View source for French Indochina

{{Short description|1887–1954 French territories in Southeast Asia}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Indochinese Union
| native_name            = {{native name|fr|Union Indochinoise}}<br />{{native name|vi|Liên bang Đông Dương}}<br />{{lang|vi|聯邦東洋}} ([[Chữ Hán]])<br />{{native name|lo|ສະຫະພາບອິນດູຈີນ}}<br />{{native name|km|សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន}}<br />{{native name|zh-hant|印度支那聯邦}}
| common_name            = French Indochina
| image_flag             = Flag of France.svg
| image_coat             = French Indo-Chinese version of the Great Seal of the French Republic (Jean Auguste Barre).svg
| coat_alt               = <!-- Alt text for coat of arms -->
| symbol_type_article    = Great Seal of France
| symbol_type            = Great Seal{{Efn|Localised version of the [[Great Seal of France]] removing a number of French nationalistic symbols related to [[universal suffrage]], science, and the [[Gallic cock]] while adding an anchor and rice wheat.<ref>Lecompte, Jean. ''Monnaies et jetons de l'Indochine Française''. ([[Principality of Monaco]], 2013) Quote: "{{lang|fr|Les légendes sont bien sûr modifiées. A gauche, les attributs de l'agriculture et des beaux-arts sont remplacés par des épis de riz et à droite figure une ancre symbolisant le ministère de la Marine et des Colonies. Hélas,&nbsp;[[Albert Désiré Barre|Albert-Désiré Barre]] décède le 29 décembre 1878 et c'est alors son frère aîné [[Jean-Auguste Barre|Auguste-Jean Barre]] qui lui succède et mène à terme le projet. Les premières frappes sortent en 1879.}}" {{In lang|fr}})</ref>}}
| other_symbol           = '''[[Seal (East Asia)#Government authorities|Vietnamese-style seal]] of the Governor-General of French Indochina'''{{efn|group=infobox|Used on [[Classical Chinese]] language documents, its inscription reads {{lang|vi|Đại Pháp Quốc Khâm mệnh Tổng thống Đông Dương Toàn quyền đại thần quan nho}} ({{lang|vi-Hani|大法國欽命總統東洋全權大臣關伩}}) written in [[seal script]].}}<br />[[File:Vietnamese-style seal of the Government-General of French Indochina.svg|85px]]
| image_map              = French Indochina 1900-1945-fr.svg
| image_map_caption      = French Indochina in 1937
| era                    = [[New Imperialism]] and the [[Cold War]]
| status_text            = [[Colony]] of [[French colonial empire|France]] (1887–1941; 1946–1949)<br> [[Condominium (international law)|Condominium]] between [[Vichy France]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] (1941–1945)<br>[[Associated state]]s within [[French Union]] (1949–1954)<ref name="Associated"/>
| status                 = Fief
| demonym                = [[Indochinese]]
| org_type               = [[Federation]] of French territories and [[Protectorate#France's protectorates and protected states|protectorates]] (1887–1945, 1946–1949)<hr>Confederation of French [[associated state|associated states]] (1949–1954)
| membership             = Until 1949:{{ublist|[[File:Flag of Colonial Annam.svg|22px]] [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]]|[[File:Long tinh flag.svg|22px]] [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]]|[[File:Flag of Republic of Cochinchina (variant).svg|22px]] [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]]|[[File:Flag of Cambodia (1863–1948).svg|22px]] [[French protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]]|[[File:Flag of Laos (1893–1952).svg|22px]] [[French protectorate of Laos|Laos]]|[[File:Flag of France.svg|22px]] [[Guangzhouwan]] <small>(–1945)</small>}}<hr />
From 1949 to 1954:{{ublist|{{Flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[State of Vietnam|Vietnam]]|[[File:Flag of Cambodia (1948-1970).svg|22px]] Cambodia|[[File:Flag of Laos (1952–1975).svg|22px]] [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]]}}
| empire                 = [[French colonial empire]]
| area_km2               = 737000
| life_span              = 1887–1954
| event_pre              = [[French conquest of Vietnam]]
| date_pre               = 1858–1885
| event_start            = French Indochina established
| date_start             = 17 October
| year_start             = 1887
| event1                 = [[1893 Franco-Siamese crisis|Addition of]] [[French protectorate of Laos|Laos]]
| date_event1            = 19 April 1899
| event2                 = [[Guangzhouwan]] added
| date_event2            = 5 January 1900
| event3                 = [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina|Japanese invasion]]
| date_event3            = {{nowrap|22 September 1940}}
| event4                 = [[Franco-Thai War]]
| date_event4            = {{nowrap|Oct. 1940 – May 1941}}
| event5                 = [[Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina|Japanese coup]]
| date_event5            = 9 March 1945
| event6                 = [[Declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam|DRV proclaimed]]
| date_event6            = 2 September 1945
| event7                 = [[War in southern Vietnam (1945–1946)|Reconquering Cochinchina]]
| date_event7            = 23 September 1945
| event8                 = [[Ho–Sainteny Agreement]]
| date_event8            = 6 March 1946
| event9                 = [[First Indochina War|Indochina War]]
| date_event9            = 19 December 1946
| event10                 = [[Élysée Accords]]
| date_event10            = 8 March 1949
| event_end              = [[1954 Geneva Conference]]
| date_end               = 21 July
| year_end               = 1954
| p1                     = Annam (French protectorate){{!}}'''1887:'''<br />Protectorate<br />of Annam
| p2                     = Tonkin (French protectorate){{!}}Protectorate<br />of Tonkin
| p3                     = French Cochinchina{{!}}French<br />Cochinchina
| p4                     = French protectorate of Cambodia
| p5                     = Sip Song Chau Tai{{!}}'''1889:'''<br />Twelve Tai<br />Cantons
| p6                     = Qing dynasty{{!}}'''1898:'''<br />Qing dynasty
| p7                     = French protectorate of Laos{{!}}'''1899:'''<br />French<br />{{nowrap|protectorate of Laos}}
| p8                     = Guangzhouwan{{!}}'''1900:'''<br />Kouang-Tchéou-Wan
| p9                     = Kingdom of Champasak{{!}}'''1904:'''<br />Kingdom of Champasak
| p10                    = Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932){{!}}Kingdom<br />of Siam
| p12                    = Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945){{!}}'''1945:'''<br />Kingdom of Kampuchea
| p13                    = Lao Issara{{!}}'''1946:'''<br />Lao Issara
| p14                    = Thailand{{!}}Thailand
| s1                     = Thailand{{!}}'''1941:'''<br />Thailand
| s2                     = Empire of Vietnam{{!}}'''1945:'''<br />Empire of<br />Vietnam
| s3                     = Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945){{!}}Kingdom of<br />Kampuchea
| s4                     = Kingdom of Luang Prabang (1945) {{!}}Kingdom of<br />{{nowrap|Luang Phrabang}}
| s5                     = Guangzhouwan
| s6                     = French Union{{!}}'''1946:'''<br />French Union
| s7                     = North Vietnam{{!}}'''1954:'''<br />Democratic Republic of Vietnam
| s8                     = State of Vietnam
| s9                     = Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970){{!}}Kingdom of Cambodia
| s10                    = Kingdom of Laos
| capital                = {{Plainlist|
* {{nowrap|[[Saigon]]<br />(1887–1902, 1945–1954)}}
* {{nowrap|[[Hanoi]]<br />(1902–1945)}}
}}
| national_motto         = "{{lang|fr|[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité]]}}"
| englishmotto           = "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
| national_anthem        = {{lang|fr|[[La Marseillaise]]}}<br />{{Small|("The Marseillaise")}}<br />{{Center|[[File:Chaliapine - Rouget de Lisle - La Marseillaise.ogg]]}}
| stat_year1             = 1900
| stat_pop1              = 15,164,500
| stat_year2             = 1937
| stat_pop2              = 23,300,000
| ethnic_groups_year     = <small>1936</small>
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref>{{Cite journal |title=French Indo-China: Demographic Imbalance and Colonial Policy |journal=Population Index |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2730333 |issue=11 |volume=2 |pages=68–81 |doi=10.2307/2730333 |year=1945 |jstor=2730333 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list
 |72% [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]
 |13% [[Khmer people|Khmer]]
 |6% [[Tai peoples|Tai]] ([[Lao people|Lao]], [[Tày people|Tày]], [[Nùng people|Nùng]], [[Thái people (Vietnam)|Thái]], etc.)
 |1.4% [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and other Asiatics
 |{{nowrap|0.2% Europeans ([[French people|French]], etc.)}}
 |7.3% others ([[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnard]], [[Chams|Cham]], [[Muong people|Muong]], [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Yao people|Yao]], [[Khmu people|Khmu]], etc.; <br>Diasporas: [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], [[Indonesians|Indonesian]], [[Indian diaspora|Indian]], [[Arabs|Arab]], [[Africa]]n, etc.)}}
| common_languages       = [[French language|French]] (official)
{{Flatlist}}
* [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
* <small>[[Tây Bồi Pidgin French|Tây Bồi]]</small>
* [[Tày language|Tày]]
* [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
* [[Lao language|Lao]]
* [[Cantonese]]
* [[Teochew Min|Teochew]]
* [[Thai language|Siamese]]{{efn|Changed the name to "Thai" since 1939}}
{{Endflatlist}} 
| religion               = {{Flatlist}}
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Confucianism]]
* [[Folk religion]]s
** [[Vietnamese folk religion|Vietnamese]]
** [[Tai folk religion|Tai]]
** [[Chinese folk religion|Chinese]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Hòa Hảo]]
* [[Caodaism]]
* [[Hinduism]]
* [[Islam]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| title_leader           = [[List of Governors-General of French Indochina|Governor-General]]
| leader1                = [[Jean Antoine Ernest Constans|Ernest Constans]]
| year_leader1           = 1887–1888 (first)
| leader2                = [[Henri Hoppenot]]{{efn|group=infobox|As Commissioner-General}}
| year_leader2           = 1955–1956 (last)
| currency               = [[French Indochinese piastre]]<br>Since 1953:<br> [[Cambodian riel]], [[Lao kip]], [[South Vietnamese đồng|Vietnamese đồng]]
| today                  = [[Vietnam]]<br />[[Laos]]<br />[[Cambodia]]<br />[[China]]<br /> &nbsp;'''∟'''[[Zhanjiang]]
| footnotes              = {{notelist|group=infobox}}
}}

'''French Indochina''' (previously spelled as '''French Indo-China'''),{{efn|While both "Indo-China" and "Indochina" can be found in contemporary English-language sources, "Indo-China" is the most commonly used spelling (even though {{lang|fr|[[Indochina|Indochine]]}}, instead of {{lang|fr|[[Indo-Chine]]}}, was commonly used in French); contemporary official publications also adopt the spelling of "Indo-China".}}{{efn|{{langx|fr|Indochine française}}; {{langx|vi|Đông Dương thuộc Pháp}} ({{IPA|vi|ɗoŋ zɯɤŋ tʰuə̂k fǎːp|ipa}}), {{lang|vi-Hani|東洋屬法}}, lit. 'East Ocean under France; {{langx|km|ឥណ្ឌូចិនបារាំង}}, {{transliteration|km|Ĕnduchĕn Bareăng}}; {{langx|lo|ອິນດູຈີນຝຣັ່ງ}}, {{transliteration|lo|Indouchin Frang}}}} officially known as the '''Indochinese Union'''{{efn|Decree of 17 October 1887.}}{{efn|{{langx|fr|Union indochinoise}}; {{langx|vi|Liên bang Đông Dương}} ({{IPA|vi|liən ɓaːŋ ɗoŋ zɯɤŋ|ipa}}), {{lang|vi-Hani|聯邦東洋}}, lit. 'East Ocean Federation'; {{langx|km|សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន}}; {{langx|lo|ສະຫະພາບອິນໂດຈີນ}}}} and after 1941 as the '''Indochinese Federation''',{{efn|{{langx|fr|Fédération indochinoise}}}} was a group of French dependent territories in [[Southeast Asia]] from 1887 to 1954. It was initially a [[federation]] of [[French colonial empire|French colonies]] (1887–1949), later a [[confederation]] of French [[associated state]]s (1949–1954).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/431#:~:text=A%20federation%20is%20a%20state,which%20full%20sovereignty%20is%20retained |title=Federalism and Federation &#124; the Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination |access-date=22 January 2025 |archive-date=9 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250209194710/https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/431#:~:text=A%20federation%20is%20a%20state,which%20full%20sovereignty%20is%20retained |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Associated">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Goscha |first1=Christopher E. |author-link=Christopher Goscha |title=Associated States of Indochina |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach |pages= |date=2011 |publisher=NIAS Press |isbn=9788776940638 |url=https://indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/77-associated-states-of-indochina.html }}</ref> It comprised [[French protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]], [[French protectorate of Laos|Laos]] (from 1899), [[Guangzhouwan]] (1898–1945), [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]], and [[Nguyễn dynasty|Vietnamese]] regions of [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]] and [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]]. It was established in 1887 and was dissolved in 1954. In 1949, Vietnam was reunited and it regained Cochinchina. Its capitals were [[Hanoi]] (1902–1945) and [[Saigon]] (1887–1902, 1945–1954).

The [[Second French Empire]] [[Cochinchina campaign|colonized Cochinchina]] in 1862 and established a [[French protectorate of Cambodia|protectorate in Cambodia]] in 1863. After the [[French Third Republic]] took over northern Vietnam through the [[Tonkin campaign]], the various protectorates were consolidated into one union in 1887. Two more entities were incorporated into the union: the Laotian protectorate and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan. The French exploited the resources in the region during their rule, while also contributing to improvements of the health and education system in the region. Deep divides remained between the native population and the colonists, leading to sporadic rebellions by the former. 

After the [[Fall of France]] during [[World War II]], the colony was administered by the [[Vichy France|Vichy government]] and was under [[French Indochina in World War II|Japanese occupation]] until 9 March 1945, when the [[Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina|Japanese army overthrew the colonial regime]]. They established [[puppet state]]s including the [[Empire of Vietnam]]. After the [[Surrender of Japan|Japanese surrender]], the communist [[Viet Minh]] led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] [[August Revolution|declared Vietnam's independence]]. France sought to restore control with the help of the British in the [[war in southern Vietnam (1945–1946)]], which led to all-out Vietnamese resistance in the [[First Indochina War]].<ref name="Bradley2009">{{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Mark Philip |title=Vietnam at war |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280349-8 |page=47}}<!--|access-date=19 May 2010--></ref>

In 1945, France returned Guangzhouwan to China. To counter the Viet Minh and as part of [[decolonization]], France, working with Vietnamese nationalists, formed the anti-communist [[State of Vietnam]] as an [[associated state]] within the [[French Union]] in 1949. This led to Cochinchina returning to Vietnam in June.<ref>[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jo_pdf.do?id=JORFTEXT000000692906 Fac-similé JO du 5 juin 1949], Legifrance.gouv.fr.</ref> Laos and Cambodia also became French associated states the same year. French efforts to retake Indochina were unsuccessful, culminating in defeat at the [[Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]]. On 22 October and 9 November 1953, [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]] and [[Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–70)|Cambodia]] gained independence, as did Vietnam<ref>[https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent13.htm The Pentagon Papers Gravel Edition Volume 1, Chapter 5, "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960" (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623032152/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent13.htm |date=23 June 2017 }} Trích: "''France, as the third party in Vietnam, then became pivotal to any political settlement, its executor for the West. But France had agreed to full independence for the GVN on ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 1954, nearly six weeks before the end of the Geneva Conference. By the terms of that June agreement, the GVN assumed responsibility for international contracts previously made on its behalf by France; but, there having been no reference to subsequent contracts, it was technically free of the Geneva Agreements. It has been argued to the contrary that the GVN was bound by Geneva because it possessed at the time few of the attributes of full sovereignty, and especially because it was dependent on France for defense. But such debates turn on tenuous points of international law regarding the prerogatives of newly independent or partitioned states. France speedily divested itself of responsibilities for "civil administration" in South Vietnam''"</ref>{{Efn|The treaty was never ratified by the two heads of state; but according to its Article 4, it came into effect on the day of signing.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/vn1954.htm | title=Vietnam, indépendance, Digithèque MJP | access-date=14 January 2025 | archive-date=19 January 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250119175639/https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/vn1954.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>}} with the [[1954 Geneva Conference|Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954]], ending French Indochina.

== History ==
=== Background ===
==== Early French encounters ====
{{further|France–Vietnam relations|French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh}}
French–Vietnamese contacts can be traced to 1658 when [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] missionaries Joseph Francis Tissanier and Pierre Jacques Albier arrived in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jacques |first1=Roland |title=Câu hỏi trong khuôn khổ lịch sử khách quan: Ai đã thành lập Giáo Hội Việt Nam? |url=https://dongten.net/ai-da-thanh-lap-giao-hoi-viet-nam-2/ |date=2014 |orig-date=1997 |translator=Nguyễn Đăng Trúc }}</ref> Around this time, Vietnam had only just begun its ''[[Nam tiến]]'' ("Southward"), the occupation of the [[Mekong Delta]], a territory being part of the [[Khmer Empire]] and to a lesser extent, the kingdom of [[Champa]] which they had defeated in 1471.<ref name="USvietAnalysis">Kahin.</ref>

European involvement in Vietnam was confined to trade during the 18th century, as the remarkably successful work of the missionaries continued. In 1787, [[Pierre Pigneau de Behaine]], a French Catholic priest, petitioned the French government and organised French military volunteers to aid [[Gia Long|Nguyễn Ánh]] in retaking lands his family lost to the [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tây Sơn]]. Pigneau died in Vietnam but his troops fought on until 1802 in the [[French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh]].

=== 19th century ===
{{main|French conquest of Vietnam}}
==== French conquest of Cochinchina ====
{{main|Cochinchina campaign}}
{{see also|French Cochinchina|French protectorate of Cambodia}}
[[File:Map of French Indochina expansion.svg|thumb|left|200px|Expansion of French Indochina (violet)]]
The [[French colonial empire]] was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century; often French intervention was undertaken in order to protect the work of the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]] in the country. For its part, the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] increasingly saw Catholic missionaries as a political threat; [[courtesan]]s, for example, an influential faction in the dynastic system, feared for their status in a society influenced by an insistence on monogamy.<ref>Owen, p. 106.</ref>

A brief period of unification under the Nguyễn dynasty ended in 1858 with French military intervention. Under the pretext of protesting the persecution and expulsion of Catholic missionaries, and following [[Charles de Montigny|Charles de Montigny's]] failure to secure concessions, [[Napoleon III]] ordered Admiral [[Charles Rigault de Genouilly]] to attack Tourane (present day [[Da Nang]]).<ref name="tucker29">Tucker, p. 29.</ref>

Fourteen French gunships, 3,300 men including 300 Filipino soldiers provided by the Spanish<ref>Chapuis (1995), p. 195.</ref> attacked the port of causing significant damage and occupying the city. After fighting the Vietnamese for three months and finding himself unable to progress further in land, de Genouilly sought and received approval of an alternative attack on Saigon.<ref name="tucker29"/><ref name=Chapuis248>Chapuis (2000), p. 48.</ref>

Sailing to southern Vietnam, de Genouilly captured the poorly defended city of Saigon on 17 February 1859. Once again, however, de Genouilly and his forces were unable to seize territory outside of the defensive perimeter of the city. De Genouilly was criticised for his actions and was replaced by Admiral Page in November 1859 with instructions to obtain a treaty protecting the [[Catholic Church|Catholic faith]] in Vietnam while refraining from making territorial gains.<ref name="tucker29"/><ref name="Chapuis248"/>

Peace negotiations proved unsuccessful and the fighting in Saigon continued. Ultimately in 1861, the French brought additional forces to bear in the Saigon campaign, advanced out of the city and began to capture cities in the Mekong Delta. On 5 June 1862, the Vietnamese conceded and signed the [[Treaty of Saigon (1862)|Treaty of Saigon]] whereby they agreed to legalize the free practice of the Catholic religion; to open trade in the Mekong Delta and at three ports at the mouth of the Red River in northern Vietnam; to cede the provinces of [[Biên Hòa Province|Biên Hòa]], [[Gia Định Province|Gia Định]] and [[Định Tường Province|Định Tường]] along with the islands of Poulo Condore to France; and to pay reparations equivalent to one million dollars.<ref>Chapuis, pp. 49–53.</ref><ref name=Llewellyn>Llewellyn.</ref><ref>Thomazi, pp. 69–71.</ref>

In 1864 the aforementioned three provinces ceded to France were formally constituted as the French colony of Cochinchina. Then in 1867, French Admiral Pierre de la Grandière forced the Vietnamese to surrender three additional provinces, [[An Giang Province|Châu Đốc]], [[Hà Tiên Province|Hà Tiên]] and [[Vĩnh Long Province|Vĩnh Long]]. With these three additions all of southern Vietnam and the Mekong Delta fell under French control.<ref name=Llewellyn/>

==== Establishment and early administration ====
{{main|Tonkin campaign}}
{{see also|Annam (French protectorate)|Tonkin (French protectorate)|French protectorate of Laos|Guangzhouwan}}
In 1863, the Cambodian king [[Norodom of Cambodia|Norodom]] had requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country. In 1867, [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]] (modern [[Thailand]]) renounced [[suzerainty]] over Cambodia and officially recognised the 1863 French protectorate on Cambodia, in exchange for the control of [[Battambang]] and [[Siem Reap]] provinces which officially became part of Thailand. (These provinces would be ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and Siam in 1906).{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

[[File:Siamese Army in Laos 1893.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Siamese Army troops in the disputed territory of [[Laos]] in 1893]]
France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory over China in the [[Sino-French War]] (1884–85). French Indochina was formed on 17 October 1887 from [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]], [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] (which together form modern [[Vietnam]]) and the [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Kingdom of Cambodia]]; [[French Protectorate of Laos|Laos]] was added after the [[Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893]].{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

The federation lasted until 21 July 1954. In the four protectorates, the French formally left the local rulers in power, who were the [[List of Vietnamese monarchs|emperors of Vietnam]], [[List of monarchs of Cambodia|kings of Cambodia]], and [[List of monarchs of Laos|kings of Luang Prabang]], but in fact gathered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only as figureheads.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Japanese women called [[Karayuki-san]] migrated or were trafficked to cities like Hanoi, Haiphong and Saigon in colonial French Indochina in the late 19th century to work as prostitutes and provide sexual services to French soldiers who were occupying Vietnam. Since the French viewed Japanese women as clean, they were highly popular.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roustan |first1=Frédéric |date=2012 |title=Mousmés and French Colonial Culture: Making Japanese Women's Bodies Available in Indochina |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52 |journal=Journal of Vietnamese Studies |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=52–105 |doi=10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52 |jstor=10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52 |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621023718/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52 |archive-date=21 June 2022 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://simipress.com/a-brief-primer-on-vice-and-sex-in-colonial-vietnam/ |title=A Brief Primer on Vice and Sex in Colonial Vietnam |last=Carney |first=Joey |date=27 April 2020 |website=Simi Press |publisher= |access-date= |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529092603/https://simipress.com/a-brief-primer-on-vice-and-sex-in-colonial-vietnam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Images of the Japanese prostitutes in Vietnam were put on [[French postcard]]s by French photographers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoskins |first1=Janet |date=Summer 2007 |title=Postcards from the Edge of Empire: Images and Messages from French Indochina |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28649479 |journal=Asia's Colonial Photographies |publisher=IIAS Newsletter |volume= |issue=44 |pages=16, 17 |doi= |access-date= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621024303/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janet-Hoskins-2/publication/28649479_Postcards_from_the_Edge_of_Empire_Images_and_Messages_from_French_Indochina/links/5a8354450f7e9bda86a45675/Postcards-from-the-Edge-of-Empire-Images-and-Messages-from-French-Indochina.pdf |archive-date=21 June 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/911418 |title=Postcards from the Edge of Empire: Images and Messages from French Indochina |journal=IIAS Newsletter |date=January 2007 |last1=Hoskins |first1=Janet |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163301/https://www.academia.edu/911418 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yee |first1=Jennifer |date=2004 |title=Recycling the 'Colonial Harem'? Women in Postcards from French Indochina |url=https://www.academia.edu/6604559 |journal=French Cultural Studies |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.1177/0957155804040405 |s2cid=162718081 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407195803/https://www.academia.edu/6604559 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://saigoneer.com/saigon-people/4827-photos-the-japanese-prostitutes-of-colonial-vietnam |title=[Photos] The Japanese Prostitutes Of Colonial Vietnam |date=15 July 2015 |website=Saigoneer |publisher= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717104138/https://saigoneer.com/saigon-people/4827-photos-the-japanese-prostitutes-of-colonial-vietnam |access-date= |archive-date=17 July 2015 }}</ref><ref>*陳碧純，「山打根的八番娼館」之讀後心得，亞太研究論壇卷期:28 2005.06，頁309-315。http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N28/2806.pdf {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811005721/https://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N28/2806.pdf |date=11 August 2022 }}
* 佐藤トゥイウェン，「第 4 章「孝」に殉じた天草の「からゆきさん」」，『周縁の文化交渉学シリーズ 8天草諸島の歴史と現在』，関西大学文化交渉学教育研究拠点，2012年。
* 柏木卓司，『戦前期フランス領インドシナにおける邦人進出の形態-「職業別人口表 」を中心として-』 ， (アジア経済) 31(3) 1990 3: p.&nbsp;78-98。
* 柏木卓司，「ベトナムのからゆきさん」，『歴史と人物』10月号，中央公論，1979，208頁。
* 神坂次郎，『おれは伊平次』，講談社文庫，2002/8。
* 平田豊弘，「松下光廣と大南公司」，『周縁の文化交渉学シリーズ 4 陶磁器流通と西海地域』，関西大学，荒武賢一朗編，2011年。
* Ch. Lemire,　Les cinq Pays de l'Indo-Chine française, l'établissement de Kouang-Tchéou, le Siam，Juillet 1899．
* Dean Meyers and My-Van Tran, The Cao Dai, Prince Cuong De and the Japanese in 1937–1939, THE CRISIS OF THE EIGHTH LUNAR MONTH, University of South Australia, IJAPS Vol. 2 (May) 2006.</ref> The Japanese government tried to hide the existences of these Japanese prostitutes who went abroad and did not mention them in books on history.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ranker.com/list/what-are-japanese-karayuki-san/melissa-sartore |title=Facts About Karayuki-San, The Japanese Sex Workers Trafficked To The Rest Of The World |last=Sartore |first=Melissa |date=7 June 2019 |website=Ranker |publisher= |access-date= |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408023627/https://www.ranker.com/list/what-are-japanese-karayuki-san/melissa-sartore |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jolivet |first=Muriel |author-link= |date=2005 |title=Japan: The Childless Society?: The Crisis of Motherhood |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAD3a6WaLgEC&dq=karayuki-san+erased+from+japanese+history&pg=PA124 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=124 |isbn=1134757166 }}</ref>

Beginning in the 1880s there was a rise of an explicitly anti-Catholic French administration in French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/religious_missionaries_and_the_colonial_state_indochina |title=Religious Missionaries and the Colonial State (Indochina) |date=20 February 2015 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Charles Keith |publisher=1914–1918-online - International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819050955/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/religious_missionaries_and_the_colonial_state_indochina |url-status=live}} – Keith, Charles: Religious Missionaries and the Colonial State (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (20 February 2015). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.10559}}.</ref> The administration would try to reduce Catholic missionary influence in French Indochinese society, as opposed to the earlier decades where missionaries played an important role in both administration and society in French Cochinchina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina"/>
[[File:Presidential Palace of Vietnam.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Presidential Palace, Hanoi|Presidential Palace]], in [[Hanoi]], built between 1900 and 1906 to house the governor-general of Indochina]]

From 1 January 1898, the French directly took over the right to collect all taxes in the protectorate of Annam and to allocate salaries to the Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty and its mandarins.<ref name="Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động">{{cite web |url=http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/2001/66916/nha-nguyen-va-nhung-thang-7-bien-djong.html |title=Nhà Nguyễn và những tháng 7 biến động. – Phải chăng tháng 7 với triều Nguyễn là một sự trùng hợp, khi Pháp mở đầu cuộc tấn công 1/9/1885 (nhằm vào 24/7/1858 âm lịch) và trận chiến đấu cuối cùng dưới sự lãnh đạo của triều đình nhà Nguyễn cũng diễn ra vào 5/7/1885. |quote=Trong một thông tri ngày 24/8/1898, Khâm sứ Trung kỳ đã viết "Từ nay, trên vương quốc An Nam không còn tồn tại hai chính quyền nữa mà chỉ tồn tại một chính quyền thôi" (tức chính quyền Pháp). |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=7 August 2021 |author=Nhuần (tổng hợp) |publisher=[[National Museum of Vietnamese History|Bảo tàng Lịch sử Quốc gia]] |language=vi |archive-date=7 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807171649/http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/2001/66916/nha-nguyen-va-nhung-thang-7-bien-djong.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a notice dated 24 August 1898, the Resident-Superior of Annam wrote: "From now on, in the Kingdom of Annam there are no longer two governments, but only one" (meaning that the French government completely took over the administration).<ref name="Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động"/>

==== Early Vietnamese rebellions ====
{{Further|Cần Vương movement}}
While the French were trying to establish control over Cambodia, a large scale Vietnamese insurgency – the [[Cần Vương movement]] – started to take shape, aiming to expel the French and install the boy emperor [[Hàm Nghi]] as the leader of an independent Vietnam.<ref>Jonathan D. London <!-- isbn# needed -->''Education in Vietnam'', pg. 10 (2011): "The ultimately unsuccessful Cần Vương (Aid the King) Movement of 1885–89, for example, was coordinated by scholars such as [[Phan Đình Phùng]], [[Phan Chu Trinh]], [[Phan Bội Châu]], [[Trần Quý Cáp]] and [[Huỳnh Thúc Kháng]], who sought to restore sovereign authority to the Nguyễn throne."</ref> Between 1885 and 1889, insurgents, led by [[Phan Đình Phùng]], [[Phan Chu Trinh]], [[Phan Bội Châu]], [[Trần Quý Cáp]] and [[Huỳnh Thúc Kháng]], targeted Vietnamese Christians as there were very few French soldiers to overcome, which led to a massacre of around 40,000 Christians.<ref>Fourniau, ''Annam–Tonkin'', pp. 39–77</ref> The rebellion was eventually brought down by a French military intervention, in addition to its lack of unity in the movement.{{sfn|Brocheux|Hémery|2004|pp=57–68}}<ref>David Marr (1971) ''Vietnamese Anticolonialism'', pg. 68</ref><ref>Huard, pp. 1096–1107; Huguet, pp. 133–223; Sarrat, pp. 271–273; Thomazi, ''Conquête'', pp. 272–275; ''Histoire militaire'', pp. 124–125</ref>

Nationalist sentiments intensified in Vietnam, especially during and after [[History of Vietnam during World War I|World War I]], but all the uprisings and tentative efforts failed to obtain sufficient concessions from the French.

==== Franco-Siamese crisis (1893) ====
{{main|1893 Franco-Siamese crisis}}
Territorial conflict in the Indochinese peninsula for the expansion of French Indochina led to the [[Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893]]. In 1893 the French authorities in Indochina used border disputes, followed by the [[Paknam incident|Paknam naval incident]], to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared at Bangkok, and demanded the cession of Lao territories east of the [[Mekong|Mekong River]].{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

King [[Chulalongkorn]] appealed to the British, but the British minister told the king to settle on whatever terms he could get, and he had no choice but to comply. Britain's only gesture was an agreement with France guaranteeing the integrity of the rest of Siam. In exchange, Siam had to give up its claim to the Thai-speaking [[Shan State|Shan region]] of north-eastern Burma to the British, and cede Laos to France{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}.

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Les Mandarins et les Autorites Françaises Attendant L’Arrivee de l’Empereur Thanh Thai.png|thumb|The oil painting ''Les Mandarins et les Autorites Françaises Attendant L’Arrivee de l’Empereur [[Thành Thái|Thanh Thai]]'', 1903.]]
==== Further encroachments on Siam (1904–1907) ====
The French continued to pressure Siam, and in 1902 they manufactured another crisis.{{clarify|date=November 2016}} This time Siam had to concede French control of territory on the west bank of the Mekong opposite [[Luang Prabang]] and around [[Champasak (town)|Champasak]] in southern Laos, as well as western Cambodia. France also occupied the western part of [[Chanthaburi Province|Chantaburi]].

In 1904, to get back Chantaburi, Siam had to give [[Trat]] and Koh Kong to French Indochina. Trat became part of Thailand again [[Franco-Siamese treaty of 1907|on 23 March 1907]] in exchange for many areas east of the Mekong like [[Battambang Province|Battambang]], [[Siem Reap province|Siem Reap]] and [[Banteay Meanchey Province|Sisophon]].

In the 1930s, Siam engaged France in a series of talks concerning the repatriation of Siamese provinces held by the French. In 1938, under the [[Popular Front (France)|Front Populaire]] administration in Paris, France had agreed to repatriate [[Angkor Wat]], [[Angkor Thom]], [[Siem Reap]], [[Siem Pang]], and the associated provinces (approximately 13) to Siam.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}} Meanwhile, Siam took over control of those areas, in anticipation of the upcoming treaty. Signatories from each country were dispatched to Tokyo to sign the treaty repatriating the lost provinces.{{Non sequitur|date=April 2021}}

==== Anti-French revolts in the early 20th century ====
Although during the early 20th century calm was supposed to reign as the French had "pacified" the region, constant uprisings contesting French rule characterised French Indochina this period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/indochina |title=Indochina (Version 1.0). |date=11 January 2022 |access-date=17 August 2022 |author=Claire Thi Liên Trân |publisher=1914–1918-online – International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812170510/http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/indochina |url-status=live}} – Thi Liên Trân, Claire: Indochina, in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (11 January 2022). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.11594}}.</ref> "There is ample evidence of the rural populations' involvement in revolts against authority during the first 50 years of the French colonial presence in Cambodia."<ref>Osborne, Milton: ''Peasant politics in Cambodia. The 1916 Affair'', in: Modern Asian Studies 12/2, 1978, pp.&nbsp;226–228.</ref> The French ''Sûreté'' was worried about the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] victory during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] and its lasting impression on the East as it was considered to be the first victory of "a [[Mongoloid|yellow people]] over the [[White people|white]]", as well as the fall of the [[Manchu people|Manchu]]-led [[Qing dynasty]] to the [[Xinhai Revolution]] which established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> These events all had significant influence on nationalist sentiments in the territories of French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The early 20th century saw a number of [[Secret society|secret societies]] launch rebellions in Cochinchina, the Peace and Duty Society (Nghia Hoa Doan Hoi) was introduced to the region by the [[Minh Hương]] refugees following the [[Manchu conquest of China]] and the Vietnamese [[Tiandihui|Heaven and Earth Society]] (天地會, ''Thiên Địa Hội'').<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_indochina#GND_114768765X |title=Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Indochina) |date=6 December 2017 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Patrice Morlat |publisher=1914–1918-online - International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=13 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813073418/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_indochina#GND_114768765X |url-status=live}} – Morlat, Patrice: Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (6 December 2017). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.11199}}. Translated by: Jennings, Eric Thomas.</ref> The Peace and Duty Society was also active supporting anti-Qing insurgents in China.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

The majority of the traditional [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] elites would continue to operate under the French protectorate being loyal to their new rulers, but as early period of the ''Pháp thuộc'' saw an influx of French enterprises significant changes to the social order of the day inspired new forms of resistance against French rule that differed from the earlier ''Cần Vương'' Movement.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> The new social circumstances in French Indochina were brought about by the establishment of industrial companies by the French such as the ''Union commerciale indochinoise'', the ''Est Asiatique français'' shipping company, the ''Chemin de fer français de l'Indochine et du Yunan'' railway company, as well as the various coal exploitation companies operating in Tonkin, these modern companies were accompanied by an influx of French tea, coffee, and rubber plantation magnates.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

Following the defeat of the Nguyễn loyalist ''Cần Vương'' Movement a new generation of anti-French resistance emerged, rather than being rooted in the traditional mandarin elites the new anti-French resistance leaders of the early 20th century were more influenced by international events and revolutions abroad to inspire their resistance and the issue of modernisation.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Some Vietnamese revolutionaries like [[Phan Châu Trinh]] traveled to the Western World (''Đi Tây'') to obtain the "keys" to modernity and hope to bring these back to Vietnam.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> While others like the revolutionary leader [[Phan Bội Châu]] made the "Journey to the East" (''[[Đông Du]]'') to the Japanese Empire which they saw as the other role-model of modernisation for Vietnam to follow.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The ''Đông Du'' school of revoluties was supported by Prince [[Cường Để]], a direct descendant of the Gia Long Emperor.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Prince Cường Để hoped that by financing hundreds of young ambitious Vietnamese people to go get educated in Japan that this would contribute to the liberation of his country from French domination.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The ''[[Duy Tân Hội]]'' was founded in 1904 by Phan Bội Châu and Prince Cường Để.<ref>Chu Trinh Phan, Sính Vĩnh Phan Châu Trinh and his political writings, p. 7  2009 "Phan Boi Chau was the major figure within this group of literati.20 A founder of the Vietnam Modernization Association (Viet Nam Duy Tan Hoi, 1904), Phan Boi Chau went to Japan in 1905, primarily to ask for military aid. "</ref><ref>Education in Vietnam, p. 48, Jonathan D London, 2011 "Phan Boi Chau (1867–1940) was founder of the Duy Tân Hội (Reformation Society) and Đông Du ("Go East") movement that encouraged nationalist Vietnamese youth to study in Japan. Later, he founded the Vietnam Quang Phuc Hoi ..."</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> The group in a broader sense was also considered a Modernisation Movement.<ref>Philip G. Altbach, Toru Umakoshi ''Asian Universities: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary ...'' 2004 p. 331 "Phong trao Duy Tan (The Duy Tan reform movement). Danang, Vietnam: Danang Publishing House. Pham, L. H. (2000, December 28)."</ref><ref>David P. Chandler, David Joel Steinberg ''In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History'' 1987  p. 315 "Phan Boi Chau himself, by this time the leader of a political group known as the "Renovation Society" (Duy Tan Hoi) initiated this"</ref><ref>Van Thao Trinh ''Les compagnons de route de Hô Chi Minh: Histoire d'un engagement'' 2004 . p. 18 "Duy Tân (Modernisation)."</ref> This new group of people consisted only of a few hundred people, with most of its members being either students or nationalists.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Notable members of the society included [[Gilbert Trần Chánh Chiêu]].<ref>Philippe M. F. Peycam  The Birth of Vietnamese Political Journalism: Saigon, 1916–1930, p. 56.  2012 "During Chiêu's trial, the French discovered that he had been a central agent for an underground movement called the Association for the Modernization of Vietnam (Việt Nam Duy Tân Hội), based in Japan and led by Châu and Prince Cường Để..."</ref> The members of the ''Duy Tân Hội'' would establish a network of commercial enterprises to both gain capital to finance their activities and to hide their true intentions.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> A number of other anti-French organisations would support the ''Duy Tân Hội'' such as the Peace and Duty Society and the Heaven and Earth Society.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

The [[Tonkin Free School]] (''Đông Kinh Nghĩa Thục''), which was created in Hanoi in 1907 by the supporters of both Phan Châu Trinh and Phan Bội Châu was closed in the year of its founding by the French authorities because it was perceived as being anti-French.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The Tonkin Free School stemmed from the movement of the same name, which aimed to modernise Vietnamese society by abandoning [[Confucianism]] and adopting new ideas from both the Western world and Japan. In particular, it promoted the [[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese version of the Latin script]] for writing [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] in place of classical Chinese by publishing educational materials and newspapers using this script, as a new vehicle of instruction. The schools offered free courses to anyone who wanted to learn about the modern spirit. The teachers at the school at 59 Hàng Đàn included [[Phạm Duy Tốn]].<ref>Nguyễn Đình Hoà ''From the City Inside the Red River: A Cultural Memoir'' 1999 p. 76 "the Association for Mutual Education (Hội Trí Tri) at 59 Fan Street. ... 22 August 1907, of the same paper further revealed, on p. 348, that the three elementary grades were taught ... Trần Văn Hùng, Vũ Văn Trw and Phạm Duy Tốn, the latter a scholar-publicist and father of Professor Phạm Duy-Khiem and musician Phạm Duy-Ca'n, a.k.a. Phạm Duy. On 16 November 1943, Governor-General Decoux, resident-sup ...</ref>

in the years prior to World War I the French arrested thousands of people with some being [[Death sentence|sentenced to death]] and others being imprisoned at the Poulo Condore jail island ([[Côn Sơn Island]]).<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Because of this Côn Sơn Island would become the best school for political prisoners, nationalists, and communists, as they were gathered together in large, common cells which allowed them to exchange their ideas.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

In March 1908, mass demonstrations took place in Annam and Tonkin demanding a reduction of the high taxes.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

[[File:Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg|thumb|The heads of Duong Be, Tu Binh and Doi Nhan decapitated by the French on 8 July 1908 in the Hanoi Poison Plot]]

In June 1908, the [[Hanoi Poison Plot]] took place where a group of Tonkinese indigenous ''tirailleurs'' attempted to poison the entire French colonial army's garrison in the [[Citadel of Hanoi]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The aim of the plot was to neutralise the French garrison and make way for Commander [[Đề Thám]]'s rebel army to capture the city of Hanoi. The plot was disclosed, and then was suppressed by the French.<ref>{{cite book |title=The last emperors of Vietnam: from Tu Duc to Bao Dai |last=Chapuis |first=Oscar |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2000 |isbn=0-313-31170-6 |pages=90–91 }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In response the French proclaimed [[martial law]]. The French accused Phan Châu Trinh and Phan Bội Châu of the plot, Phan Châu Trinh was sent to Poulo Condor, and Phan Bội Châu fled to Japan and thence, in the year 1910, he went to China.<ref>{{cite book |title=Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background |last=Largo |first=V. |publisher=[[Nova Publishers]] |year=2002 |isbn=1-59033-368-3 |page=111 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975 |first=Robert D. |last=Schulzinger |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] US |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512501-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/timeforwar00robe |page=7 }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In the years 1912 and 1913 Vietnamese nationalists organised attacks in Tonkin and Cochinchina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

Using diplomatic pressure the French persuaded the Japanese to banish the ''Duy Tân Hội'' in 1909 from its shores causing them to seek refuge in Qing China, here they would join the ranks of [[Sun Yat-Sen]]'s [[Tongmenghui]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> While places like [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]], and Yunnan were earlier in the French sphere of influence in China, these places would now become hosts of anti-French revolutionary activities due to their borders with Tonkin and Laos, being the primary places of operation for both Chinese and Vietnamese revolutionaries.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> This allowed for members of the ''Duy Tân Hội'' to perform border raids on both Tonkin and Laos from their bases in China.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

In March 1913 the mystic millenarist cult leader [[Phan Xích Long]] organised an independence demonstration in [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]] which was attended by 600 peasants dressed in white robes.<ref>Peycam, Philippe M. F: ''The birth of Vietnamese political journalism. Saigon, 1916–1930'', [[New York City]] (2015): [[Columbia University Press]]. p. 18.</ref> Phan Xích Long claimed descent of the deposed Hàm Nghi Emperor and the Ming dynasty's emperor and declared himself to be the "Emperor of the Ming Dynasty".<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

The year 1913 also saw the ''Duy Tân Hội's'' second insurrection campaign, this campaign resulted in the society's members murdering two French Hanoi police officers, attacks on both militia and the military, and the execution of a number of Nguyễn dynasty mandarins that were accused of working together with the French government.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Another revolt also broke out in Cochinchina in 1913 where prisons and administrative hubs were attacked by crowds of hundreds of peasants using sticks and swords to fight the French, as the French were armed with firearms a large number of protesters ended up dying by gunshot wounds causing the protests to break up ending the revolt.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

During the early 20th century the French protectorate over Cambodia was challenged by rebels, just before it saw three separate revolts during the early reign of King [[Norodom of Cambodia|Norodom]], who had little authority outside [[Phnom Penh]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

During the early 20th century Laos was considered to be the most "docile" territory as it saw relatively few uprisings.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The French attributed this to them being more stable rulers than the Siamese who had ruled over them for a century before the establishment of the French protectorate.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Both the traditional elite and the Laotian peasantry seemed largely content with French rule during this period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Despite this, sporadic revolts occurred in Laos during the late 19th century and early 20th century. During the late 19th century Southern Laos saw upland minority communities rising up in revolt, these were led by Bac My and Ong Ma on the [[Bolaven Plateau]], who demanded the restoration of the "old order" and led an armed insurrection against the French until as late as 1936.<ref>Gunn, Geoffrey C.: ''Rebellion In Northern Laos. The Revolts of the Lu and the Chinese Republicans (1914–1916)'', in: The Journal of The Siam Society 77/1 (1989), p. 61.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The [[Holy Man's Rebellion]] erupted in 1901 and was not suppressed until 1907. It was a "major rebellion by local [[Lao Theung]] tribes (the [[Alak people|Alak]], [[Nyaw people|Nyaheun]], and Laven) against French domination".<ref>[[Martin Stuart-Fox|Fox-Stuart, Martin]] (Winter 1995). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/french-in-laos-18871945/13C6371000B01530B3011FF9A0B6436C "The French in Laos, 1887–1945"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617012958/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/french-in-laos-18871945/13C6371000B01530B3011FF9A0B6436C |date=17 June 2018 }}. ''Modern Asian Studies''. 29:1 p. 111. {{doi|10.1017/S0026749X00012646}}.</ref><ref name="Stuart-Fox-2nd">[[Martin Stuart-Fox|Stuart-Fox, Martin]] (2001). ''Historical Dictionary of Laos''. Second Edition. Asian/Oceanian Historical Dictionaries Series No. 35. Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.</ref> Though there is not extensive literature on these particular revolutionary revolts in the Bolaven Plateau, one can see that the native communities desired to rid the region of the extensive and overpowering influence of their colonisers.<ref name="JSS_062_1e_Murdoch">{{cite journal |last=Murdoch |first=John B. |year=1974 |title=The 1901–1902 Holy Man's Rebellion |journal=[[Journal of the Siam Society]] |format=free |volume=62 |issue=1 |no-pp=<!-- hides automatic 'p' or 'pp'. --> |publisher=Siam Heritage Trust |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf |access-date=2 April 2013 |quote=The 'Holy Man's' uprising of 1901–1902 was a large scale popular rebellion involving Northeast Thailand, Southern Laos, and the adjacent portion of the Vietnamese Central Highlands. Scholarship to date has not adequately considered the rebellion's character as transcending present national boundaries, having common leadership, and growing out of common regional causes. |archive-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713190437/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Introduction of French education ====
On 16 May 1906 the governor-general of French Indochina Jean Baptiste Paul Beau issued a decree establishing the Councils for the Improvement of Indigenous Education.<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục">{{cite web |url=http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/3096/11172/gioi-thieu-mot-so-van-ban-co-lien-quan-djen-bo-hoc-va-bo-quoc-dan-giao-duc.html |title=Giới thiệu một số văn bản có liên quan đến Bộ Học và Bộ Quốc dân giáo dục. - Để điều hành đất nước, từ năm 1802–1906, nhà Nguyễn đã thiết lập 6 bộ là: Bộ Lại, Bộ Hộ, Bộ Lễ, Bộ Binh, Bộ Hình, Bộ Công. |date=6 April 2012 |access-date=16 June 2022 |author=tapchisonghuong.com.vn |publisher=[[National Museum of Vietnamese History|BẢO TÀNG LỊCH SỬ QUỐC GIA (VIETNAM NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY)]] |language=vi |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616205334/http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/3096/11172/gioi-thieu-mot-so-van-ban-co-lien-quan-djen-bo-hoc-va-bo-quoc-dan-giao-duc.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn"/> These organisations would oversee the French policies surrounding the education of the [[Indigénat|indigenous population]] of French Indochina to "study educational issues related to each place separately".<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục"/>

According to researcher Nguyễn Đắc Xuân, in 1907, the imperial court of the Nguyễn dynasty sent [[Cao Xuân Dục]] and Huỳnh Côn, the ''Thượng thư'' of the ''Hộ Bộ'', to French Cochinchina to "hold a conference on education" (''bàn nghị học chính'') with the French authorities on the future of the Annamese education system.<ref name="VnExpress-Triều-đại-phong-kiến-duy-nhất-có-Bộ-Học">{{cite web |url=https://vnexpress.net/trieu-dai-phong-kien-duy-nhat-co-bo-hoc-3509342.html |title=Triều đại phong kiến duy nhất có Bộ Học. |date=6 December 2016 |access-date=22 June 2022 |author=Võ Thạnh |publisher=[[VnExpress]] |language=vi }}</ref> This meeting was also recorded in the work ''Hoàng Việt Giáp Tý niên biểu'' written by Nguyễn Bá Trác.<ref name="Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn">{{cite web |url=https://luutru.gov.vn/vai-net-ve-bo-hoc-qua-chau-ban-trieu-nguyen-402-vtlt.htm |title=Vài nét về Bộ Học qua châu bản triều Nguyễn. – 04:00 PM 26/11/2015 – Lượt xem: 482 – Có thể nói có không ít tư liệu viết về Bộ Học và những cách tân trong chương trình giáo dục Việt Nam thời thuộc Pháp, tuy nhiên Châu bản triều Nguyễn thực sự là nguồn sử liệu quan trọng cung cấp những thông tin xác thực, giá trị để chúng ta có cơ sở nghiên cứu về nền giáo dục Việt Nam thời thuộc địa. |date=26 November 2015 |access-date=22 June 2022 |author=Th.S Nguyễn Thu Hường – TTLTQG I |publisher=State Records and Archives Department of Vietnam (Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước) |language=vi |archive-date=20 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620222653/https://luutru.gov.vn/vai-net-ve-bo-hoc-qua-chau-ban-trieu-nguyen-402-vtlt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The creation of a [[Ministry of Education (Nguyễn dynasty)|ministry of education]] was orchestrated by the French to reform the Nguyễn dynasty's educational system to match French ambitions in the region more.<ref name="Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn"/> As explained by the [[Resident-Superior of Annam]] [[Ernest Fernand Lévecque]] "Its creation is to better suit the times as more opportunities to study" opened up in the South to which this new ministry was best suited to help this transition.<ref name="Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn"/>

While the Nguyễn dynasty's Ministry of Education was nominally a part of the Nguyễn dynasty's administrative apparatus, actual control was in the hands of the French ''Council for the Improvement of Indigenous Education in Annam'', which dictated its policies.<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục"/> All work done by the ministry was according to the plans and the command of the French ''Director of Education of Annam''.<ref name="Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn"/> The French administration in Annam continuously revised the curriculum to be taught in order to fit the French system.<ref name="Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn"/>

==== World War I ====
{{Main|Vietnam during World War I}}
[[File:Bản tấu của Viện Cơ mật về việc giúp đỡ nước Pháp về tài chính năm Khải Định thứ 2 (1917) 02.jpg|thumb|right|A report by the ''[[Viện cơ mật]]'' on the financial and military aid given by the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] to Great [[France]] in the year [[Khải Định]] 2 (1917). Note how the document ends with the phrases ''Đại Pháp [[Ten thousand years|vạn tuế]]'', ''Đông Dương vạn tuế'' (大法萬歲, 東洋萬歲).]]

The [[French entry into World War I]] saw thousands of volunteers, primarily from the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, enlist for service in Europe, around {{Frac|7|8}} of all French Indochinese serving in Europe were Annamese and Tonkinese volunteers.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/between_acceptance_and_refusal_-_soldiers_attitudes_towards_war_indochina |title=Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Indochina) |date=20 April 2018 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Kimloan Vu-Hill |publisher=1914–1918-online – International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819050956/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/between_acceptance_and_refusal_-_soldiers_attitudes_towards_war_indochina |url-status=live}}  Vu-Hill, Kimloan: Between Acceptance and Refusal – Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Indochina) (Version 1.1), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (20 April 2018). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.10659/1.1 }}</ref><ref>[[Albert Sarraut|Sarraut, Albert]]: ''La Mise en valeur des colonies françaises'', [[Paris]] (1923), pp. 42–43; 9 PA 13/3, Memo from the General-Governor of French Indochina to the Governor of Cochinchina, Residents Superior of Tonkin, Annam, and Cambodia, 2 June 1918; Cross, Gary: Immigrant Workers in Industrial France. The Making of a New Laboring Class, Philadelphia 1983, pp. 34–36; Nogaro, B. / Weil, Lucien: La main d'ouvre étrangère et coloniale pendant la guerre, New Haven, CT 1926, pp. 32–35: 242,000 soldiers from Africa and Asia had served in the war.</ref> This period also saw a number of uprisings in [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]] and [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |first=Andre |last=Jouineau |page=63 |title=French Army 1918 1915 to Victory |date=2009 |publisher=Amber Books Limited |isbn=978-2-35250-105-3 }}</ref> French Indochina contributed significantly to the French war effort in terms of funds, products and human resources.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

Prior to World War I the population of French Indochina stood at around 16,395,000 in 1913 with 14,165,000 being Vietnamese (Tonkinese, Annamese and Cochinchinese), 1,600,000 Cambodians, and 630,000 Laotians.<ref>Brocheux, Pierre / Hemery, Daniel: ''Indochine, la colonisation ambiguë 1858–1954'', [[Paris]] (1994), p. 248. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> These 16.4 million subjects were ruled over by only around 18,000 French civilians, militaries, and civil servants.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

During this period governor-general of French Indochina [[Albert Sarraut]] promised a new policy of association and a "Franco-Annamese Collaboration" (French: ''Collaboration franco-annamite''; Vietnamese: ''Pháp-Việt Đề huề'') for the wartime contribution by the French Indochinese to their colonial masters.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> However, beside some liberal reforms, the French administration actually increased economic exploitation and ruthless repression of nationalist movements which rapidly resulted in a disappointment of the promises made by Sarraut.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

During the early days of the war around 6 million Frenchmen were drafted causing a severe labour shortage in France.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/indochinese_workers_in_france_indochina |title=Indochinese Workers in France (Indochina) |date=8 October 2014 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Kimloan Vu-Hill |publisher=1914–1918-online – International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819050517/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/indochinese_workers_in_france_indochina |url-status=live}} - Vu-Hill, Kimloan: Indochinese Workers in France (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (8 October 2014). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.10373}}.</ref> In response, the Undersecretary of State for Artillery and Munitions proposed to hire women, European immigrants, and French colonial subjects, these people were later followed with Chinese immigrants.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France"/> From 1915 onwards, the French war effort's manpower needs started to rise significantly.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Initially the French maintained a racial hierarchy where they believed in "martial races" making the early recruitment fall onus primarily on [[North Africa]] and [[French West Africa]], but soon the need for additional manpower forced the French to recruit men from the Far East and [[French Madagascar|Madagascar]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Almost 100,000 Vietnamese were conscripts and went to Europe to fight and serve on the French battlefront, or work as labourers.<ref>Sanderson Beck: ''Vietnam and the French: South Asia 1800–1950'', paperback, 629 pp.</ref><ref name=":0" /> Vietnamese troops also [[Macedonian front|served in the Balkans]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205213283 |title=French Forces in the Salonika Campaign 1915–1918 }}</ref> and the [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Middle Eastern front]]. This exceptional human mobility offered the French Indochinese, mostly Vietnamese, the unique opportunity of directly access to social life and political debates that were occurring in contemporary France and this resulted in their aspirations to become "masters of their own destiny" to increase.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Exposed to new political ideals and returning to a colonial occupation of their own country (by a ruler that many of them had fought and died for), resulted in some sour attitudes.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Many of these troops sought out and joined the Vietnamese nationalist movement focused on overthrowing the French.<ref name="Drake-how">[http://www.vietvet.org/jeffviet.htm "How the U.S. Got Involved In Vietnam"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922205245/http://www.vietvet.org/jeffviet.htm |date=22 September 2019 }}, by Jeff Drake</ref>

In 1925, communist and anti-French activist Nguyễn Ái Quốc (later known as Hồ Chí Minh) wrote "taken in chains, confined in a school compound... Most of them will never again see the sun of their country" and a number of historians like [[Joseph Buttinger]] and Martin Murray, treated his statement by Nguyễn Ái Quốc as an article of faith and believed that the Vietnamese men who participated in World War I were "forcibly recruited" by means of "terrorism", later historians would claim that the recruitment enterprise employed during this period was only "ostensibly voluntary".<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/> While there is some truth to these claims, the vast majority of the men who volunteered for service in Europe were indeed volunteers.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/> Among the motivations of volunteering were both personal and economic ambitions, some French Indochinese volunteers wished to see what the world looked like "beyond the bamboo hedges in their villages" while others preferred the money and the opportunity to see what France actually looks like.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/> Their service would expose them to the brutality of [[Industrial warfare|modern warfare]] and many would change their perception about many social norms and beliefs at home because of their experiences abroad.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/>

Of the 93,000 French Indochinese soldiers and workers who came to Europe, most were from the poorest parts of Annam and Tonkin, which had been badly hit by famine and [[cholera]], a smaller number (1,150) of French Indochinese soldiers and workers came from Cambodia.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In Northeast France around 44,000 Vietnamese troops served in direct combat functions at both the [[Battle of the Frontiers#Alsace|Battle of the Vosges]] and the [[Battle of Verdun]].<ref>Vu-Hill, Kimloan: ''Coolies into rebels. Impact of World War I on French Indochina'', [[Paris]] (2011): Les Indes savantes. p. 71.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> French Indochinese battalions were also used in various [[logistics]] functions such as serving as drivers to transport soldiers to the front lines, [[stretcher bearer]]s (''brancardiers''), or road crews.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Vietnamese soldiers were also used to "sanitise" battle fields at the end of the war, where they would perform these duties in the middle of the cold European winters without being provided with warm clothes, in order to let the (White) French soldiers return to their homes earlier.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The financial expenses of the 93,000 French Indochinese labourers and soldiers sent to France during the war – salaries, pensions, family allocations, the levy in kind (mostly rice), and even the functioning of the Indochinese hospital – were entirely financed from the budget of French Indochina itself and not from France.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

One of the effects of World War I on French Indochinese society was the introduction of a vibrant political press both in French and in the indigenous languages that led to the political radicalisation of a new generation of nationalists.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Because most of the indigenous people that served in France and the rest of Europe during the War were Vietnamese these social and political developments affected the Vietnamese more.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Because French Cochinchina was a direct French colony it enjoyed favourable legislation concerning the press which fostered a public sphere of oppositional political activism.<ref>Peycam, Philippe M. F: ''The birth of Vietnamese political journalism. Saigon, 1916–1930'', [[New York City]] (2015): [[Columbia University Press]]. p. 4.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Although these developments occurred throughout French Indochina they were more strongly felt in Cochinchina due to its more open society.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The French Indochinese in Europe experienced much more [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] social relations which were strongly contrasted with the racial hierarchy they experienced at home.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In France the French Indochinese serving often engaged in comradery with the French and many had [[romantic relationship]]s with [[Women in France|French women]], the latter being unthinkable in their home countries.<ref>Le Van Ho, ''Mireille: Des Vietnamiens dans la Grande Guerre. 50000 recrues dans les usines françaises'', [[Paris]] (2014): Vendémiaire. pp. 144–154. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref>

During this period, the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin were initially ruled by the Emperor [[Duy Tân]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> However, in 1916, the Duy Tân Emperor was accused by the French of calling for his subjects to resist French rule and after his deposition he and his father were exiled to the island of ''[[La Réunion]]'' in the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Thereafter, the [[Khải Định]] Emperor became the new monarch of Annam and Tonkin and he closely collaborated with the French administration.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> At the same time Cambodia was ruled by King [[Sisowath of Cambodia|Sisowath]] who was crowned in 1904 and cooperated closely with the French administration in his territory.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> King Sisowath attended the colonial exhibition in [[Marseille]] in 1906 and was the King at the time of the retrocession of the provinces of [[Battambang province|Battambang]] and [[Siem Reap province|Siem Reap]] to Cambodia by the Siamese in April 1907.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> During the reign of King Sisowath there was "an inexorable increase in French control" and the French residents gained executive authority to issue royal decrees, appoint officials, and collect taxes.<ref>Chandler, David: ''A History of Cambodia'', [[London]] 2007, p. 146</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The French protectorate of Laos at the time was ruled by King [[Sisavang Vong]], who was crowned king in 1904.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> King Sisavang Vong was trained at the Lycée Chasseloup-Laubat in Saigon and at the [[Colonial School, Paris|Colonial School]] in Paris.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In 1914, the French built a new palace in [[Luang Prabang]] for him, and a new agreement with the French administration signed in 1917 allowed him only formal signs of royal power with actual power over Laos being in the hands of the French.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The Great War presented a number of opportunities for the indigenous French Indochinese people serving in the West that didn't exist before, notably for some individuals to obtain levels of education that were simply unattainable at home by acquiring more advanced technical and professional skills.<ref name="Trân-Claire-Thi-Liên-Nguyễn-Xuân-Mai-2016">Trân, Claire Thi Liên: ''Nguyễn Xuân Mai (1890-1929). Itinéraire d'un médecin indochinois engagé pendant la première guerre mondiale'', in: Trévisan, Carina / Delalande, Hélène Baty (eds.): Entrer en guerre, [[Paris]] (2016), p. 305. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref> For example Dr. Nguyễn Xuân Mai, who in 1910 became one of the first indigenous auxiliaries to graduate the Hanoi medical school, hoped to gain his PhD in France so he enlisted to fight in the war.<ref name="Trân-Claire-Thi-Liên-Nguyễn-Xuân-Mai-2016"/> In 1921 he would acquire his doctorate and he became one of the first Vietnamese doctors to enjoy the same rights as his French colleagues.<ref name="Trân-Claire-Thi-Liên-Nguyễn-Xuân-Mai-2016"/>

While World War I saw a number of new economic sectors develop in French Indochina, namely [[rubber]] plantations, mines, and other forms of agriculture, these were all French owned and the local trade to the great export-import houses was in the hands of the [[Overseas Chinese]] communities.<ref>Brocheux, Pierre: ''Une histoire économique du Viet Nam. 1850–2007. La palanche et le camion'', [[Paris]] (2009): Les Indes savantes. pp. 71–96. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Only a handful of Vietnamese landlords, moneylenders, and middlemen benefitted from the new economic opportunities that arose during this period as the colonial economy of exportation was designed to enrich the French at the expense of the indigenous population.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> During this same period the average livelihood of the indigenous peasantry was drastically decreased due to both direct taxation and indirect taxes the French used to finance ambitious public works programmes constructed using the ''[[corvée]]'' system.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

Prior to the year 1914, the ''mise en valeur'' (development and improvement) of French Indochina was primarily financed by European French public loans, French private capital, and higher taxes on the local populations.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> But during the war French Indochina became completely responsible both for financing itself and the people they sent to Europe to fight in the war as [[investment fund]]s from Metropolitan France completely stopped.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> This meant that taxation increased, more rice was being exported, and the locals purchased [[war bond]]s.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> French Indochina provided a Metropolitan France with large financial aid; between 1915 and 1920 of the 600,000,000 [[French franc|francs]] that France received from [[French colonial empire|its colonial empire]] 367,000,000 francs were sent by French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Though historian Patrice Morlat places the initial financial contribution of French Indochina at 381,000,000 gold francs (valued at 997,000,000 [[euro]]s in 2017), roughly 60% of all financial contributions Metropolitan France received from its colonial empire (excluding [[French Algeria|Algeria]]).<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Morlat further noted that French Indochina supplied 340,000 tonnes of raw materials to France during the course of the war, which amounted to 34% of all raw supplies that Metropolitan France received from its colonies.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> The shipping of these materials was threatened by the presence of German [[submarine]]s.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

World War I also saw the colonial government of Cochinchina authorising the creation of Vietnamese-language newspapers in 1916, this was done to secure popular support for the war effort, the colonial authorities hoped that this would create a loyal indigenous group of politically active people.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The Cochinchinese colonial government offered financial support to these loyalist newspapers, but kept close control on the contents written in them to ensure a prevailing pro-French narrative.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The editors of these newspapers were often ''retours de France'' (people back from France) and were kept under close surveillance as they often had connections to anti-French dissidents and activists. Among these newspapers was ''La Tribune indigène'' (The Indigenous Forum) launched in 1917 by the agronomist [[Bùi Quang Chiêu]] working together with the lawyer Dương Văn Giáo and journalist [[Nguyễn Phan Long]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Afterwards they created ''La Tribune indochinoise'' (The Indochinese Forum) and in 1919 these three men would found the Indochinese Constitutionalist Party in Saigon.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Because of these activities the French ''Surêté'' regarded [[Vietnamese nationalism|their nationalism]] as dangerous.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The French invoked a supposed "German connection" between the Vietnamese revolutionaries and the [[German Empire]], alleging that [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[Bangkok]], and [[Beijing]] were the sight of German agents hoping to help the Vietnamese revolutionaries as they shared the same goal, namely to defeat the French.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

World War I also saw a number of rebellions throughout French Indochina, in 1914 3 major uprisings happened throughout Vietnam, followed by a number of revolts in Cochinchina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> From 1914 to 1917 members of the [[Tai Lue people]] led by Prince Phra Ong Kham (Chao Fa) of [[Muang Sing]] organised a long anti-French campaign, [[Hmong people|Hmong]] independence movements in Laos also challenged French rule in the country.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> 1914 also saw bands of [[Yunnan]]ese revolutionaries invade French Indochina, who crossed the border and started attacking French military posts parading [[Flag of the Republic of China|Chinese Republican flags]], these rebels were later joined by various Laotian ethnic minorities (Lao, Kha and Black Tai).<ref name="Gunn-1989-61-66">Gunn, Geoffrey: ''Rebellion In Northern Laos. The revolts of the Lu and the Chinese Republicans (1914–1916)'', in: The [[Journal of the Siam Society]] 77/1, 1989, pp.&nbsp;61-66.</ref> The joint Yunnanese and Laotian ethnic minority rebels spread misinformation claiming that "Paris has been crushed by the [[Imperial German Army|German Army]]" to make the French seem weaker.<ref name="Gunn-1989-61-66"/> The motivations of this revolt are disputed as contemporary French colonial officials attributed it to Chinese opium smugglers, while the Canadian historian Geoffrey C. Gunn thinks that it was a political revolt.<ref name="Gunn-1989-61-66"/> In February 1916 in Cochinchina supporters of [[Phan Xích Long]] marched on the Saigonese penitentiary where he was held demanding his release, this coincided with other uprisings in the [[Mekong Delta]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The mandarin Trần Cao Văn engaged with he Duy Tân Emperor to try and stage a large rebellion in Annam in 1916, but their conspiracy was discovered and foiled by the French.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In 1916 the Kingdom of Cambodia saw a 3 month uprising organised by between 30,000 and 100,000 peasants against both the mandatory ''corvée'' and the increased taxes, Australian historian [[Milton Osborne]] refers to this uprising as "The 1916 Affair", the circumstances leading up to this large revolt were directly caused by the war.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> 30 August 1917 saw the beginning of the [[Thái Nguyên uprising]], which lasted until 1918.<ref>Zinoman, Peter (2000). "Colonial Prisons and Anti-colonial Resistance in French Indochina: The Thai Nguyen Rebellion, 1917". ''Modern Asian Studies'' 34: 57–98. {{doi|10.1017/s0026749x00003590 }}</ref>

The large amount of uprisings and rebellions that occurred during the war would inspire the creation of a political security apparatus that was used to find and arrest political dissidents in the post-war period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

==== Relations with Japan during World War I ====
{{See also|France–Japan relations|Japan–Vietnam relations|Cambodia–Japan relations|Japan–Laos relations}}
On 27 August 1914, Japan officially entered the war on the side of [[Allies of World War I|the allies]] (also known as the Entente Powers), Japan [[Siege of Tsingtao|invaded and took]] the [[German colonial empire|German colony]] of [[Qingdao|Tsingtao]] and the rest of the [[Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In November 1914 Japan supplanted the German sphere of influence in southern China with its own political and economic influence, putting it in direct competition with French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Even though the Japanese openly supported a number of anti-French secessionist movements, such as Prince Cường Để's ''[[Duy Tân Hội]]'', the French situation in Europe was bad enough for prime minister [[Georges Clemenceau]] to ask the Japanese for their help.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The [[Western Front (World War I)|war situation in Europe]] was so bad that in 1914, the French considered exchanging French Indochina with Japan for both financial and military support, but this idea was quickly abandoned.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

Clemenceau asked the Empire of Japan to aid them with the transportation of the ''travailleurs et tirailleurs indochinois'' to Europe and by sending [[Imperial Japanese Armed Forces|its own forces]] to help fight in Europe.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Clemenceau also wanted Japan to help by [[Japanese intervention in Siberia|intervening in Siberia]] to fight the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] forces during the [[Russian Civil War]] to prevent the loss of the many French-Russian loans, which were important for the French post-war economy.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

In 1918, the idea of selling French Indochina to Japan was raised again and, like the first time that it was proposed, it was abandoned again.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

Both during and after the war the economic relations between France and Japan strengthened as Japan became a creditor of France following the latter's financial difficulties which came as a result of the war.<ref>Morlat, Patrice: ''Indochine années vingt. Le balcon de la France sur le Pacifique. Une age de l'histoire de France en Extrême Orient, volume 1'', [[Paris]] (2001): Indes savantes. pp. 169–170. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

==== Expansion of the security apparatus ====
[[File:Nguyễn Tất Thành (阮必誠) security report by the Government-General of French Indo-China (năm 1920).jpg|thumb|left|A 1920 report by the ''Sûreté générale indochinoise'' on [[Nguyễn Tất Thành]] (阮必誠), who would later be known as Hồ Chí Minh (胡志明).]]
As Sarraut was determined to secure French rule over the country he created a strong political surveillance apparatus that functioned throughout French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> He centralised all local police forces and developed an intelligence service, these policies would lead to the creation of the ''Sûreté générale indochinoise'', which sought to monitor and police anti-French activities both inside and outside of French Indochina.<ref>Morlat, Patrice: ''Indochine années vingt. La politique indigène des grands commis au service de la mise en valeur, volume 2'', [[Paris]] (2006): Les Indes savantes. pp. 462–467. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

French security was expanded because of fears of German involvement with their enemies in the Far East, [[Gaston Ernest Liébert]], the French consul in Hong Kong and a major player for the intelligence services coordinated by the political affairs bureau of French Indochina, noted that Vietnamese revolutionaries and [[Germany]] both shared the same interest (the defeat of the French).<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/><ref>Morlat, Patrice: ''Les affaires politiques de l'Indochine (1895–1923)'', [[Paris]] (1996): L'Harmattan. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref> Liébert argued that French Indochinese who rebelled should be treated according or as traitors to France.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Another reason for the expansion of the security state was that the French feared that such a large expulsion of French soldiers to fight against the Germans would inspire a general uprising similar to what the British experienced in [[History of Egypt under the British|Egypt]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Colonial-Society-French-Indochina">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_society_indochina |title=Colonial Society (Indochina) |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Pierre Brocheux |publisher=1914–1918-online – International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818173609/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_society_indochina |url-status=live}} – Brocheux, Pierre: Colonial Society (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (2015). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.10613}}.</ref>

In April 1916 the administrator of civil services at the Political Affairs Bureau in Hanoi launched two voluminous reports that went into great detail about the parallel histories of what he referred to as the "Annamese Revolutionary Party" (how he called the ''Duy Tân Hội'') and of the secret societies of French Cochinchina. These two reports proved to be very important to the Political Affairs Bureau as they would trigger a full-scale reform of the organisation making it into an [[umbrella organisation]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> The reform policies were enacted to help control the narrative around French rule through policing and surveillance.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> The colonial police forces were connected with "the general control of Indochinese workers and riflemen" (''Contrôle général des travailleurs et tirailleurs indochinois''), a political police force, as the military presence was reduced to allocate more soldiers to the home front.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In Metropolitan France these nascent surveillance organisations were put in charge of policing the 100,000 French Indochinese present to help fight the [[Central Powers]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

Both domestically and internationally, the French Indochinese police maintained a sizeable network of informants, countries where they operated included not only Metropolitan France, but also neighbouring countries like China and Siam as well as Japan, which was a common refuge for Vietnamese nationalists.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The French Indochinese police often got foreign authorities to arrest anti-French activists, e.g. Phan Bội Châu who was hiding in China since 1909 was arrested there in 1917.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Phan Bội Châu admitted to being in contact with German and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] ministers, noting that the Germans and Austro-Hungarians promised his revolutionary activities financial support in the form of 10,000 [[Thai Baht|Siamese ticals]] (approximately 55,000 [[euro]]s in 2017).<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Phan would later be arrested abroad again in 1925, when he arrived in [[Shanghai]] on what he thought was a short trip on behalf of his movement. He was to meet with Hồ Chí Minh, who at that time used the name Lý Thụy, one of Hồ's many aliases. Hồ had invited Phan to come to Canton to discuss matters of common interest. Hồ was in Canton at the Soviet Embassy, purportedly as a Soviet citizen working as a secretary, translator, and interpreter. In exchange for money, Hồ allegedly informed the French police of Phan's imminent arrival. Phan was arrested by French agents and transported back to [[Hanoi]].<ref name=Honey>{{cite web |last=Honey |first=P. |title=Vietnam after Ho Chi Minh An Interview with P. J. Honey |url=http://archive.thetablet.co.uk/article/13th-september-1969/3/vietnam-after-ho-chi-minh |work=The Tablet |access-date=28 November 2013 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003646/http://archive.thetablet.co.uk/article/13th-september-1969/3/vietnam-after-ho-chi-minh |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="US Dept. of Defense Pentagon">[[s:United States – Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of Defense/I. C. Ho Chi Minh: Asian Tito?]]</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=The Tragedy of the Vietnam War |page=39 |author=Van Nguyen Duong, originally from Hoang Van Chi |publisher=McFarland |year=2008 |isbn=978-0786483389 }}</ref><ref name=Cromley>{{cite news |last=Cromley |first=Ray |title=Ho Chi Minh Certainly No Viet 'Washington' |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1842&dat=19691005&id=CQEsAAAAIBAJ&pg=3094,608410 |access-date=28 November 2013 |newspaper=Times Daily |date=5 October 1969 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820061437/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1842&dat=19691005&id=CQEsAAAAIBAJ&pg=3094,608410 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the communist victory in the [[October Revolution]] the security apparatus of French Indochina was strengthened to fight the "Bolshevik danger" in the colonies.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> While the ''Sûreté générale'' was created during World War I, in 1922 it was expanded to become a better instrument to surveil and repress any potential Bolshevik elements, first in Metropolitan France and later in French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The activities of the ''Sûreté générale indochinoise'' were managed by the newly created Department of Political Affairs.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The ''Sûreté générale indochinoise'' would be used as the paramount tool to gather intelligence of subversive elements within French Indochinese society and to conduct large-scale union-wide registration by the colonial police forces of suspects and convicts.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

The increase in surveillance and repression was accompanied with a propaganda campaign aimed to convince the indigenous populations of the "enlightenment" of French colonialism.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> Both the indigenous peasantry and the elites had to be won over by being told of the many "advantages of colonialism".<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/> The Political Affairs Bureau assembled a umber of Vietnamese elites belonging to the indigenous intelligentsia through the [[French School of the Far East]] to aid in the pro-French propaganda effort.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina"/>

While the French hoped to isolate political dissidents by locking them up in prisons, these prisons would ironically turn into "schools" for nationalism and Communism as concentrating a large number of political enemies together would allow them to communicate with each other, which contributed to the growth of Communism within French Indochina.<ref>Zinoman, Peter, ''American Council of Learned Societies: The colonial Bastille. A history of imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940'', [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] (2001): [[University of Calgary Press]]. p. 199.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

==== 1920s ====
[[File:Du-học-báo (遊學報) - Annam như Tây du học bảo trợ hội (安南如西遊學保助會 - Société d’encouragement aux études occidentales) - 1er Pévrier 1928 (Traditional Chinese script).jpg|thumb|right|A [[Bảo Đại]] 3 (1928) issue of the bimonthly ''Du-học-báo'' (遊學報) magazine issued by the ''Société d'encouragement aux études occidentales'' (Vietnamese: ''Annam như Tây du học bảo trợ hội''; Hán-Nôm: 安南如西遊學保助會), an organisation set up by the [[government of the Nguyễn dynasty|Southern Court]] to bring Annamese students to France to study the latest [[scientific literature]].]]

As French Indochina was supposed to be a self-financed ''colonie d'exploitation économique'' (colony of economic exploitation) most of its budget during this period was financed through revenue collection, taxes on the local populations, and consumption quotas for monopolised goods such as [[opium]], [[salt]], and [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]].<ref>Brocheux, Pierre / Hémery, Daniel: ''Indochine, la colonisation ambiguë, 1858–1954'', [[Paris]] (2001): Découverte. p. 93. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In 1920 44% of the French Indochinese government budget came from opium, salt, and alcohol alone.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

During the 1920s France allowed more Vietnamese to enter Metropolitan France for both studying and work purposes.<ref>Vu-Hill, Kimloan: ''Coolies into Rebels. Impact of World War I on French Indochina'', [[Paris]] (2011), pp. 121–125; 1 SLOTFOM 4, Report from the Controller General of Indochinese Soldiers, 5 April 1923.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France"/> Both legal and [[illegal immigrant]]s entered France from French Indochina working various types of jobs, such as sailors, photographers, cooks, restaurant and shop owners and manual labourers.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France"/> In France many Vietnamese immigrants and their organisations aligned themselves with the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF) who promised to represent them both in legal and political matters.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France"/> As returnees from France were more skilled and spoke fluent French the French colonists in Indochina would hire them to perform better paying jobs and often brought ideas of the successful Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France"/> In provinces like Thanh Hoá, Nghệ An, and Hà Tĩnh where around twenty thousand returnees lived pro-Bolshevik activities would increase during this decade and this region saw the creation of many pro-Bolshevik parties.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France"/>

A number of Vietnamese men would serve in occupied parts of [[Weimar Republic|Weimar era Germany]] after the war.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/> Seeing how the French treated the German inhabitants of the occupied regions, some Vietnamese soldiers would empathise with the [[German people]].<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/> Official reports on the French [[Occupation of the Rhineland]] summarised the contents of the letters written by the soldiers during that period this way: "The French oppress the Germans in the same way they have the Annamites [sic]."<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/>

After the Great War former governor-general Albert Sarraut became the [[Minister of the Overseas (France)|French minister of the colonies]], Sarraut was the architect of the ''collaboration Franco-annamite'' which characterised French colonial policy during the interwar period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Regarding the internal security of the French apparatus in the Far East Sarraut stated "I have always estimated that Indochina must be protected against the effects of a revolutionary propaganda that I have never underestimated, by carrying out a double action, one political, the other repressive."<ref>Quoted in Larcher-Goscha Agathe: ''La voie étroite des réformes coloniales et la « collaboration franco-annamite » (1917–1928)'', in: Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer 82/309 (1995), p. 408.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> indicating that he saw repressing subversive elements as paramount to the continued French domination of the region.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> His policies benefited collaborators while they were instrumental in repressing dissidents.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Sarraut boasted the image of himself as a liberal ''indigenophile'' who benefited the indigenous people of French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

Albert Sarraut presented the ''collaboration Franco-annamite'' as a necessity of the French protectorate over their countries, the ''collaboration Franco-annamite'' was attractive to the Westernised indigenous elites of French Indochina as it would build a framework of mutually beneficial partnership between France and the Vietnamese before full sovereignty for the latter could be restored.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In the colony of Cochinchina a handful of indigenous people were involved in the decision-making processes through political bodies that were established to serve as representative assemblies (Cochinchina's Colonial Council, Saigon Municipal Council, among other local bodies).<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

In 1920, the French established provincial advisory councils in the Kingdom of Laos.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> In 1923 this was followed by an indigenous consultative assembly, which served an advisory role.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Despite the Laotian indigenous consultative assembly not having any real political power, it served as an organisation that brought people from all over Laos together and contributed to the later formation of a modern Laotian [[National identity|national consciousness]] where prior they associated themselves more with their region.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

[[File:Observation au microscope en Indochine.jpg|thumb|Microscope observation in Indochina]]
In 1923, Cochinchina saw the creation of the ''Parti Constitutionnaliste Indochinois'' led by Bùi Quang Chiêu, which was founded to obtain the right of political participation for the indigenous people in Cochinchina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> As a member of this party Nguyễn Phan Long was elected a member of Cochinchina's colonial council.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Đình Thảo Trịnh, Dinh Khai Trinh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lgnZTUPxIZsC&pg=PA45 Décolonisation du Viêt Nam: un avocat témoigne], Editions L'Harmattan, 1994, {{ISBN|978-2-7384-2368-9}}, p. 45</ref>

In Kopong Chang, Cambodia the French resident Félix Bardez was assassinated in the year 1925 by disgruntled indigenous people.<ref name="David-P-Chandler-2007-pages-191-193">Chandler, David P: ''A history of Cambodia'', [[London]] (2007): Routledge. pp. 191–193.</ref> Félix Bardez visited the village at a time when its inhabitants were frustrated with the colonial policies of the French in Cambodia as the French raised the taxes to finance the Bokor mountain resort, when Bardez visited he refused to free prisoners who were arrested for being unable to pay their debts, this agitated a crowd of around 700 angry peasants who then killed him, his interpreter, and the militiamen present during his visit.<ref name="David-P-Chandler-2007-pages-191-193"/> This assassination was a sign of the wider political unrest that characterised Cambodia during this decade.<ref name="David-P-Chandler-2007-pages-191-193"/>

In March 1925 the French built a [[war monument]] resting on two sculpted [[Asian elephant]]s to commemorate those that died fighting in World War I in the Cambodian capital city of Phnom Penh, the opening ceremony brought together a crowd which contained "people of all races and all religions".<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-World-War-I-Commemoration">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/commemoration_cult_of_the_fallen_indochina |title=Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (Indochina). |date=15 June 2015 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Eric Thomas Jennings |publisher=1914–1918-online - International Encyclopedie of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819050957/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/commemoration_cult_of_the_fallen_indochina |url-status=live}} – Jennings, Eric Thomas: Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (15 June 2015). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.10658}}.</ref><ref>''Inauguration à Pnom-Penh du Monument aux Morts du Cambodge''. In: Extrême-Asie, March 1925, p. 36. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref>

On 6 November 1925 a "Convention" (''Quy ước'') was established after [[Khải Định]]'s death that stated that while the sovereign is abroad a council (''Hội đồng phụ chính'') had the power to run all affairs of the [[Government of the Nguyễn dynasty|Southern court]], with the signing of the convention only regulations related to custom, favours, amnesty, conferring titles, dignitaries, among others are given by the emperor.<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam">{{cite web |url=https://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/3098/19511/bao-djai-vi-hoang-dje-cuoi-cung-trong-lich-su-phong-kien-viet-nam.html |title=Bảo Đại - Vị Hoàng đế cuối cùng trong lịch sử phong kiến Việt Nam. - Bảo Đại tên thật là Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh Thụy, là vị Hoàng đế thứ 13 và cuối cùng của triều đại nhà Nguyễn, cũng là vị Hoàng đế cuối cùng trong lịch sử phong kiến Việt Nam. |date=9 September 2016 |access-date=22 June 2022 |author=Phương Anh (tổng hợp) |publisher=[[National Museum of Vietnamese History|BẢO TÀNG LỊCH SỬ QUỐC GIA (VIETNAM NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY)]] |language=vi |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616202124/https://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/3098/19511/bao-djai-vi-hoang-dje-cuoi-cung-trong-lich-su-phong-kien-viet-nam.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Everything else is up to the French protectorate government.<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam"/> This document also merges the budget of the Southern court with the budget of the French protectorate of Annam and that all the meetings of the Council of Ministers (''Hội đồng thượng thư'') must be chaired by the [[resident-superior of Annam]].<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam"/> Thus, in this document, the French colonialists completely took over all the power of the government of the Southern dynasty, even in ''Trung Kỳ''.<ref name="BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam"/>

In 1927 Vietnamese World War I veterans staged an unsuccessful rebellion in [[Bắc Ninh province]] using vintage World War I era weapons and tactics.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War"/>

According to American historian [[David G. Marr]] the 1920s marked the transition of what he termed the "traditional" to the "modern" nation-consciousness among the Vietnamese people, indicating a shift among both the elites and the peasants.<ref>[[David G. Marr|Marr, David G.]]: ''Vietnamese anticolonialism, 1885–1925'', [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] (1971): [[University of California Press]]. p. 276.</ref> Marr argues that the Vietnamese ''retours de France'' "urbanised" and "politicised" Vietnamese nationalism during the 1920s and 1930s, inspiring more "modern" movements to take up the struggle against French domination.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> This decade saw the emergence of the [[Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng]] (VNQDĐ) and the [[Indochinese Communist Party]] (ICP) which were often [[middle class]] in nature and proved to be more successful in transcending class and geographical divisions to mobilise against the French than earlier movements, relying on better and more organized communication structures than their predecessors.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

During the 1920s the contestation of French colonial power in Cambodia and Laos was mostly aimed at the ''corvée'' and tax policies, continuing from the war period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> The early years of this decade were characterised by widespread violence and a lack of order and security in rural Cambodia, as recorded by French residents in the provinces.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> Contemporarily Upper Laos was referred to as being "violently agitated" by the French administrator Paul Le Boulanger between 1914 and 1921.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/> While the nature of Vietnamese resistance changed radically during the 1920s and the 1930s due to various major socio-cultural changes that were occurring at the time by a small, but growing, urbanised Vietnamese middle class, the rebellions in Cambodia and Laos remained to be "traditional" in their style and execution in contrast to the more "modern" [[political activism]] and radicalism that characterised what is now Vietnam during this period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina"/>

==== Yên Bái mutiny (1930) ====
{{Further|Yên Bái mutiny}}
[[File:Carte de l'Indochine Routes chemins (...)Indochine française btv1b530574891 1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|French Indochina around 1933.]]
On 10 February 1930, there was an uprising by Vietnamese soldiers in the French colonial army's [[Yên Bái]] garrison. The [[Yên Bái mutiny]] was sponsored by the [[Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng]] (VNQDĐ).<ref>Maurice Rives, pp. 72–73 ''Les Linh Tap'', I.S.B.N 2-7025-0436-1</ref><ref>Patricia M. Pelley ''Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past'' 2002 pp. 199-200  "As for the Nationalist Party: it was wiped out in the debacle of Yên Bái in 1930, he explained, the remnants who fled to China became a 'reactionary counterrevolutionary group'"</ref> The VNQDĐ was the Vietnamese Nationalist Party.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social and Military History |first=Spencer C. |last=Tucker |year=2000 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=1-57607-040-9 |location=Santa Barbara, California |page=442 }}</ref> The attack was the largest disturbance brewed up by the [[Cần Vương movement|Cần Vương]] monarchist restoration movement of the late 19th century.

The aim of the revolt was to inspire a wider uprising among the general populace in an attempt to overthrow the colonial authority. The VNQDĐ had previously attempted to engage in clandestine activities to undermine French rule, but increasing French scrutiny of their activities led to their leadership group taking the risk of staging a large scale military attack in the [[Red River Delta]] in northern Vietnam.

==== Left opposition and the 1940 uprising in Cochinchina ====
In Cochinchina where French rule had the distinction of being direct and therefore more sensitive to political shifts in Paris, it was punctuated by periods of relative liberalisation. The most significant was during the 1936–1938 [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]] government led by [[Leon Blum]] which appointed as governor-general of Indochina [[Jules Brévié]].{{sfn|Lockhart|Duiker|2010|p=48}} Liberal-minded, in Cochinchina Brévié tried to defuse an extremely tense political situation by amnestying political prisoners, and by easing restrictions on the press, political parties,{{sfn|Lockhart|Duiker|2010|p=48}} and trade unions.{{sfn|Gunn|2014|p=119}}

Saigon witnessed growing labour unrest culminating in the summer of 1937 in general dock and transport strikes.<ref>Daniel Hemery ''Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine''. François Maspero, Paris. 1975, Appendix 24.</ref> In April of that year the [[Communist Party of Vietnam|Vietnamese Communists]] and their [[Trotskyism in Vietnam|Trotskyist left opposition]] ran a common slate for the municipal elections with both their respective leaders Nguyễn Văn Tạo and [[Tạ Thu Thâu]] winning seats. The exceptional unity of the left, however, was split by the lengthening shadow of the [[Moscow Trials]] and by growing protest over the failure of the Communist-supported Popular Front to deliver constitutional reform.<ref>Frank N. Trager (ed.). ''Marxism in Southeast Asia; A Study of Four Countries''. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1959. p. 142</ref> Colonial Minister [[Marius Moutet]], a Socialist commented that he had sought "a wide consultation with all elements of the popular [will]," but with "Trotskyist-Communists intervening in the villages to menace and intimidate the peasant part of the population, taking all authority from the public officials," the necessary "formula" had not been found.<ref>Daniel Hemery ''Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine''. François Maspero, Paris. 1975, p. 388</ref>

In April 1939 Cochinchina Council elections Tạ Thu Thâu led a "Workers' and Peasants' Slate" into victory over both the "bourgeois" Constitutionalists and the Communists' Democratic Front. Key to their success was popular opposition to the war taxes ("national defence levy") that the Communist Party, in the spirit of [[Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance|Franco-Soviet accord]], had felt obliged to support.<ref>Manfred McDowell, "Sky without Light: a Vietnamese Tragedy," New Politics, Vol XIII, No. 3, 2011, p. 1341 https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/ {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817163919/https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/ |date=17 August 2020 }} (accessed 10 October 2019).</ref> Brévié set the election results aside and wrote to Colonial Minister [[Georges Mandel]]: "the Trotskyists under the leadership of Ta Thu Thau, want to take advantage of a possible war in order to win total liberation." The Stalinists, on the other hand, are "following the position of the Communist Party in France" and "will thus be loyal if war breaks out".<ref>Ngô Văn, ''In the Crossfire: Adventures of a Vietnamese Revolutionary''. AK Press, Oakland CA, 2010, p. 16</ref>

With the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] of 23 August 1939, the local communists were ordered by Moscow to return to direct confrontation with the French. Under the slogan "Land to the Tillers, Freedom for the workers and independence for Vietnam",<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Labor Unions in South Vietnam |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=70–82 |last=Tyson |first=James L. |date=1974 |jstor=30171359 |doi=10.1080/00927678.1974.10587653 }}</ref> in November 1940 the Party in Cochinchina obliged, triggering a widespread [[1940 Cochinchina uprising|insurrection]]. The revolt did not penetrate Saigon (an attempted uprising in the city was quelled in a day). In the Mekong Delta fighting continued until the end of the year.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/0967828X9700500304 |jstor=23746947 |title=The Indochinese Communist Party and the Nam Ky Uprising in Cochin China, November–December 1940 |date=1997 |last1=Chonchirdsin |first1=Sud |journal=South East Asia Research |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=269–293 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Paige |first=Jeffery M. |date=1970 |title=Inequality and Insurgency in Vietnam: A re-analysis |url=https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/star/images/231/2310402001.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=9 November 2018 |website=cambridge.org |archive-date=9 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109153446/https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/star/images/231/2310402001.pdf }}</ref>

==== World War II ====
{{main|French Indochina in World War II|1940–1946 in French Indochina}}
[[File:Thống-Chế đã nói - Đại-Pháp khắng khít với thái bình, như dân quê với đất ruộng.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Thống-Chế đã nói – Đại-Pháp khắng khít với thái bình, như dân quê với đất ruộng [Thống-Chế said: Dai-France clings to peace, like peasants with lands]|A [[propaganda]] painting in [[Hanoi]], 1942]]
In September 1940, during [[Pacific War|World War II]], the newly created regime of [[Vichy France]] granted Japan's demands for military access to Tonkin following the [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina|Japanese occupation of French Indochina]], which lasted until the end of the Pacific War. This allowed Japan better access to China in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] against the forces of [[Chiang Kai-shek]], but it was also part of Japan's strategy for dominion over Southeast Asia and later on, the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]].

Thailand took this opportunity of weakness to reclaim previously lost territories, resulting in the [[Franco-Thai War]] between October 1940 and 9 May 1941. The Thai forces generally did well on the ground, but Thai objectives in the war were limited. In January, [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] naval forces decisively defeated Thai naval forces in the [[Battle of Ko Chang]]. The war ended in May at the instigation of the Japanese, with the French forced to concede territorial gains for Thailand. The general disorganization of French Indochina, coupled with several natural disasters, caused a [[Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945|dreadful famine in Northern and Central Vietnam]]. Several hundred thousand people – possibly over one million – are believed to have starved to death in 1944–1945. Approximately 1 million Vietnamese were estimated to have died of food supply disruption caused by the Japanese invasion of Burma.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Thomas U. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9EwgAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126 |title=War, Guilt, and World Politics after World War II |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1139510875 |location= |page=126 |author-link= }}</ref>

On 9 March 1945, with [[Liberation of France|France liberated]], Germany in retreat, and the United States ascendant in the Pacific, Japan launched a [[Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina|coup d'etat against the French Indochina colonial administration]] to prevent a potential uprising by the colonial forces. [[Empire of Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)|Cambodia]] and [[French protectorate of Laos#Japanese puppet state|Laos]] were established as independent states, members of Japan's [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]. The Japanese kept power in Indochina until the news of their government's surrender came through in August.

Both Vichy French and Japanese authorities encouraged nationalism in Indochina for their own purposes. Disillusioned Vietnamese nationalists redirected this sentiment toward self-determination. Despite Japanese and French efforts to manipulate identities, profound societal changes occurred in the early 1940s, with Vietnam’s right-wing nationalist groups, particularly the [[:vi:Đại Việt Quốc gia Liên minh|Great Viet]] parties, embracing a firm national identity.<ref name="Jen 2024">{{cite book |last=Jennings |first=Eric T. |chapter=Indochina during World War II |pages=84–105 |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=Edward |title=The Cambridge History of the Vietnam War, Volume I: Origins |date=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781316225240.007 |doi-access= |isbn=9781316225240 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guillemot |first=François |date=2003 |chapter=Vietnamese Nationalist Revolutionaries and the Japanese Occupation: The Case of the Dai Viet Parties (1936–1946) |pages=221–248 |editor-last1=Narangoa |editor-first1=Li |editor-last2=Cribb |editor-first2=Robert |title=Imperial Japan and National Identities in Asia, 1895–1945 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |isbn=9780700714827}}</ref>

The [[Viet Minh]] launched a resistance campaign against Japanese occupation. The Viet Minh had begun fighting in 1944, when the French were attacked on Dinh Ca in October 1944 and in Cao Bang and Bac Can French were attacked by Viet Cong in November 1944 and the French and Japanese fought each other on 9 March 1945, so in Tonkin the Viet Cong began disarming French soldiers and attacking the Japanese. In Quang Ngai, Ba To, Yen Bai and Nghia Lo political prisoners escaped Japanese were attacked din Son La by Meo (Hmong) tribesmen and in Hoa Binh and Lang Son by Muong tribesmen. The Viet Minh took control of 6 provinces in Tonkin after 9 March 1945 within 2 weeks. The Viet Minh led a brutal campaign against the Japanese where many died from 9 March 1945 to 19 August 1945. Truong Chinh ended the article with a quote from Sun Yatsen, "The revolution is not yet won, All comrades must continue their al out efforts!"<ref>{{cite book |last=Truong |first=Chinh |author-link= |date=1971 |others=Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service |title=Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17 |series=JPRS (Series) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+Japanese+were+disarmed+in+many+places%22&pg=RA2-PA13 |location= |publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. |chapter=Revolution or Coup d'Etat, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 TRANSLATIONS ON NORTH VIETNAM No. 940 DOCUMENTS ON THE AUGUST REVOLUTION |pages=14–16 }}</ref><ref>[Article by Truong Chinh, chairman of the National Assembly: "Revolution or Coup d'Etat"; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 16 August 1970, pp 1, 3] *Reprinted from Co Giai Phong [Liberation Banner], No 16, 12 September 1945.</ref>

On 26 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh wrote a letter calling for struggle against the French mentioning they were returning after they sold out the Vietnamese to the Japanese twice in 4 years.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ho Chi Minh |date=1971 |others=Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service |title=Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17 |series=JPRS (Series) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Our+newly+won+national+independence+is+threatened+by+foreign%22&pg=RA2-PA17 |location= |publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. |pages=17, 18 }}</ref><ref>Ho Chi Minh's Letter to the Cochin–China Compatriots, Letter written by President Ho after the war of resistance had broken out in Cochin China: "To the Nam Bo Compatriots"; Hanoi, THong Nhat, Vietnamese, 18 September 1970, p. 1] 26 September 1945</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ho |first=Chi Minh |author-link= |title=Selected Writings (1920–1969) |url=https://archive.org/stream/hochiminhselectedwritings/hochiminhselectedwritings_djvu.txt |location= |publisher= |page= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ur.eu1lib.org/book/18433157/2965f6 |title=Z-Library single sign on |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163303/https://ur.eu1lib.org/book/18433157/2965f6 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Japanese forced Vietnamese women to become [[comfort women]] and with Burmese, Indonesia, Thai and Filipino women they made up a notable portion of Asian comfort women in general.<ref>{{cite book |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |author-link= |date=2021 |series=Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights |title=Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Filipino%2C+Vietnamese%2C+Thai%2C+Indonesian+and+Burmese+women+collectively+also+seem+to+have+made+up+a+significant+proportion+of+the+ACW.%22&pg=PT70 |location= |publisher=Rutgers University Press |page= |isbn=978-1978814981 }}</ref> Japanese use of Malaysian and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Yuki |author-link= |date=2003 |title=Japan's Comfort Women |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22verify+that+other+Asian+women,+such+as+Vietnamese+and+Malaysians,+were+also+exploited+for+the+same+purpose+by+the+Japanese%22&pg=PA60 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=60 |isbn=1134650124}} [https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html Alt URL] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725051737/https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html |date=25 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/Mepaynl/status/593405098983878657 |title=Comfort women were Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Burmese, Thai, Dutch, Australian, and Vietnamese women and girls forced into sexual slavery |last=Lee |first=Morgan Pōmaika'i |date=29 April 2015 |website= |publisher= |access-date= |quote= |via=[[Twitter]] |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211149/https://twitter.com/mepaynl/status/593405098983878657 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stetz |first1=Margaret D. |last2=Oh |first2=Bonnie B. C. |author-link= |date=12 February 2015 |title=Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126 |edition=illustrated |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=126 |isbn=978-1317466253 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Quinones |first=C. Kenneth |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Imperial Japan's Allied Prisoners of War in the South Pacific: Surviving Paradise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3NjEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA230 |location= |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=230 |isbn=978-1527575462 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |author-link= |date=2021 |series=Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights |title=Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PT70 |location= |publisher=Rutgers University Press |page= |isbn=978-1978814981 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link= |date=2005 |title=Double Agency: Acts of Impersonation in Asian American Literature and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIeBYY-TpMsC&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA209 |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press |page=209 |isbn=0804751862 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Thoma |first=Pamela |editor1-last=Vo |editor1-first=Linda Trinh |editor2-last=Sciachitano |editor2-first=Marian |author-link= |date=2004 |title=Asian American Women: The Frontiers Reader |edition=illustrated, reprint |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNZ-DsVg5T8C&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA175 |location= |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |page=175 |isbn=0803296274 |chapter=Cultural Autobiography, Testimonial, and Asian American Transnational Feminist Coalition in the 'Comfort Women of World War II' Conference }}</ref> There were comfort women stations in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yoon |first=Bang-Soon L. |editor1-last=Kowner |editor1-first=Rotem |editor2-last=Demel |editor2-first=Walter |author-link= |date=2015 |series=Brill's Series on Modern East Asia in a Global Historical Perspective |title=Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Interactions, Nationalism, Gender and Lineage |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Tq2CAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA464 |location= |publisher=Brill |page=464 |isbn=978-9004292932 |chapter=20: Sexualized Racism, Gender and Nationalism: The Case of Japan's Sexual Enslavement of Korean 'Comfort Women' |edition=reprint }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Qiu |first1=Peipei |last2=Su |first2=Zhiliang |last3=Chen |first3=Lifei |author-link= |date=2014 |title=Chinese Comfort Women: Testimonies from Imperial Japan's Sex Slaves |series=Oxford oral history series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDyFAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA215 |location= |edition=illustrated |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=215 |isbn=978-0199373895 }}</ref> A Korean comfort woman named Kim Ch'un-hui stayed behind in Vietnam and died there when she was 44 in 1963, owning a dairy farm, cafe, US cash and diamonds worth 200,000 US dollars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Soh |first=C. Sarah |author-link= |date=2020 |title=The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan |series=Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ddfkDwAAQBAJ&q=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese |location= |publisher=University of Chicago Press |pages=159, 279 |isbn=978-0226768045 }}</ref> 2 billion US dollars' worth (1945 values) of damage, 148 million dollars of them due to destruction of industrial plants was incurred by Vietnam. 90% of heavy vehicles and motorcycles, cars and 16 tons of junks as well as railways, port installations were destroyed as well as one third of bridges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Huff |first=Gregg |author-link= |date=2020 |title=World War II and Southeast Asia: Economy and Society under Japanese Occupation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=waECEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA386 |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=386 |isbn=978-1108916080 }}</ref> Some Japanese soldiers married Vietnamese women like Nguyen Thi Xuan and<ref>{{cite news |last=Tran Thi |first=Minh Ha |date=24 February 2017 |title=60 years after Japan army husband fled, Vietnam war bride clings to love |url=https://sg.news.yahoo.com/60-years-japan-army-husband-fled-vietnam-war-074526016.html |work=AFP |location= |archive-date=21 November 2021 |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121123926/https://sg.news.yahoo.com/60-years-japan-army-husband-fled-vietnam-war-074526016.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nguyen Thi Thu and fathered multiple children with the Vietnamese women who remained behind in Vietnam while the Japanese soldiers themselves returned to Japan in 1955. The official Vietnamese historical narrative view them as children of rape and prostitution.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 July 2016 |title=Ben Valentine : Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers |url=https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/23318 |location= |doi=10.58079/q5o2 |last1=indomemoires |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209095521/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/23318 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Valentine |first=Ben |date=19 July 2016 |title=Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers |url=https://hyperallergic.com/306502/photographing-the-forgotten-vietnamese-widows-of-japanese-wwii-soldiers/ |website=Hyperallergic |location= |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209111206/https://hyperallergic.com/306502/photographing-the-forgotten-vietnamese-widows-of-japanese-wwii-soldiers/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945]] 1 to 2 million Vietnamese starved to death in the Red river delta of northern Vietnam due to the Japanese, as the Japanese seized Vietnamese rice and didn't pay. In Phat Diem the Vietnamese farmer Di Ho was one of the few survivors who saw the Japanese steal grain.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.endofempire.asia/0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4/ |title=The great Vietnam famine |last=Gunn |first=Geoffrey |work=End of Empire |date=17 August 2015 |publisher= |access-date= |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211855/https://www.endofempire.asia/0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The North Vietnamese government accused both France and Japan of the famine and said 1–2 million Vietnamese died.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gunn |first1=Geoffrey |date=24 January 2011 |title=The Great Vietnamese Famine of 1944–45 Revisited 1944–45 年ヴィエトナム大飢饉再訪 |url=https://apjjf.org/2011/9/5/Geoffrey-Gunn/3483/article.html |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal |volume=9 |issue=5 Number 4 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107131837/https://apjjf.org/2011/9/5/Geoffrey-Gunn/3483/article.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dũng |first1=Bùi Minh |date=1995 |title=Japan's Role in the Vietnamese Starvation of 1944–45 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/japans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445/8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=573–618 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00014001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |s2cid=145374444 |archive-date=10 June 2018 |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610045032/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/japans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445/8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Võ An Ninh took photographs of dead and dying Vietnamese during the great famine, which were introduced in some foreign books, say, a Japanese book by [[Katsumoto Saotome]] published in 1993.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hien |first1=Nina |date=Spring 2013 |title=The Good, the Bad, and the Not Beautiful: In the Street and on the Ground in Vietnam |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0003.202/--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street?rgn=main;view=fulltext |journal=Local Culture/Global Photography |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages= |doi= |archive-date=21 April 2021 |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421041425/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0003.202/--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street?rgn=main;view=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |title=Vietnam: Corpses in a mass grave following the 1944–45 famine during the Japanese occupation. Up to 2 million Vietnamese died of starvation. |trans-title= |type= |language= |url=https://www.akg-images.com/archive/-2UMEBM2Y85NV.html |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622003638/https://www.akg-images.com/archive/-2UMEBM2Y85NV.html |archive-date=22 June 2022 |time= |location= |publisher= |id=AKG3807269 |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://japanesevietnam.weebly.com/vietnamese-famine-of-1945.html |title=Vietnamese Famine of 1945 |website=Japanese Occupation of Vietnam |publisher= |access-date= |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211855/https://japanesevietnam.weebly.com/vietnamese-famine-of-1945.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=早乙女勝元 |title=ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録 |publisher=大月書店 |date=September 1993 |isbn=4-272-33029-2 }}</ref> Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops by the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese and Vietnamese corpses were all throughout the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.<ref name="Bui 1999 39, 40">{{cite book |last1=Bui |first1=Diem |last2=Chanoff |first2=David |author-link= |date=1999 |title=In the Jaws of History |series=Vietnam war era classics series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Opb_14GLdXcC&pg=PA40 |location= |publisher=Indiana University Press |edition=illustrated, reprint |pages=39, 40 |isbn=0253335396 }}</ref>

Although the death toll of 1945 famine is generally said to be 1 million to 2 million, the estimated value ranges effectively from 2 hundred thousand to 2 million.<ref>{{Cite book |author=[[Katsumoto Saotome|早乙女勝元]] |chapter=第6章 誰に責任が? |title=ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録 |publisher=[[w:ja:大月書店|大月書店]] |date=10 September 1993 |isbn=4-272-33029-2 |pages=151–152 }}</ref> Especially 2 million is often cited, which is insisted by the [[Communist Party of Vietnam]], but is not based on academic research since Ho Chin Minh's assertion in the Declaration of Independence of Vietnam on 2 September 1945 is just repeated.<ref name="Furuta_Rec_97">{{Cite book |editor=古田元夫 |title=写真記録 東南アジア 歴史・戦争・日本 5 ベトナム・ラオス・カンボジア |publisher=ほるぷ出版 |date=25 March 1997 |isbn=4-593-09513-1 |page=97 }}</ref><ref name="Furuta-10-152">{{Cite book |author=古田元夫 |title=東南アジア10講 |publisher=岩波書店 |series=岩波新書 |isbn=978-4-00-431883-5 |date=18 June 2021 |page=152 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=古田元夫 |title=増補新装版 ベトナムの世界史 中華世界から東南アジア世界へ |publisher=[[University of Tokyo Press|東京大学出版会]] |isbn=978-4-13-006534-4 |date=25 September 2015 |page=303}} </ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=早乙女勝元 |chapter=第6章 誰に責任が? |title=ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録 |publisher=大月書店 |date=10 September 1993 |isbn=4-272-33029-2 |pages=151–175 }}</ref> Speaking precisely, Ho Chi Minh mentioned over 2 million in the Declaration but 2 million is the  official perspective of Communist Party of Vietnam for decades.<ref>{{Cite book |author=早乙女勝元 |chapter=第6章 誰に責任が? |title=ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録 |publisher=大月書店 |date=10 September 1993 |isbn=4-272-33029-2 |pages=152 }}</ref> On the other hand there are Vietnamese considering other numbers, for instance, the [[Imperial Commissioner (China)|Imperial Commissioner]] in Hanoi {{ill|Phan Kế Toại|vi|Phan Kế Toại}}, who later joined [[Viet Minh]], insisted four hundred thousand.<ref>{{Cite book |author=小倉貞男 |title=物語 ヴェトナムの歴史 |publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論社]] |isbn=4-12-101372-7 |date=25 July 1997 |pages=345–346 }}</ref> Based on his research of the joint field works conducted in the northern Vietnam in early 1990s, of which official report was published in the title Nạn Dói Năm 1945 ớ Việt Nam: Những Chững Tích Lịch Sự, (edited by Văn Tạo and Furuta Motoo), Japanese professor Furuta Motoo concluded that the death toll would be likely larger than 1 million but seems skeptical of 2 million.<ref name="Furuta_Rec_97"/>

==== Return of the French and early conflicts ====
{{main|War in southern Vietnam (1945–1946)|Chinese occupation of northern Vietnam, 1945–1946|Civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949)}}

[[Aftermath of World War II|After the second World War]], France petitioned for the nullification of the 1938 Franco-Siamese Treaty and reasserted itself in the region. The Vietnamese themselves were locked in [[civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949)|a civil strife]] over the destiny of their post-colonial state after the [[Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina|ousting of the French]] and the [[surrender of Japan]]. [[Viet Minh]] forces seized control from the collapsing [[Empire of Vietnam]], while the [[Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng|Vietnam Nationalist Party]] and [[Việt Cách]] advanced in Tonkin with the support of the [[Chinese occupation of northern Vietnam, 1945–1946|Chinese Allied mission]], and the [[Đại Việt Nationalist Party]] already posed serious competition to the Viet Minh.<ref name="Asselin 2023">{{Cite journal <!-- Deny Citation Bot-->|last=Asselin |first=Pierre |date=2023 |title=The Indochinese Communist Party's Unfinished Revolution of 1945 and the Origins of Vietnam's 30-Year Civil War |journal=Journal of Cold War Studies |volume=25|issue=1 |pages=4–45 |doi=10.1162/jcws_a_01120 }}</ref> The South fractured between the Stalinist front Viet Minh and rival groups including the [[Trotskyism in Vietnam|Trotskyists]], [[Hòa Hảo]], [[Caodaism|Cao Đài]], and [[Bình Xuyên]].<ref name="Reilly 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Reilly |first1=Brett |title=The Sovereign States of Vietnam, 1945–1955 |journal=[[Journal of Vietnamese Studies]] |date=2016 |volume=11 |issue=3–4 |pages=103–139 |doi=10.1525/jvs.2016.11.3-4.103}}</ref>

American President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and General [[Joseph Stilwell|Stilwell]] privately made it adamantly clear that the French were not to reacquire French Indochina after the war was over. He told Secretary of State [[Cordell Hull]] the Indochinese were worse off under the French rule of nearly 100 years than they were at the beginning. Roosevelt asked [[Chiang Kai-shek]] if he wanted Indochina, to which Chiang Kai-shek replied: "Under no circumstances!"<ref>Tuchman, p. 235.</ref> Following World War II, the Allied powers agreed to return Indochina to French administration.

[[File:1er CEPML.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[1st Foreign Parachute Heavy Mortar Company]] during the Indochina War]]

After persuading [[List of Vietnamese monarchs|Emperor]] [[Bảo Đại]] to abdicate in his favour, on 2 September 1945, Ho Chi Minh declared independence for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]. The Viet Minh tried to negotiate with the French in order to gain independence, but the [[Ho–Sainteny Agreement]] and [[Fontainebleau Agreements]] of 1946 failed to produce a satisfactory, lasting solution.

After the close of hostilities in WWII, 200,000 Chinese troops under General [[Lu Han (general)|Lu Han]] sent by Chiang Kai-shek entered French Indochina north of the 16th parallel to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces, and remained there until 1946.<ref>Addington, p. 30.</ref> This was in accordance with the instructions made by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] in [[General Order No. 1]], of 2 September 1945. Working with the [[Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng|VNQDĐ]] (broadly the Vietnamese equivalent of the Chinese [[Kuomintang]]), to increase their influence in Indochina and put pressure on their opponents.<ref>Neville, p. 119.</ref>

Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946 he forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March 1946.<ref>Duong, p. 21.</ref><ref>Tønnesson, p. 41.</ref><ref>Errington, p. 63.</ref><ref>The Vietnam War Seeds of Conflict 1945–1960.</ref>

General Lu Han's 200,000 Chinese soldiers occupied north Vietnam starting August 1945. 90,000 arrived by October, the 62nd army came on 26 September to Nam Dinh and Haiphong. Lang Son and Cao Bang were occupied by the Guangxi 62nd army corps and the Red River region and Lai Cai were occupied by a column from Yunnan. Vietnamese VNQDD fighters accompanied the Chinese soldiers. Ho Chi Minh ordered his DRV administration to set quotas for rice to give to the Chinese soldiers and rice was sold in Chinese currency in the Red River delta. Lu Han occupied the French governor general's palace after ejecting the French staff under Sainteny.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gunn |first=Geoffrey C. |author-link= |date=2014 |series= |title=Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4T7oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 |location= |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=224 |isbn=978-1442223035 }}</ref> Chinese soldiers occupied French Indochina north of the 16th parallel while the British under the South-East Asia Command of Lord Mountbatten occupied the south.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |last2=Saha |first2=Sourish |author-link= |date=2016 |series= |title=Armed Forces and Insurgents in Modern Asia |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwLeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=84 |isbn=978-1317231936 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Edward |author-link= |date=2016 |title=The Vietnam War: A Documentary Reader |series=Uncovering the Past: Documentary Readers in American History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MzpcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |edition=illustrated |location= |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page=40 |isbn=978-1405196789 }}</ref> Vietnamese civilians were robbed, raped and killed by French soldiers in Saigon when they came back in August 1945.<ref>{{cite book |last=Donaldson |first=Gary |author-link= |date=1996 |title=America at War Since 1945: Politics and Diplomacy in Korea, Vietnam, and the Gulf War |series=Religious Studies; 39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOHR0neab58C&pg=PA75 |location= |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |edition=illustrated |page=75 |isbn=0275956601 }}</ref>

Chiang Kai-shek deliberately withheld his crack and well trained soldiers from occupying Vietnam since he was going to use them to fight the Communists inside China and instead sent undisciplined warlord troops from Yunnan under Lu Han to occupy French Indochina north of the 16th parallel for the purpose of disarming the Japanese.<ref>{{cite book |last=Neville |first=Peter |author-link= |date=2007 |series=Military History and Policy |title=Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u5DzbRINYkIC&pg=PA66 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=66 |isbn=978-1134244768 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Duiker |first=William J |author-link= |date=2012 |series= |title=Ho Chi Minh: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRKZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT371 |location= |publisher=Hachette Books |page= |isbn=978-1401305611 }}</ref> Ho Chi Minh confiscated gold taels, jewelry and coins in September 1945 during "Gold Week" to give to Chinese forces occupying northern Vietnam. Rice to Cochinchina by the French in October 1945 were divided by Ho Chi Minh, and the northern Vietnamese only received one third while the Chinese soldiers were given two thirds by Ho Chi Minh. For 15 days elections were postponed by Ho Chi Minh in response to a demand by Chinese general Chen Xiuhe on 18 December 1945 so that the Chinese could get the Dong Minh Hoi and VNQDD to prepare. The Chinese left only in April–June 1946.<ref>{{cite book |author-link= |date=2007 |series= |title=Ho Chi Minh: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fJtqjYiVbUAC&pg=PA108 |translator=Claire Duiker |edition=illustrated, reprint |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=108 |isbn=978-0521850629 }}</ref> Ho Chi Minh gave golden smoking paraphernalia and a golden opium pipe to the Chinese general Lu Han after gold week and purchased weapons with what was left of the proceeds. Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops by the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese and Vietnamese corpses were all throughout the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.<ref name="Bui 1999 39, 40"/> 

While Chiang Kai-shek, Xiao Wen (Hsiao Wen) and the Kuomintang central government of China was disinterested in occupying Vietnam beyond the allotted time period and involving itself in the war between the Việt Minh and the French, the Yunnan warlord Lu Han held the opposite view and wanted to occupy Vietnam to prevent the French returning and establish a Chinese trusteeship of Vietnam under the principles of the Atlantic Charter with the aim of eventually preparing Vietnam for independence and blocking the French from returning.<ref>{{cite book |last=Patti |first=Archimedes L. A. |author-link= |date=1980 |series= |title=Why Viet Nam?: Prelude to America's Albatross |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbFx8OhYSjcC&pg=PA336 |location= |publisher=University of California Press |page=336 |isbn=0520041569 }}</ref> Ho Chi Minh sent a cable on 17 October 1945 to American President Harry S. Truman calling on him, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Premier Stalin and Premier Attlee to go to the United Nations against France and demand France not be allowed to return to occupy Vietnam, accusing France of having sold out and cheated the Allies by surrendering Indochina to Japan and that France had no right to return.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ho |first=Chi Minh |editor1-last=Gettleman |editor1-first=Marvin E. |editor2-last=Franklin |editor2-first=Jane |editor3-last=Young |editor3-first=Marilyn Blatt |editor4-last=Franklin |editor4-first=Howard Bruce |author-link= |date=1995 |series= |title=Vietnam and America: A Documented History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SVtNalqmYgAC&pg=PA47 |location= |publisher=Grove Press |page=47 |isbn=0802133622 |edition=illustrated, revised |chapter=9. Vietnam's Second Appeal to the United States: Cable to President Harry S Truman (October 17, 1945)* }}</ref> Ho Chi Minh dumped the blame on Dong Minh Hoi and VNDQQ for signing the agreement with France for returning its soldiers to Vietnam after he had to do it himself.<ref>{{cite book |last=SarDesai |first=D.R. |author-link= |date=2018 |series= |title=Vietnam: Past and Present |edition=4th reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT65 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page= |isbn=978-0429975196 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hearden |first=Patrick J. |author-link= |date=2016 |series= |title=Tragedy of Vietnam |edition=4, revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg03DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=67 |isbn=978-1315510842 }}</ref> 

Ho Chi Minh's Việt Minh tried to organize welcome parades for Chinese soldiers in northern Vietnam and covered for instances of bad behavior by warlord soldiers, trying to reassure Vietnamese that the warlord troops of Lu Han were only there temporarily and that China supported Vietnam's independence. Việt Minh newspapers said that the same ancestors (huyết thống) and culture were shared by Vietnamese and Chinese and that the Chinese heroically fought Japan and changed in the 1911 revolution and was attacked by western imperialists so it was "not the same as feudal China". Ho Chi Minh forbade his soldiers like Trần Huy Liệu in Phú Thọ from attacking Chinese soldiers and Ho Chi Minh even surrendered Vietnamese who attacked Chinese soldiers to be executed as punishment in the Ro-Nha incident in Kiến An district on 6 March 1946 after Hồ Đức Thành and Đào Văn Biểu, special commissioners sent from Hanoi by Ho's DRV examined the case.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marr |first=David G. |edition=illustrated |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945–1946) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVMA0mk6_6kC&pg=PA269 |location= |publisher=University of California Press |pages=269–271, 274–275 |isbn=978-0520274150 |issn=2691-0403 |volume=6 of From Indochina to Vietnam: Revolution and War in a Global Perspective |series=Philip E. Lilienthal book }}</ref> Ho Chi Minh appeased and granted numerous concessions to the Chinese soldiers to avoid the possibility of them clashing with the Việt Minh, with him ordering Vietnamese not to carry out anything against Chinese soldiers and pledging his life on his promise, hoping the Chinese would disarm the Japanese soldiers and finish their mission as fast as possible.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duiker |first=William J |author-link= |date=2018 |series= |title=The Communist Road To Power In Vietnam: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVJPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 |location= |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |page= |isbn=978-0429972546 }}</ref>

Chinese communist guerilla leader Chu Chia-pi came into northern Vietnam multiple times in 1945 and 1948 and helped the Việt Minh fight against the French from Yunnan. Other Chinese Communists also did the same.<ref>{{cite book |last=Calkins |first=Laura M. |series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia |author-link= |date=2013 |title=China and the First Vietnam War, 1947-54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9Ppu-zcqTIC&pg=PA12 |location= |publisher=Routledge |edition=reprint |page=12 |isbn=978-1134078479 }}</ref>

==== First Indochina War ====
{{Main|First Indochina War|1947–1950 in French Indochina}}

Bitter fighting ensued in the [[First Indochina War]] as Ho and his government took to the forests and mountains. In 1948, France recognized nominal independence of Vietnam with the Hạ Long Bay Preliminary Agreement.<ref name="mjp.univ-perp.fr">{{cite web | url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/vn1946.htm | title=Cochinchine, Vietnam, 1945, Digithèque MJP }}</ref> In 1949, in order to provide a political alternative to Ho Chi Minh, the French favoured the creation of a unified [[State of Vietnam]], and former Emperor Bảo Đại was put back in power. Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia became [[associated state]]s of the [[French Union]] and were granted more autonomy.

The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against the French. In 1949 the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States, China and the Soviet Union.<ref>Fall, ''Street Without Joy'', p. 17.</ref> French Union forces included colonial troops from their colonial empire – Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian Arabs/Berbers; Laotian, Cambodian and [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|Vietnamese ethnic minorities]]; Black Africans – and French professional troops, European volunteers, and units of the [[French Foreign Legion|Foreign Legion]]. The use of [[Metropolitan France|metropolitan]] recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming even more unpopular at home. It was called the "dirty war" (''la sale guerre'') by leftists in France.<ref>Edward Rice-Maximin, ''Accommodation and Resistance: The French Left, Indochina, and the Cold War, 1944–1954'' (Greenwood, 1986).</ref> Vietnamese women were also raped in north Vietnam by the French like in Bảo Hà, [[Bảo Yên District]], [[Lào Cai province]] and Phu Lu, which caused 400 Vietnamese who were trained by the French to defect on 20 June 1948. Buddhist statues were looted and Vietnamese were robbed, raped and tortured by the French after the French crushed the Việt Minh in northern Vietnam in 1947–1948 forcing the Việt Minh to flee into Yunnan, China for sanctuary and aid from the Chinese Communists. A French reporter was told by Vietnamese village notables "We know what war always is, We understand your soldiers taking our animals, our jewelry, our Buddhas; it is normal. We are resigned to their raping our wives and our daughters; war has always been like that. But we object to being treated in the same way, not only our sons, but ourselves, old men and dignitaries that we are."<ref>{{cite book |last=Chen |first=King C. |author-link= |date=2015 |title=Vietnam and China, 1938–1954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQrWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |location= |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=reprint |page=195 |isbn=978-1400874903 |volume=2134 of Princeton Legacy Library }}</ref>

The strategy of pushing the Việt Minh into attacking well-defended bases in remote parts of the country at the end of their logistical trails was validated at the [[Battle of Nà Sản]] even though the base was relatively weak because of a lack of concrete and steel. French efforts were made more difficult due to the limited usefulness of armoured tanks in a forested and mountainous environment, lack of strong air forces for air cover and [[carpet bombing]], and use of foreign recruits from other French colonies (mainly from Algeria, Morocco and even Vietnam). [[Võ Nguyên Giáp]], however, used efficient and novel tactics of direct fire artillery, convoy ambushes and massed anti-aircraft guns to impede land and air supply deliveries together with a strategy based on recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by wide popular support, a guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction developed in China, and the use of simple and reliable war material provided by the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Flitton |first1=Dave |title=Battlefield Vietnam – Dien Bien Phu, the legacy |date=7 September 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQdFGr7NQ4o |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/eQdFGr7NQ4o |archive-date=30 October 2021 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System PBS |access-date=29 July 2015}}{{cbignore }}</ref>

However, 1950 was the turning point of the war. Ho's government was recognised by the fellow Communist governments of China and the Soviet Union, and [[Mao Zedong|Mao]]'s government subsequently gave a fallback position to Ho's forces, as well as abundant supplies of weapons. In October 1950, the French army suffered its first major defeat with the [[Battle of Route Coloniale 4]]. Subsequent efforts by the French military managed to improve their situation only in the short term. Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam proved a weak and unstable government, and [[Norodom Sihanouk]]'s Cambodia proclaimed its independence in November 1953. Laos became independent in October 1953 and the State of Vietnam became independent on 4 June 1954 (although they were still members of the [[French Union]]).<ref>{{cite web |archive-date=26 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726175311/http://www.montrealgazette.com/business/aerospace/entertainment/Photos/996953/story.html |access-date=19 July 2014 |title=A picture taken on ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 1954 shows Vietnamese Prime Minister Buu Loc and French council president Joseph Laniel (R) preparing to sign two Franco-Vietnamese treaties by which France recognised Vietnam as an independent state at the Hotel Matignon in Paris, on ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 1954. These signatures took place one month after the defeat of Dien Bien Phu and a few days before the fall of Laniel's government |url=http://www.montrealgazette.com/business/aerospace/entertainment/Photos/996953/story.html }}</ref><ref name=indo>''The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans: Nationalism and Communism in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam''. Arthur J. Dommen. Indiana University Press, 2002. p. 240. Trích: The question remains of why the treaties of independence and association were simply initialed by Laniel and Buu Loc and not signed by Coty and Bao Dai… Many writers place the blame for the non-signature of the treaties on the Vietnamese. But there exists no logical explanation why it should have been the Vietnamese, rather than French, who refused their signature to the treaties which had been negotiated. Bao Dai had arrived in French in April believing the treaty-signing was only a matter of two or three weeks away. However, a quite satisfactory explanation in what was happening in Geneva, where the negotiations were moving ahead with surprising rapidity.… After Geneva, Bao Dai’s treaties was never completed</ref> Fighting lasted until May 1954, when the Việt Minh won the decisive victory against French forces at the gruelling [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]].

==== Geneva Agreements ====
[[File:Indochina 1954.jpg|thumb|Indochina in 1954]]

On 21 July 1954, the [[1954 Geneva Conference|Geneva Conference]] produced the Geneva Agreements between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and France. Provisions included supporting the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Indochina, re-recognising its independence from France, declaring the cessation of hostilities and foreign involvement in internal Indochina affairs, and delineating northern and southern zones into which opposing troops were to withdraw. The Agreements mandated unification on the basis of internationally supervised free elections to be held in July 1956.<ref name="USvietAnalysis"/>

At this conference France recognized the independence of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] led by the communist [[Việt Minh]], leading to the division of Vietnam into two ''de facto'' countries. The United States and South Vietnam rejected the Geneva Accords and never signed. South Vietnamese Prime Minister Diệm rejected the idea of nationwide election as proposed in the agreement, saying that a free election was impossible in the communist North and that his government was not bound by the Geneva Accords. France did withdraw, turning the north over to the Communists while the [[Bảo Đại]] regime, with American support, kept control of the South. Diệm would overthrow Bảo Đại and established a republic led by him in 1955.

The events of 1954 marked the beginnings of serious United States involvement in Vietnam and the ensuing [[Vietnam War]]. Laos and Cambodia also became independent in 1954, but were both drawn into the Vietnam War.

The remnants of the Indochinese Federation were abolished on 30 December 1954. The Geneva Agreement did not state that the [[French Union]] had to withdraw its troops from South Vietnam. However, Diệm's government  and the US asked the French Union to withdraw its troops. The French withdrew on 28 April 1956. And on 9 December 1955, South Vietnam withdrew from the French Union.<ref name=Logevall>{{cite book |last=Logevall |first=Fredrik |title=Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam |publisher=Random House |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-679-64519-1 }}</ref>

===== United States involvement =====

In 1954 the French defeat at Điện Biên Phủ renewed the United States interest in intervening, including some senators who called out for large scale bombing campaigns, potentially even nuclear weapons.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marder |first=Murrey |date=22 August 1984 |title=When Ike Was Asked to Nuke Vietnam |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1982/08/22/when-ike-was-asked-to-nuke-vietnam/305c4152-202e-4303-9bdc-3424f4f7376b/ |archive-date=28 September 2021 |access-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928084305/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1982/08/22/when-ike-was-asked-to-nuke-vietnam/305c4152-202e-4303-9bdc-3424f4f7376b/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|President Dwight Eisenhower]], even though he did not believe a military victory, believed in the [[domino theory]], where if Vietnam were to fall to communism then there would be multiple other countries that would fall to the ideology in Southeast Asia, from Vietnam to India there would be a dramatic shift in global power. Eisenhower chose to not put boots on the ground, but his decision to start to get involved likely is more important to the countries eventual step into the country than Johnson's decision to take that last step.

Eisenhower had a further impact in that he would continue to provide support for future presidents policy in the country, Lyndon B. Johnson and Gerald Ford both used him to large extents, Kennedy did have several meetings with him in the White House, and Nixon was mostly on his own, but considering their familial ties there was inevitably some ideas that were considered that otherwise would not have been. As he was so involved the United States policy in French Indochina his influence is hard to underestimate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cuddy |first1=Edward |title=Vietnam: Mr. Johnson's War. Or Mr. Eisenhower's? |journal=The Review of Politics |date=2003 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=351–374 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500039073 |jstor=1408716 |s2cid=145582758 }}</ref>

== Administration ==

{{Infobox executive government
| government_name = {{nowrap|Government-General of French Indochina}}
| nativename      = {{nowrap|{{lang|fr|Gouvernement général de l'Indochine française}}}}
| image           = Emblem of the Gouvernement général de l'Indochine.svg
| image_size      = 150px
| image2 = Seal of the Cabinet of the Government-General of French Indo-China.svg
| image_size2 = 150px
| caption = The emblem and seal of the Government-General.
| date            = 17 October 1887
| date_dissolved = 21 July 1954
| state           = French Indochina
| address         = [[Saigon Governor's Palace|Norodom Palace]], [[Saigon]] (1887–1902),<br />[[Presidential Palace, Hanoi|Residence of the Governor-General of French Indochina]], [[Hanoi]] (1902–1945)
| appointed       = [[President of France]] and the [[Minister of the Overseas (France)|Ministry of the Colonies]]
| leader_title    = [[List of governors-general of French Indochina|Governor-General of French Indochina]]
| main_organ      = Cabinet of the Government-General
| ministries      = <!-- number of ministries/departments -->
| responsible     =
| url             =
}}

The government of French Indochina was headed by a [[List of governors-general of French Indochina|governor-general]] and a number of French residents.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011">{{cite news |url=https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/the-state-structure-in-french-ruled-vietnam-1858-1945-4404.html |title=The state structure in French-ruled Vietnam (1858–1945). |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=10 August 2021 |author=Pham Diem (State and Law Research Institute) |newspaper=Vietnamlawmagazine.vn |publisher=Vietnam Law and Legal Forum magazine, Vietnam News Agency – Your gateway to the law of Vietnam. |language=en |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419085145/https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/the-state-structure-in-french-ruled-vietnam-1858-1945-4404.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The governor-general was assisted by a system of different government agencies; however, these agencies functioned only to be consultants to help the governor-general perform his role and exercise his powers.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/> The protectorates of Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos all had residents-superior while the colony of Cochinchina had a [[List of administrators of the French colony of Cochinchina|governor]]. In the protectorates the indigenous administrations were nominally combined with the French administration, but in the colony of Cochinchina as well as "colonial cities", such as [[Đà Nẵng]] in Annam, the French maintained direct rule.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/> All constituent countries of French Indochina had their own legal systems.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011">{{cite news |url=https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/legislation-in-french-ruled-vietnam-4504.html |title=Legislation in French-ruled Vietnam. |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=10 August 2021 |author=Pham Diem (State and Law Research Institute) |newspaper=Vietnamlawmagazine.vn |publisher=Vietnam Law and Legal Forum magazine, Vietnam News Agency – Your gateway to the law of Vietnam. |language=en |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426113007/https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/legislation-in-french-ruled-vietnam-4504.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In Annam and Tonkin the laws of the Nguyễn dynasty, such as ''Sắc'' (敕, "Imperial Order"), ''Chí'' (誌, "Ordinance"), and ''Dụ'' (諭, "Decree"), remained in effect but were subordinate to the laws of the French administration.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/>

The government-general of French Indochina as well as its powers were established and amended through presidential decrees.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> The governor-general held supreme power in French Indochina over the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government and had the power to appoint the residents below him.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/> The governor-general was also in charge of all the military affairs of the country, among their responsibilities were the ability to set up an army corps, deploy the French Indochinese military forces, and issue conscription orders.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/> However, the governor-general was not in charge of actually commanding the military forces during actual military campaigns and battles.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/> The governor-general was also the chairman of the ''Indochinese Supreme Council'' (later renamed to the ''Indochinese Government Council'') which was the highest government agency in charge of general affairs.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/>

[[File:Enfants annamites, Gabriel Veyre.jpg|left|thumb|306x306px|Two French women (wife and daughter of Governor-General Paul Doumer) throwing [[Vietnamese cash|small cash coins]] in front of [[Vietnamese people|Annamite]] children (by Gabriel Veyre).]]

Other government agencies of the Government-General of French Indochina include the Indochinese Defense Council, Mine Consultancy Committee, the Indochinese Education Consultancy Council, the Supreme Council for Exploitation of Colonies, the Indochinese Economic and Financial Interests Assembly, etc.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/>

In the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin the [[government of the Nguyễn dynasty]] shared its power with the French administration ''[[de jure]]'' but were ''[[de facto]]'' directly ruled by the French colonial apparatus.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011"/> The residents-superior and governor of Cochinchina did not have legislative powers only executive.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> While the Emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty did maintain their legislative powers, all imperial decrees had to be approved by either the Resident-Superior of Annam or by the governor-general of French Indochina.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> Until the early 20th century the [[Gia Long]] era ''Hoàng Việt luật lệ'' (皇越律例), sometimes known as the "Gia Long Code", remained the main civil code of the Nguyễn dynasty until the Emperor issued the nearly identical ''Civil Code of Annam'' and ''Civil Code of Tonkin''.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/>
[[File:M. Guillard, inspecteur des colonies, sur un des éléphants de la Résidence supérieure, Phnom-Penh.jpg|thumb|French colonial inspector and local on top of an [[Asian elephant|elephant]] in [[Phnom Penh]] in 1896.]]
A number of the legal documents in effect in the French Republic were also applied to French Indochina, these included the ''[[Napoleonic Code|Code Napoléon]]'' of 1804, the ''Code de commerce'' of 1807, the ''Code d'instruction criminelle'', and the French penal code of 1810.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> These laws took effect in French Indochina on the date that the governor-general issued decrees that they would also apply to the federation.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/>

The legislative decrees of the governor-general had to be sent to the minister of colonies for consideration; the minister would then approve or disapprove the decrees.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> However, the minister of colonies was not entitled to make any amendments to the decrees, and if they wished to alter it they would have to draft it and then send the draft to the president of France.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> Only French presidential decrees could overturn the decrees of the governor-general.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> Executive decrees did not have to be sent to [[Metropolitan France]] for review and immediately came into effect.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/>

Throughout Vietnam thousands of villages had their own independent legal codes that governed the social relations within the village community, thousands of written regulations existed and the central administration often recognised them.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> These legal codes were known as the ''[[Hyangyak|Hương ước]]'' (鄉約), ''Hương lệ'' (鄉例) and ''Lệ làng'' (例廊), which could be translated as "rural covenants", and also existed in [[China]] and [[Korea]].<ref name="Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia">{{cite web |url=https://www.rfa.org/vietnamese/news/reportfromvn/the-village-laws-now-and-then-03232018123259.html |title=Hương ước – xưa và nay. Hương ước – hay còn gọi là lệ làng, là một giá trị văn hóa, truyền thống, gắn liền với lịch sử dân tộc Việt Nam. Trải qua bao biến cố, Hương ước đến nay vẫn còn được lưu giữ và đóng vai trò trong nền văn hóa và phong tục, tập quán của người Việt. |date=23 March 2018 |access-date=22 January 2022 |author=Thông tín viên RFA |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia|Đài Á Châu Tự Do]] |language=vi |archive-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511203459/https://www.rfa.org/vietnamese/news/reportfromvn/the-village-laws-now-and-then-03232018123259.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Key P. Yang; Gregory Henderson: ''An Outline History of Korean Confucianism: Part II: The Schools of Yi Confucianism''. In: ''The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2. (Feb. 1959), pp. 259–276.'' Retrieved on 3 August 2005 "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2941686 Stable URL] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511205001/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2941686 |date=11 May 2022 }}".</ref> The ''Hương ước'' contained rules about various legal practices like land management, marriage, labour relations, arbitration of disputes, as well as local customs such as family relations, village relations, ghosts, [[ancestor worship]], sacrifice, mourning, and longing.<ref name="Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia"/> Both the government-general of French Indochina and the government of the Nguyễn dynasty attempted reform these rules and regulations in their favour.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/> To expand their power into Vietnamese hamlets and villages the French administration issued models for the villages to follow, but many Vietnamese villages still functioned independent of the French and Nguyễn administrations.<ref name="Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011"/>

== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
[[File:Alexandre Varenne Indochine 39 Fête de l'inauguration de l'AFIMA.jpg |thumb |Inauguration of the [[Association pour la formation intellectuelle et morale des Annamites]], a cultural organization in Hanoi.]]
The [[Vietnamese people|Viet]], [[Lao people|Lao]], and [[Khmer people|Khmer]] ethnic groups formed the majority of their respective colony's populations. Minority groups in the Central Highlands, such as the [[Jarai people|Jarai]], [[Rade people|Rade]], and [[Bahnar people|Bahnar]], were collectively known as [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnards]]. [[Chams|Cham]] communities were dispersed across southern Indochina lowlands. Mountain regions of northern Indochina was home to various ethnic groups, including the [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Muong people|Muong]], and [[Tày people|Tày]]. [[Overseas Chinese|Ethnic Chinese]] were largely concentrated in major cities and towns, especially the ''[[Hoa people|Hoa]]'' in Cochinchina and the ''[[Chinese Cambodians|Chen]]'' in Cambodia, where they became heavily involved in trade and commerce. In addition, there was also a tiny [[French people|French minority]] which accounted for 0.2% of the population (or 39,000 people) by 1940.<ref>Jennings, Eric. (2001). p136. ''Vichy in the Tropics: Pétain's National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944''. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</ref> Around 95% of French Indochina's population was rural in a 1913 estimate, although urbanisation did slowly grow over the course of French rule.{{efn|Vietnam alone has fifty-four ethnic groups, presented at the Ethnographic Museum of Hanoi.}}

=== Religion ===
[[File:St. Joseph's Cathedral - Hanoi, Vietnam.jpg|thumb|The [[Cathédrale Saint-Joseph de Hanoï]].]]
Many religions, including various forms of [[Buddhism]] and [[folk religion]], were practiced in French Indochina.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Vietnamese Religious Society |title=The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions |editor-first=Mark |editor-last=Juergensmeyer |editor-link=Mark Juergensmeyer |date=2006 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0011 |isbn=9780195137989 |first=Jayne S. |last=Werner |pages= }}</ref> Longstanding religious faiths, along with newly emergent ones such as [[Caodaism|Cao Đài]] and [[Hòa Hảo]], underwent transformations during this period. The secular [[French Third Republic]] and its top colonial officials in Indochina took a skeptical stance toward [[organized religion]].{{sfn|Goscha|2016|page=170}}

Colonial administrators ironically leaned on [[Confucianism]], especially its civil service model, to govern Annam, Tonkin, and even Cochinchina. Influential figures like [[Pierre Pasquier (colonial administrator)|Pierre Pasquier]] viewed Confucianism as the authentic core of Vietnamese society and a useful means of maintaining order and legitimizing French rule. Meanwhile, in Laos and Cambodia, the colonial authorities leveraged [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]], including its schools, monastic order, and organizations, to help govern the population. Colonial administrators distrusted both [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Buddhism]] and the [[Catholic Church in Vietnam|local Catholics]] in Vietnam.{{sfn|Goscha|2016|page=170}} Buddhists, Catholics, as well as followers of Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo, were nationalists and broadly anti-colonial.{{sfn|Goscha|2016|pages=171–181, 239}}

=== French settlements ===
[[File:French Indochina 1937.png|thumb|220px|Subdivisions of French Indochina]]

Unlike [[French Algeria|Algeria]], French settlement in Indochina did not occur at a grand scale. By 1940, only about 34,000 [[French diaspora|French civilians]] lived in French Indochina, along with a smaller number of French military personnel and government workers (6,000). Of these almost half, 16,550, lived in Cochinchina, the vast majority living in Saigon.<ref>Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hémery (2001), ''Indochine : la colonisation ambiguë 1858–1954, La Découverte'', 2001, p. 178. ({{ISBN|978-2-7071-3412-7}})</ref>

The principal reasons why French settlement did not grow in a manner similar to that in French North Africa (which had a population of over 1 million French civilians) were because French Indochina was seen as a {{lang|fr|colonie d'exploitation économique}} (colony for economic exploitation) rather than a {{lang|fr|colonie de peuplement}} (settlement colony helping [[Metropolitan France]] from being overpopulated), and because Indochina was distant from France itself.

=== Language ===
{{See also|French language in Vietnam|French language in Cambodia|French language in Laos}}

During French colonial rule, the [[French language]] was the principal language of education, government, trade, and media and French was widely introduced to the general population. French became widespread among urban and semi-urban populations and became the principal language of the elite and educated. This was most notable in the colonies of Tonkin and Cochinchina (Northern and Southern Vietnam respectively), where French influence was most heavy, while Annam, Laos and Cambodia were less influenced by French education.<ref>[http://axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/asie/vietnam-3Pol-lng-off.htm Vietnam – La politique linguistique] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806230835/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/asie/vietnam-3Pol-lng-off.htm |date=6 August 2020 }}, ''L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde'' (in French)</ref> Despite the dominance of French in official and educational settings, local populations still largely spoke their native languages. After French rule ended, the French language was still largely used among the new governments (with the exception of North Vietnam). Today, French continues to be taught as a second language in the former colonies and used in some administrative affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education |last1=Baker |first1=Colin |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=1998 |isbn=9781853593628 |last2=Jones |first2=Sylvia Prys |page=384 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/16/style/IHT-french-declines-in-indochina-as-english-booms.html |title=French Declines in Indochina, as English Booms |last=Richardson |first=Michael |date=16 October 1993 |work=[[International Herald Tribune]] |archive-date=1 October 2023 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001081055/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/16/style/IHT-french-declines-in-indochina-as-english-booms.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Economy ==

French Indochina was designated as a {{lang|fr|colonie d'exploitation}} (colony of [[Exploitation of natural resources|economic exploitation]]) by the French government. Funding for the colonial government came by means of taxes on locals and the French government established a near [[monopoly]] on the trade of [[opium]], salt and [[Rice wine|rice alcohol]]. The French administration established quotas of consumption for each Vietnamese village, thereby compelling villagers to purchase and consume set amounts of these monopolised goods.<ref>Peters.</ref> The trade of those three products formed about 44% of the colonial government's budget in 1920 but declined to 20% by 1930 as the colony began to economically diversify.

The colony's principal bank was the [[Banque de l'Indochine]], established in 1875 and was responsible for minting the colony's currency, the [[French Indochinese piastre|Indochinese piastre]]. Indochina was the second most invested-in French colony by 1940 after Algeria, with investments totalling up to 6.7 million [[franc]]s.

During the first six months of World War I, the government-general would expel all German and Austro-Hungarian people living in French Indochina.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina">{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/food_and_nutrition_indochina |title=Food and Nutrition (Indochina) |date=8 October 2014 |access-date=21 August 2022 |author=Erica J. Peters |publisher=1914–1918-online – International Encyclopedia of the First World War ([[Free University of Berlin]], [[Bavarian State Library]], and [[Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium]], among others) |language=en |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326033112/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/food_and_nutrition_indochina |url-status=live}} – Peters, Erica J.: Food and Nutrition (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, [[Berlin]] (8 October 2014). {{doi|10.15463/ie1418.10321}}.</ref> The two pre-war import/export houses, Speidel & Co. and F. Engler & Co., were officially re-organised as French companies; however, in reality they continued to operate under both German control and using German capital.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/> During the 1910s, Speidel & Co. was the largest importer of European goods into the country with Engler being one of its major competitors.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/> After the German owners were expelled from the company lower level employees tried to continue running these companies despite increasing push back from the French colonial authorities by means of arbitrary customs enforcement, freight interference, and regulatory aggravations.<ref>Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer in Aix-en-Provence (hereafter CAOM): Archives of the Governor General of Indochina (hereafter GGI), dossier 19457: 20 November 1914 letter from Governor General Vollenhoven to the Minister of Colonies.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/> Later the French would seize all of the German Speidel Company's warehouses and would sell the seized goods at low prices both to Vietnamese consumers and Chinese exporters to try to increase revenue.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/> These goods included rice, wine, and canned goods.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/>

During World War I, export regulations kept changing which the Chinese export businesses took advantage of by purchasing rice for minimal prices from the Vietnamese farmers who grew it and then deliberately passing along the risks of the export trade to those small Vietnamese farmers who were the least able to bear the losses involved.<ref>Bulletin de la Chambre de Commerce de Saigon: minutes from 26 February 1915.</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/>

As the war made both imports and exports from and to Europe more difficult, French Indochina would increase trade with other Pacific countries.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/> During the war period, import businesses would import flour from the [[United States]] and dairy products from [[Australia]], though at lower levels than during the pre-war period.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/> Prior to World War I, French Indochina had an annual flour import worth $950,000 and an annual condensed milk import worth $135,000, but during the war they would import only half this amount from the United States and about one fifth the amount of condensed milk from Australia.<ref name="Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina"/>

In this context, the French colonizers opened the country's first business school in Hanoi for colonized students.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adrien Jean-Guy Passant: Educating indigenous commercial executives. A business school in colonial context: The case of the Indochina Higher School of Commerce (1920–1932), ''Business History'', Volume 66, Issue 5, pp. 955–1000, 2022 |doi=10.1080/00076791.2022.2052853 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2022.2052853}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

Beginning in the 1930s, France began to exploit the region for its natural resources and to economically diversify the colony. Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin (encompassing modern-day Vietnam) became a source of [[tea]], [[rice]], [[coffee]], [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[zinc]], and [[tin]], while Cambodia became a centre for rice and pepper crops. Only Laos was seen initially as an economically unviable colony, although [[Lumber|timber]] was harvested at a small scale from there.

At the turn of the 20th century, the growing automobile industry in France resulted in the growth of the [[natural rubber|rubber]] industry in French Indochina, and plantations were built throughout the colony, especially in Annam and Cochinchina. France soon became a leading producer of rubber through its Indochina colony and Indochinese rubber became prized in the industrialised world. The success of rubber plantations in French Indochina resulted in an increase in investment in the colony by various firms, such as [[Michelin]]. With the growing number of investments in the colony's mines and rubber, tea and coffee plantations, French Indochina began to industrialise as factories opened in the colony. These new factories produced textiles, cigarettes, beer and cement which were then exported throughout the French Empire.

=== Infrastructure ===
[[image:Long bien bridge.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Paul Doumer]] Bridge, now [[Long Biên Bridge]], in Hanoi.]]
[[image:Bâtiments 172.jpg|thumb|right|Musée Louis Finot in [[Hanoi]], built by [[Ernest Hébrard]] in 1932, now the [[National Museum of Vietnamese History]].]]

When French Indochina was viewed as an economically important colony for France, the French government set a goal to improve the transport and communications networks in the colony. [[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]] became a principal port in Southeast Asia and rivalled the [[Singapore in the Straits Settlements|British port of Singapore]] as the region's busiest commercial centre. By 1937 Saigon was the sixth busiest port in the entire French Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXrXQU33avQC&q=1937+Saigon+busy+port&pg=PA331 |title=The French Empire Between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society |year=2007 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-7755-5 |language=en }}</ref>

In the 19th century, the French colonial administration worked to develop regular trading networks and an efficient transport infrastructure between Indochina and [[southwest China]].<ref name="chfer-persee2">[http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geo_0003-4010_1924_num_33_185_9449 Les chemins de fer de l'Indochine française] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101152021/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geo_0003-4010_1924_num_33_185_9449 |date=1 November 2013 }}. Arnaud Georges. In: [[Annales de Géographie]]. 1924, t. 33, n°185. pp. 501–503.</ref><ref name="vr-haiphong">{{cite web |url=http://www.vr.com.vn/Gioithieuvecacgacuadsvn/gahaiphong.htm |title=Ga Hải Phòng |access-date=30 June 2010 |language=vi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214173515/http://www.vr.com.vn/Gioithieuvecacgacuadsvn/gahaiphong.htm |archive-date=14 December 2010 }}</ref> The primary motivation for such an effort was to facilitate export of European goods to China.<ref name=Rousseau>{{Cite journal |last=Rousseau |first=Jean-François |url= |title=An Imperial Railway Failure: The Indochina-Yunnan Railway, 1898–1941 |journal=Journal of Transport History |date=June 2014 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.7227/TJTH.35.1.2 |s2cid=111066738 }}</ref> A railway would also give France access to Yunnan's natural resources, mineral resources and opium, and open up the Chinese market for Indochinese products, such as rice, dry fish, wood and coal.<ref name=Rousseau/> Thus in the early 20th century, they completed the [[Kunming–Haiphong railway]] connecting the important port city of [[Haiphong]] with the [[Yunnan]]ese capital city of [[Kunming]].<ref name=Rousseau/>

In 1936, the [[North–South Railway (Vietnam)|Trans-Indochinois railway]] linking Hanoi and Saigon opened. Further improvements in the colony's transport infrastructures led to easier travel between France and Indochina. By 1939, it took no more than a month by ship to travel from [[Marseille]] to Saigon and around five days by aeroplane from Paris to Saigon. Underwater telegraph cables were installed in 1921.

As elsewhere in the world, the railways in French Indochina were the sites of active [[Labour union|union]] and labour organisation.<ref>David Del Testa, [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ip/sear/2011/00000019/00000004/art00006?crawler=true "Vietnamese railway workers during the revolutionary high tide."] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407023427/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ip/sear/2011/00000019/00000004/art00006?crawler=true |date=7 April 2016 }}  ''South East Asia Research'', Volume 19, Number 4, December 2011, pp. 787-816(30)</ref>

French settlers further added their influence on the colony by constructing buildings in the form of [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux-Arts]] and added French-influenced landmarks, such as the [[Hanoi Opera House]] (modeled on the [[Palais Garnier]]), the [[St. Joseph's Cathedral, Hanoi|Hanoi St. Joseph's Cathedral]] (resembling the [[Notre Dame de Paris]]) and the [[Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica]]. The French colonists also built a number of cities and towns in Indochina which served various purposes from trading outposts to resort towns. The most notable examples include [[Sa Pa]] in northern Vietnam, [[Da Lat|Đà Lạt]] in central Vietnam and [[Pakse]] in Laos.

==Architectural legacy==
{{main|French colonial architecture}}
The governments of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia have previously been reluctant to promote their colonial architecture as an asset for tourism; however, in recent times, the new generation of local authorities has somewhat "embraced" the architecture and advertise it.<ref>The Country's Cultural and Tourist Center.</ref> The heaviest concentration of French-era buildings are in [[Hanoi]], [[Da Lat|Đà Lạt]], [[Haiphong]], [[Ho Chi Minh City]], [[Huế]], and various places in Cambodia and Laos such as [[Luang Prabang]], [[Vientiane]], [[Phnom Penh]], [[Battambang]], [[Kampot (city)|Kampot]], and [[Kep (town)|Kep]].<ref>Bailey.</ref>

== In popular culture ==
* In the [[Walt Disney Pictures|Walt Disney]] and Intermondia Films' film, ''Niok l'éléphant'', a young Khmer boy from the [[French protectorate of Cambodia]] in French Indochina 'adopts' a baby elephant and raises it as a pet. His father later sells it to a Chinese merchant. The boy recaptures the pachyderm, however, and frees it back into the jungle.
* The 1992 film ''[[Indochine (film)|Indochine]]'' tells the story of Éliane Devries, a French plantation owner, and of her adopted Vietnamese daughter, Camille, set against the backdrop of the rising Vietnamese nationalist movement.
* In [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]]'s 1939 ''[[Lady of the Tropics]]'', a freeloading American playboy falls in love with a local woman while visiting French Indochina with his girlfriend and her family on her father's yacht.

==See also==
* [[Indies|East Indies]]
* [[French Union]]
* [[List of governors-general of French Indochina]]
* [[Political administration of French Indochina]]
* [[List of French possessions and colonies]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{cite web |url=http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html |title=The Vietnam War Seeds of Conflict 1945–1960 |publisher=The History Place |year=1999 |access-date=28 December 2010 |archive-date=17 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217062228/http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html |url-status=live}}
*  Watson, D. R. (1970) "The French and Indo-China" ''History Today'' (Aug 1970, Vol. 20 Issue 8, pp 534–542; online survey
* {{cite book |last=Woodside |first=Alexander |title=Community and Revolution in Modern Vietnam |year=1976 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=0-395-20367-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Zinoman |first=Peter |title=The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940 |year=2001 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-22412-4}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|French Indochina}}
{{EB1922 poster|Indo-China, French|French Indochina}}
* {{in lang|en|fr}} ''[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2392  The Colonization of Indochina]'', from around 1892
* {{in lang|en|fr}} ''[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/310 Indochina]'', a tourism book published in 1910
* Pierre Brocheux: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_society_indochina/ Colonial Society (Indochina)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32697929f/date Annuaire général de l'Indo-Chine française] – [[BnF]] {{inlang|fr}}
{{French Indochina}}
{{Former French colonies}}
{{Vietnamese independence movement}}
{{States and territories in the sphere of influence of Imperial Japan during World War II}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:French Indochina| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Asia]]
[[Category:French colonisation in Asia|Indochina]]
[[Category:Former French colonies|Indochina]]
[[Category:Former countries in Cambodian history]]
[[Category:Former polities of the Indochina Wars]]
[[Category:Former countries in Vietnamese history]]
[[Category:French protectorate of Laos]]
[[Category:19th century in Vietnam]]
[[Category:20th century in Vietnam]]
[[Category:19th century in Cambodia]]
[[Category:20th century in Cambodia]]
[[Category:19th century in Laos]]
[[Category:20th century in Laos]]
[[Category:1887 establishments in French Indochina|*]]
[[Category:1954 disestablishments in French Indochina|*]]
[[Category:1887 establishments in Cambodia]]
[[Category:1953 disestablishments in Cambodia]]
[[Category:1887 establishments in Laos]]
[[Category:1954 disestablishments in Laos]]
[[Category:1887 establishments in Vietnam]]
[[Category:1954 disestablishments in Vietnam]]
[[Category:1887 establishments in the French colonial empire]]
[[Category:1954 disestablishments in the French colonial empire]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[Category:French colonial empire]]
[[Category:French Union]]
[[Category:Second French Empire]]
[[Category:French Third Republic]]
[[Category:French Fourth Republic]]
[[Category:Cambodia–France relations]]
[[Category:France–Laos relations]]
[[Category:France–Vietnam relations]]
[[Category:1945 disestablishments in French Indochina|*]]
[[Category:1945 disestablishments in Cambodia]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Laos]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Vietnam]]
[[Category:1945 disestablishments in Vietnam]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in the French colonial empire]]
[[Category:1945 disestablishments in the French colonial empire]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1887]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1954]]