Filipina housemaids by local employers, especially in Saudi Arabia, has become serious. In recent years, this has resulted in a ban on the migration of females under 21. Such nations as Indonesia have noted the maltreatment of women in the GCC states, with the government calling for an end to the sending of housemaids altogether.<ref name=Abella /> In GCC countries, a chief concern with foreign domestic workers in childcare without the desired emphasis on Islamic and Arabic values.<ref name=Manseau />

Possible developments in the future include a slowdown in the growth of foreign labour. One contributor to this is a dramatic change in demographic trends. The growing birth rate of nationals in the GCC states will lead to a more competitive workforce in the future.<ref name=Kapiszewski /> This could also lead to a rise in the numbers of national women in the workforce.

A report published by human rights organizations in 2022 suggested up to 10,000 migrant workers die annually in the Gulf.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/mar/11/up-to-10000-asian-migrant-workers-die-in-the-gulf-every-year-claims-report|title=Up to 10,000 Asian migrant workers die in the Gulf every year, claims report|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=11 March 2022}}</ref>

=== European Union ===
In 2016, around 7.14% (15.885.300 people) of total EU employment were not citizens, 3.61% (8.143.800) were from another EU Member State, 3.53% (7.741.500) were from a non-EU country. Switzerland 0.53%, France 0.65%, Spain 0.88%, Italy 1.08%, United Kingdom 1.46%, Germany 1.81% (until 1990 former territory of the FRG) were countries where more than 0.5% of employees were not citizens. 
The United Kingdom 0.91%, Germany 0.94% (until 1990 former territory of the FRG) are countries where more than 0.9% of employees were non-EU countries. 
countries with more than 0.5% employees were from another EU country were Spain 0.54%, United Kingdom 0.55%, Italy 0.72%, Germany (until 1990 former territory of the FRG) 0.87%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Labour_market_and_Labour_force_survey_(LFS)_statistics#Foreign_workers_in_the_EU|title=Labour market and Labour force survey (LFS) statistics - Statistics Explained|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=2016-06-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-datasets/-/LFSA_EGAN|title=Employment by sex, age and citizenship |website=European Commission Eurostat Products Datasets}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Body shopping|Body shops]]
* [[Bracero program]] (historical American guest-worker program)
* [[Dirty, dangerous and demeaning]]
** [[Mexican Americans]]
* [[Exploitation of labour]]
* [[Global labor arbitrage]]
* [[Global mobility]]
* [[Immigration]]
* [[Lavoie v. Canada]] (a Canadian Supreme Court case ruling on foreign worker status)
* [[Smart contract]]: can be used for temporary [[employment contract]]s<ref>{{cite conference|first1=Seth|last1=Oranburg|publisher=[[Franklin Pierce School of Law]]|location=[[Durham, New Hampshire|Durham]], [[New Hampshire]]|first2=Liya|last2=Palagashvili|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3270867|title=The Gig Economy, Smart Contracts and Disruption of traditional work arrangements|date=October 22, 2018 |ssrn=3270867 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|series=Intelligent Computing: Proceedings of the 2018 Computing Conference|conference=Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing|first1=Andrea|last1=Pinna|publisher=[[University of Cagliari]]|first2=Simona|last2=Ibba|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328657407|title=A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts|pages=1231–1243|year=2018}}</ref>
* [[Mercenary]]
* [[Metic]]
* [[Schengen Agreement]] (an [[European Union|EU]] agreement to open borders)
* [[Sweatshop]]
* [[Third Country National]]
* [[Wage slavery]]
* [[Work permit]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Knox, Paul; Agnew, John; McCarthy, Linda (2003). ''The Geography of the World Economy'' (4th ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. {{ISBN|0-340-80712-1}}.
* ———. [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/ Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930191809/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/ |date=2007-09-30 }}. Web exhibition. Library and Archives Canada.
* Ness, Immanuel (2011) ''Guest Workers and Resistance to U.S. Corporate Despotism'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|978-0252078170}}
* {{cite web | title=外勞輸入暴增 勞工處員工被指壓力爆煲跳船 處方：勞工科一年16人離職 不存在辭職潮︱Yahoo | trans-title=The surge in foreign workers has led to a surge in the number of Labour Department employees who are said to be overwhelmed by the pressure and have left. Spokesperson: 16 people have resigned from the Labour Department in one year, there is no resignation wave | author=Yahoo News | website=Yahoo News | date=11 Apr 2025 | url=https://hk.news.yahoo.com/%E5%A4%96%E5%8B%9E%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E6%9A%B4%E5%A2%9E-%E5%8B%9E%E5%B7%A5%E8%99%95%E5%93%A1%E5%B7%A5%E8%A2%AB%E6%8C%87%E5%A3%93%E5%8A%9B%E7%88%86%E7%85%B2%E8%B7%B3%E8%88%B9-%E8%99%95%E6%96%B9%EF%BC%9A%E5%8B%9E%E5%B7%A5%E7%A7%91%E4%B8%80%E5%B9%B416%E4%BA%BA%E9%9B%A2%E8%81%B7-%E4%B8%8D%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E8%BE%AD%E8%81%B7%E6%BD%AE%EF%B8%B1yahoo-101523491.html | language=zh-hant | access-date=13 Apr 2025 | quote=港府擴大輸入外勞一年半，外勞由每年平均約3,100人暴增至超過7.1萬人}}

==External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909082149/http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/221/index.html The PBS newsmagazine NOW] focuses on America's "Guest Workers" including interviews with actual guest workers who work in Montana's forests
* [http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2006/0906ness.html Migrant labour activism in New York City] from [[Dollars & Sense]] magazine
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/migrant.htm Migrant Farmworkers and Their Children] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312111742/http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/migrant.htm |date=2016-03-12 }}
* [http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xa3er9_a-gift-from-heaven_news A gift from heaven] A short film on Thai workers in Israel
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dan-rather/guest-workers-and-us-unem_b_743884.html?view=print "Guest Workers" and U.S. Unemployment] - essay and video by [[Dan Rather]]
{{Immigration}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Immigration law]]
[[Category:Foreign workers|*]]
[[Category:International factor movements]]