View source for Ganges

{{short description|Major river in Asia}}
{{about|the river|other uses}}
{{redirect|Ganga|the goddess|Ganga (goddess)|other uses|Ganga (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Ganges
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang = 
| name_other = 
| name_etymology = [[Ganga (goddess)]]
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->| image = Varanasiganga.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| image_caption = The Ganges in [[Varanasi]]
| map = Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basins.jpg
| map_size = 300px
| map_caption = Map of the combined drainage basins of the Ganges (yellow), Brahmaputra (violet) and Meghna (green)
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_map_size = 
| pushpin_map_caption = <!---------------------- LOCATION -->
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[India]] (as Ganga), [[Bangladesh]] (as Padma)
| subdivision_type2 = Bhagirathi
| subdivision_name2 = 
| subdivision_type3 = 
| subdivision_name3 = 
| subdivision_type4 = 
| subdivision_name4 = 
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = '''[[Uttarakhand]]''': [[Rishikesh]] & [[Haridwar]]

'''[[Uttar Pradesh]]''': [[Bijnor]], [[Garhmukteshwar]], [[Anupshahr]], [[Farrukhabad]], [[Fatehgarh]], [[Kannauj]], [[Kanpur]], [[Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh|Fatehpur]], [[Kunda, India|Kunda]], [[Prayagraj]], [[Mirzapur]], [[Varanasi]], [[Mughalsarai]], [[Ghazipur]] & [[Ballia]]

'''[[Bihar]]''': [[Chausa]], [[Buxar]], [[Chhapra]], [[Danapur]], [[Patna]], [[Hajipur]], [[Barh]], [[Mokama]], [[Begusarai]], [[Munger]], [[Sultanganj, Bihar|Sultanganj]], [[Bhagalpur]] & [[Manihari]]

'''[[Jharkhand]]''': [[Sahibganj]]

'''[[West Bengal]]''': [[Murshidabad]], [[Palashi]], [[Nabadwip]], [[Shantipur]], [[Kolkata]], [[Serampore]], [[Chinsurah]], [[Baranagar]], [[Diamond Harbour]], [[Haldia]], [[Budge Budge]], [[Howrah]], [[Uluberia]] & [[Barrackpore]]

'''[[Rajshahi Division]]''': [[Rajshahi]], [[Pabna]], [[Ishwardi Upazila|Ishwardi]]

'''[[Khulna Division]]''': [[Kushtia]], [[Shilaidaha]]

'''[[Dhaka Division]]''': [[Dhaka]], [[Narayanganj]], [[Gazipur]], [[Munshiganj Sadar Upazila|Munshiganj]], [[Faridpur, Bangladesh|Faridpur]]

'''[[Chittagong Division]]''': [[Chandpur Sadar Upazila|Chandpur]], [[Noakhali Sadar Upazila|Noakhali]]

'''[[Barisal Division]]''': [[Bhola Sadar Upazila|Bhola]] 
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->| length = {{convert|2525|km|mi|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007}}
| width_min = 
| width_avg = 
| width_max = 
| depth_min = 
| depth_avg = 
| depth_max = 
| discharge3_location = [[Farakka Barrage]]{{sfn|Kumar|Singh|Sharma|2005}}
| discharge3_min = {{convert|180|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge3_avg = {{convert|16,648|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge3_max = {{convert|70,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge2_location = [[Ganges Delta]], [[Bay of Bengal]]
| discharge2_min = 
| discharge2_avg =(Ganges without Brahmaputra and Meghna) {{convert|18,691|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="cbsharma">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nufdUc0Ps0C&dq=Ganga+river+18,691+m3/s&pg=PA45 |title=Applied Environmental Sciences & Engineering |author=C B Sharma |publisher=BFC Publications |date=11 January 2021 |isbn=978-0-313-38007-5 |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220111532/https://books.google.com/books?id=-nufdUc0Ps0C&dq=Ganga+river+18,691+m3/s&pg=PA45 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| discharge2_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
| source1 = Confluence at [[Devprayag]], [[Uttarakhand]] of the [[Alaknanda River|Alaknanda river]] (the [[River source|source stream]] in [[hydrology]] because of its greater length) and the [[Bhagirathi River|Bhagirathi river]] (the source stream in [[Hinduism|Hindu tradition]]). The headwaters of the river include: [[Mandakini River|Mandakini]], [[Nandakini]], [[Pindar River|Pindar]] and the [[Dhauliganga River|Dhauliganga]], all tributaries of the Alaknanda.<ref name=ganges-britannica>{{citation|last1=Lodrick|first1=Deryck O.|last2=Ahmad|first2=Nafis|title=Ganges River|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=28 January 2021|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507172054/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River|url-status=live}}</ref>
| source1_location = Devprayag, the beginning of the [[main stem]] of the Ganges
| source1_coordinates = 
| source1_elevation = 
| mouth = [[Bay of Bengal]]
| mouth_location = [[Ganges Delta]]
| mouth_coordinates = 
| mouth_elevation = 
| progression = 
| waterfalls = 
| river_system = 
| basin_size = {{convert|1,999,000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="cbsharma"/>
| tributaries_left = [[Ramganga]], [[Garra River|Garra]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Tamsa River (East)|Tamsa]] [[Ghaghara River|Ghaghara]], [[Gandak River|Gandak]], [[Burhi Gandak River|Burhi Gandak]], [[Koshi River|Koshi]], [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]]
| tributaries_right = [[Yamuna]], [[Tamsa River|Tamsa]] (also known as Tons River), [[Karmanasa River|Karamnasa]], [[Sone River|Sone]], [[Punpun River|Punpun]], [[Falgu River|Falgu]], [[Kiul River|Kiul]], [[Chandan River|Chandan]], [[Ajay River|Ajay]], [[Damodar River|Damodar]], [[Rupnarayan River|Rupnarayan]]
| custom_label = 
| custom_data = 
| extra = 
| discharge1_location = [[Ganges Delta|Mouth of the Ganges]]
| discharge1_avg =Total runoff into the Bay of Bengal
(Period: 1921–1985){{cvt|43,704|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Spatial and temporal runoff oscillation analysis of the main rivers
of the world during the 19th–20th centuries">[http://www.adbarno.it/rep/biblio/Pekarova.pdf](PDF; 773&nbsp; KB)</ref>
(Period: 1990–2020){{cvt|1,350|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Variation of Satellite-Based Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Estuary from 1990 to 2020">{{cite journal|journal=Remote Sensing|title=Variation of Satellite-Based Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Estuary from 1990 to 2020|last1=Hanquan|first1=Yang|last2=Tianshen|first2=Mei|last3=Xiaoyan|first3=Chen|volume=16|doi=10.3390/rs16020396|date=2024|issue=2 |page=396 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024RemS...16..396Y }}</ref>
(dry period 38,129 m³/s,{{sfn|Kumar|Singh|Sharma|2005}} wet period 53,170 m³/s;<ref name="cbsharma"/><ref name="Spatial and temporal runoff oscillation analysis of the main rivers
of the world during the 19th–20th centuries">[http://www.adbarno.it/rep/biblio/Pekarova.pdf](PDF; 773&nbsp; KB)</ref>)  
}}

The '''Ganges''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|dʒ|iː|z}} {{respell|GAN|jeez}}; in India: '''Ganga''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|ŋ|ɡ|ɑː}} {{respell|GUNG|ah}}; in Bangladesh: '''Padma''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ʌ|d|m|ə}} {{respell|PUD|mə}})<ref name=salman-uprety>{{harvnb|Salman|Uprety|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA129 129]}}. "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international {{wikidata|property|P31}} which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China."</ref><ref name=swain-ganges>{{citation|last=Swain|first=Ashok|title=Managing Water Conflict: Asia, Africa, and the Middle East|publisher=Routledge|page=54|year=2004|isbn=978-1-135-76883-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IHpYZtKzXMC&pg=PA54|quote=The Ganges is an international river that flows through the territories of India and Bangladesh. In the Indian side, the Ganges is called the Ganga.&nbsp;... India's Ganga then becomes Padma for a Bangladeshi.}}</ref><ref name=PCGN-Ganges>{{citation|title=India: Factfile|url= https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/936421/India_Factfile.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024202519/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/936421/India_Factfile.pdf |archive-date=2021-10-24 |url-status=live|publisher=[[Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use|Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN)]]|page=11|quote=PCGN recommended name=Ganges; Local Names: Padma (Bangladesh), Ganga (India); Feature type: River}}</ref><ref name=uslcsh34-ganges>{{citation|title=US Library of Congress Subject Headings, thirty-fourth edition (LCSH 34)|url=https://www.loc.gov/aba/publications/Archived-LCSH34/lcshintro.pdf|chapter=Subject headings: G|chapter-url=https://www.loc.gov/aba/publications/Archived-LCSH34/G.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020339/http://loc.gov/aba/publications/Archived-LCSH34/G.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-21 |url-status=live|year=2012|page=23|quote=Ganges River (India and Bangladesh); UF (use for) Gangā River (India and Bangladesh); BT (broader term) Rivers—Bangladesh, Rivers—India; NT (narrower term) Padma River (Bangladesh)}}</ref> is a [[trans-boundary river]] of Asia which flows through [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The {{Convert|2525|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} river rises in the western [[Himalayas]] in the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Uttarakhand]]. It flows south and east through the [[Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plain]] of [[North India]], receiving the right-bank tributary, the [[Yamuna]], which also rises in the western Indian Himalayas, and several left-bank tributaries from [[Nepal]] that account for the bulk of its flow.<ref name=swain-ganges-2>{{cite book|last=Swain|first=Ashok|title=Managing Water Conflict: Asia, Africa, and the Middle East|publisher=Routledge|page=54|year=2004|isbn=978-1-135-76883-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IHpYZtKzXMC&pg=PA54|quote=This river originates on the southern slope of the Himalayan range, and on its way receives supplies from seven major tributaries. Three of them - the Gandak, Karnali (Ghagara) and Kosi — pass through the Himalayan 'Hindu' Kingdom of Nepal, and they supply the major portion of the Ganges flow.|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172558/https://books.google.com/books?id=0IHpYZtKzXMC&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Salman|Uprety|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA129 129]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA130 130]}} "The tributaries that originate in Nepal and China, including the Kosi, Gandaki, Kamala, Bagmati, Kamali and Mahakali, account for about 45 percent of the Ganges flow."</ref> In [[West Bengal]], India, a feeder canal taking off from its right bank diverts 50% of its flow southwards, artificially connecting it to the [[Hooghly River]]. The Ganges continues into Bangladesh, its name changing to the [[Padma River|Padma]]. It is then joined by the [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna]], the lower stream of the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], and eventually the [[Meghna River|Meghna]], forming the major estuary of the [[Ganges Delta]], and emptying into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna system is the [[List of rivers by discharge|second-largest river on earth by discharge]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=World of Change: Padma River – NASA Earth Observatory|date=31 July 2018|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/PadmaRiver|access-date=5 December 2021|archive-date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530220940/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/PadmaRiver|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ganges River Basin|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ganges-river-basin/|date=1 October 2019|publisher=National Geographic Society|language=en|access-date=18 May 2020|archive-date=28 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528230116/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ganges-river-basin/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[main stem]] of the Ganges begins at the town of [[Devprayag]],<ref name=ganges-britannica/> at the confluence of the [[Alaknanda River|Alaknanda]], which is the [[River source|source stream]] in [[hydrology]] on account of its greater length, and the [[Bhagirathi River|Bhagirathi]], which is considered the source stream in [[Hindu mythology]].

The Ganges is a lifeline to hundreds of millions of people who live in its basin and depend on it for their daily needs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0gYQrebGwY |title=The Mighty River {{vbar}} Ganga: River From The Skies {{vbar}} National Geographic |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |date=29 April 2020 |access-date=9 November 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109062104/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0gYQrebGwY |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals such as [[Pataliputra]],<ref name="Ghosh">{{cite book|last=Ghosh|first=A.|title=An encyclopaedia of Indian archaeology|year=1990|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=law3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334|access-date=27 April 2011|publisher=BRILL|oclc=313728835|isbn=978-90-04-09264-8|page=334}}</ref> [[Kannauj]],<ref name="Ghosh"/> [[Sonargaon]], [[Dhaka]], [[Bikrampur]], [[Kara (Kaushambi)|Kara]], [[Munger]], [[Varanasi|Kashi]], [[Patna]], [[Hajipur]], [[Kanpur]], [[Delhi]], [[Bhagalpur]], [[Murshidabad]], [[Baharampur]], [[Kampilya]], and [[Kolkata]] located on its banks or those of its tributaries and connected waterways. The river is home to approximately 140 species of fish, 90 species of [[amphibian]]s, and also [[reptile]]s and [[mammal]]s, including [[critically endangered]] species such as the [[gharial]] and [[South Asian river dolphin]].<ref name="Rice2012">{{citation|last=Rice|first=Earle|title=The Ganges River|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdeXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|year=2012|publisher=Mitchell Lane Publishers, Incorporated|isbn=978-1-61228-368-5|page=25|access-date=22 March 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172550/https://books.google.com/books?id=vdeXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The Ganges is the most sacred river to [[Hindus]].<ref name="Alter2001">{{citation|last=Alter|first=Stephen|title=Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage Up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb9yQgAACAAJ|access-date=30 July 2013|year=2001|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade & Reference Publishers|isbn=978-0-15-100585-7|archive-date=24 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324113652/https://books.google.com/books?id=qb9yQgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> It is worshipped as the goddess ''[[Ganga in Hinduism|Ganga]]'' in [[Hinduism]].<ref name="BhattacharjiBandyopadhyay1995">{{cite book|last1=Bhattacharji|first1=Sukumari|last2=Bandyopadhyay|first2=Ramananda|title=Legends of Devi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B0j0hRgWsg8C&pg=PA54|access-date=27 April 2011|year=1995|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-0781-4|page=54|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172609/https://books.google.com/books?id=B0j0hRgWsg8C&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Pollution of the Ganges|Ganges is threatened by severe pollution]]. This not only poses a danger to humans but also to many species of animals. The levels of [[fecal coliform]] bacteria from [[human waste]] ([[human feces|feces]] and [[urination|urine]]) in the river near [[Varanasi]] are more than 100 times the Indian government's official limit.<ref name="Rice2012"/> The [[Ganga Action Plan]], an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been considered a failure{{efn|name=haberman}}{{efn|name=gardner}}<ref name=cleanperish>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111103162858/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-19/edit-page/28148254_1_national-river-conservation-plan-ganga-action-plan-ganga-and-yamuna "Clean Up Or Perish"], ''[[The Times of India]]'', 19 March 2010</ref> which is variously attributed to [[corruption]], a lack of will in the government, poor technical expertise,{{efn|name=sheth}} poor [[environmental planning]],{{efn|name=singh}} and a lack of support from religious authorities.{{efn|name=puttick}}

== Course ==
[[File:HeadwatersGanges1.jpg|thumb|305px|The Himalayan headwaters of the Ganges River in the [[Garhwal division|Garhwal]] region of Uttarakhand, India.]]
[[File:Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.JPG|thumb|Bhagirathi River at [[Gangotri]].]]
[[File:Devprayag - Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.JPG|thumb|Devprayag, confluence of Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi (left), and beginning of the Ganges.]]
[[File:Boat Sailing up Padma River Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|right|A sailboat on the main distributary of the Ganges in Bangladesh, the [[Padma river]].]]
[[File:Ganges Delta ESA22274217.jpeg|thumb|right|The [[Ganges delta]] in a 2020 satellite image.]]
[[File:Ganga at Sultanganj.jpg|thumb|right|The Ganges at [[Sultanganj]].]]

The upper phase of the river Ganges begins at the [[confluence]] of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of Devprayag in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. The Bhagirathi is considered to be the [[Source (river or stream)|source]] in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and therefore, hydrologically the source stream.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Ganges |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=Online Library |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River |access-date=23 April 2011 |archive-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507172054/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Penn2001">{{cite book |last=Penn |first=James R. |title=Rivers of the world: a social, geographical, and environmental sourcebook |url=https://archive.org/details/riversofworldsoc00penn |url-access=registration |access-date=23 April 2011 |year=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-042-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/riversofworldsoc00penn/page/n117 88]}}</ref> The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snow melt from peaks such as [[Nanda Devi]], [[Trisul]], and [[Kamet]]. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of [[Gangotri Glacier]] at [[Gomukh]], at an elevation of {{convert|4356|m|ft|abbr=on}} and was mythologically referred to as residing in the matted locks of [[Shiva]]; symbolically Tapovan, which is a meadow of ethereal beauty at the feet of Mount Shivling, just {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} away.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com/|title=Gangotri Tapovan Trek, Gangotri Gaumukh Trek, Gangotri Tapovan Trekking|website=www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com|access-date=13 November 2019|archive-date=13 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113002243/https://www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Krishna Murti|1991|p=19}}

Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, [[Dhauliganga River|Dhauliganga]], [[Nandakini]], [[Pindar River|Pindar]], [[Mandakini River|Mandakini]] and Bhagirathi. Their confluences, known as the [[Panch Prayag]], are all along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order, [[Vishnuprayag]], where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; [[Nandprayag]], where the Nandakini joins; [[Karnaprayag]], where the Pindar joins; [[Rudraprayag]], where the Mandakini joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges.<ref name="Britannica"/>

After flowing for {{convert|256.90|km|mi|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Krishna Murti|1991|p=19}} through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at [[Rishikesh]], then [[debouch]]es onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of [[Haridwar]].<ref name="Britannica"/> At Haridwar, a<!---Please do not remove the "a." It can be used with "headworks," which is not really plural usage--> [[headworks]] diverts<!---please do not change to "divert." "headworks" is not plural in usage.--> some of its water into the [[Ganges Canal]], which irrigates the ''[[Doab]]'' region of [[Uttar Pradesh]],<ref name=stone-head-works>{{harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=35–36}}: "Nowhere is this more in evidence than in the construction of the canal headwork's and particularly the Ganges canal head at Hardwar. The advantage of choosing this site for the headworks was that it took off at a high point (where the river emerges from the hills) and thus avoided the problem of constructing a dam on the sandy bed of the river (the bed was still rocky at Hardwar) and of 'lifting', via embankments, the canal out of the '' khadir'' several miles wide through which the Ganges river flowed at a lower level than the [[Doab]] plains."</ref> whereas the river, whose course has been roughly southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India.

The Ganges river follows a {{convert|900|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=on}} arching course passing through the cities of [[Bijnor]], Kannauj, [[Farukhabad]], and [[Kanpur]]. Along the way it is joined by the [[Ramganga]], which contributes an average annual flow of about {{convert|495|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} to the river.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|p=341}} The Ganges joins the {{convert|1444|km|mi|abbr=on}} long River [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]] at the [[Triveni Sangam]] at [[Prayagraj]] (previously Allahabad), a confluence considered holy in Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges contributing about 58.5% of the combined flow,{{sfn|Gupta|2007|page=347}} with an average flow of {{convert|2948|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|p=341}}

Now flowing east, the river meets the {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Tamsa River]] (also called ''Tons''), which flows north from the [[Kaimur Range]] and contributes an average flow of about {{convert|187|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}. After the Tamsa, the {{convert|625|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Gomti River]] joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an average annual flow of about {{convert|234|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}. Then the {{convert|1156|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Ghaghara River]] (Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Tibet through Nepal joins. The Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about {{convert|2991|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}, is the largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge. After the Ghaghara confluence, the Ganges is joined from the south by the {{convert|784|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Son River]], which contributes about {{convert|1008|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}. The {{convert|814|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Gandaki River]], then the {{convert|729|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Kosi River]], join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about {{convert|1654|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} and {{convert|2166|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}, respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge, after Ghaghara (Karnali) and Yamuna.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|p=341}} The Kosi merges into the Ganges near Kursela in [[Bihar]].

Along the way between Prayagraj and [[Malda, West Bengal|Malda]], [[West Bengal]], the Ganges river passes the towns of [[Chunar]], [[Mirzapur]], [[Varanasi]], [[Ghazipur]], [[Arrah|Ara]], [[Patna]], [[Chhapra|Chapra]], [[Hajipur]], [[Mokama]], [[Begusarai]], [[Munger]], [[Sahibganj]], [[Rajmahal]], [[Bhagalpur]], [[Ballia]], [[Buxar]], [[Simaria]], [[Sultanganj]], and [[Farakka]]. At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow south-southeast and at Farakka, it begins its attrition with the branching away of its first [[distributary]], the {{convert|408|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[Hooghly River|Bhāgirathi-Hooghly]], which goes on to become the [[Hooghly River]]. Just before the border with Bangladesh the [[Farakka Barrage]] controls the flow of Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free. The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and [[Ajay River]] at [[Katwa]], and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the [[Damodar River]], which is {{convert|625|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, with a drainage basin of {{convert|25820|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Dhungel|Pun|2009|p=215}} The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near [[Sagar Island]].{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2001| pp=126–27}} Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of [[Murshidabad]], [[Nabadwip]], Kolkata and [[Howrah]].

After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges river is known as the [[Padma River|Padma]]. The Padma is joined by the [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna River]], the largest distributary of the [[Brahmaputra]]. Further downstream, the Padma joins the [[Meghna River]], the converged flow of [[Surma-Meghna River System]] taking on the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal. Here it forms the {{convert|1430|by|3000|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[Bengal Fan]], the world's largest [[submarine fan]],<ref>{{cite journal | author=Shanmugam, G. | title=Submarine fans: A critical retrospective (1950–2015) | year=2016 | journal= Journal of Palaeogeography | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=110–184 | doi=10.1016/j.jop.2015.08.011 | bibcode=2016JPalG...5..110S | doi-access=free  | issn = 2095-3836 }}</ref> which alone accounts for 10–20% of the global burial of [[organic carbon]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Galy, V. |author2=O. Beyssac |author3=C. France-Lanord |author4=T. Eglinton  | title=Recycling of graphite during erosion: A geological stabilization of carbon in the crust | year=2008 | journal=Science | volume=322 | issue=5903 | pages=943–945 | doi=10.1126/science.1161408  | pmid=18988852 | bibcode=2008Sci...322..943G |s2cid=5426352 }}</ref>

The [[Ganges Delta]], formed mainly by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at about {{convert|64000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Parua|2009}} It stretches {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=on}} along the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{sfn|Arnold|2000}}

Only the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[Congo River|Congo]] rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system.{{sfn|Arnold|2000}} In full flood only the Amazon is larger.{{sfn|Elhance|1999| pp=156–58}}

==Geology==
The [[Indian subcontinent]] lies atop the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], a minor plate within the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], it began a northeastwards [[Plate tectonics|drift]]—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]] and [[subduction]] under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast [[trough (geology)|trough]], which, having gradually been filled with sediment borne by the [[Indus River|Indus]] and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=7|Ref=dikshit}}</ref> now forms the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>{{cite journal
 |last        = Prakash
 |first       = B.
 |author2     = Sudhir Kumar
 |author3     = M. Someshwar Rao
 |author4     = S. C. Giri
 |title       = Holocene tectonic movements and stress field in the western Gangetic plains
 |journal     = Current Science
 |volume      = 
 |issue       = 
 |year        = 
 |pages       = 438–49
 |url         = http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110504075319/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf
 |archive-date = 4 May 2011}}</ref>

The Indo-Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or [[foreland basin]].<ref name="Dmowska2003">{{cite book|last=Dmowska|first=Renata|title=Advances in Geophysics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ikFcqh1u1Q0C&pg=PA14|year=2003|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-018846-8|page=14}}</ref>

==Hydrology==
[[File:GangesValley&Plain.jpg|thumb|A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries.]]
Major left-bank tributaries include the Gomti River, Ghaghara River, Gandaki River and Kosi River; major right-bank tributaries include the Yamuna River, Son River, [[Punpun]] and Damodar. The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially in the Ganges Delta region. One result is different ways to determine the river's length, its [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]], and the size of its [[drainage basin]].
[[File:River Ganga with Howrah bridge in the backdrop.jpg|thumb|The River Ganges at Kolkata, with [[Howrah Bridge]] in the background]]
[[File:Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh]]

The name ''Ganges'' is used for the river between the confluence of the [[Bhagirathi]] and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the first [[River bifurcation|bifurcation]] of the river, near the Farakka Barrage and the India-Bangladesh Border. The length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over {{convert|2600|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, about {{convert|2601|km|mi|abbr=on}},<ref name="Merriam-WebsterInc1997">{{cite book|author=Merriam-Webster|title=Merriam-Webster's geographical dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA412|year=1997|publisher=Merriam-Webster|isbn=978-0-87779-546-9|page=412|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172554/https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA412#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> {{convert|2525|km|mi|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=347}}{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|pp=334–342}} or {{convert|2650|km|mi|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Berga|2006| p=1304}} In these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=347}}<ref name="Merriam-WebsterInc1997"/>{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|pp=334–342}}{{sfn|Berga|2006| p=1304}} Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Dhungel|Pun|2009|p=210}}

In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given by its Hooghly River distributary, which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of about {{convert|2704|km|mi|abbr=on}}, if taken from the source of the Bhagirathi,{{sfn|Parua|2009}} or {{convert|2321.50|km|mi|abbr=on}}, if from Haridwar to the Hooghly's mouth.{{sfn|Dhungel|Pun|2009}} In other cases the length is said to be about {{convert|2304|km|mi|abbr=on}}, from the source of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to ''Padma''.{{sfn|Mirza|2004}}

For similar reasons, sources differ over the size of the river's drainage basin. The basin covers parts of four countries, India, [[Nepal]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, [[Himachal Pradesh]], Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, [[Chhattisgarh]], Bihar, [[Jharkhand]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], Haryana, [[Rajasthan]], West Bengal, and the Union Territory of [[Delhi]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Ganges Water Machine|author1=Roger Revelle |author2=V. Lakshminarayan | journal=Science| date=9 May 1975| volume=188 |issue=4188| pages=611–16| doi=10.1126/science.188.4188.611 | pmid=17740017|bibcode=1975Sci...188..611R }}</ref> The Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about {{convert|1080000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, of which {{convert|861000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is in India (about 80%), {{convert|140000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Nepal (13%), {{convert|46000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Bangladesh (4%), and {{convert|33000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in China (3%).{{sfn|Suvedī|2005|p=61}} Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about {{convert|1600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Elhance|1999| pp=156–58}} or {{convert|1621000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Arnold|2000}} The combined Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, [[Bhutan]], India, Nepal, and China.<ref name="ServatSystems2002">{{cite book|author1=Eric Servat|author2=IAHS International Commission on Water Resources Systems|title=FRIEND 2002: Regional Hydrology: Bridging the gap between research and practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NxqSD-V-acC&pg=PA308|year=2002|publisher=IAHS|isbn=978-1-901502-81-7|page=308}}</ref>

The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the [[Transhimalaya]] in the north, to the northern slopes of the [[Vindhya]] range in the south, from the eastern slopes of the [[Aravalli Range|Aravalli]] in the west to the [[Chota Nagpur plateau]] and the [[Sunderbans]] delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya, the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200&nbsp;km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the [[Indus]] basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including [[Mount Everest]] which is the high point of the Ganges basin.<ref name="evepkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10640|title=Mount Everest, China/Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222035808/http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10640|url-status=live}}</ref> The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin are [[Kangchenjunga]],<ref name="kangchpkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10653|title=Kāngchenjunga, India/Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=8 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908215406/https://www.peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10653|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Lhotse]],<ref name="lhotpkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10642|title=Lhotse, China/Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=15 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615145939/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10642|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Makalu]],<ref name="makalpkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10649|title=Makalu, China/Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=15 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615144432/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10649|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cho Oyu]],<ref name="choopkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10634|title=Cho Oyu, China/Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=8 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908164635/https://www.peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10634|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Dhaulagiri]],<ref name="dhaulapkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10620|title=Dhaulāgiri, Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=16 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416200702/http://peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10620|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Manaslu]],<ref name="manaslpkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10627|title=Manaslu, Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=20 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920061902/http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10627|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Annapurna]]<ref name="annappkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10621|title=Annapūrna, Nepal|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=15 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615151440/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10621|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Shishapangma]].<ref name="shishpkbgr">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10631|title=Shishapangma, China|access-date=12 March 2014|archive-date=16 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416200702/http://peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10631|url-status=live}}</ref> The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north-western portion of the state of West Bengal.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source. Frequently, discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna. This results in a total average annual discharge of about {{convert|38000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}},{{sfn|Arnold|2000}} or {{convert|42470|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Parua|2009}} In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about {{convert|16650|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} for the Ganges, about {{convert|19820|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} for the Brahmaputra, and about {{convert|5100|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} for the Meghna.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|pp=334–342}}

[[File:Hardinge Bridge Bangladesh (4).JPG|thumb|[[Hardinge Bridge]], Bangladesh, crosses the Ganges-Padma River. It is one of the key sites for measuring streamflow and discharge on the lower Ganges.]]
The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded at [[Hardinge Bridge]] in Bangladesh, exceeded {{convert|70000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Krishna Murti|1991|p=10}} The minimum recorded at the same place was about {{convert|180|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}, in 1997.{{sfn|Salman|Uprety|2002|p=133}}

The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|Southwest Monsoon]]. About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September. Consequently, [[streamflow]] in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at [[Hardinge Bridge]]. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource development in the region.{{sfn|Mirza|2004}} The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and [[flood]]s. Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.{{sfn|Salman|Uprety|2002|p=133}}

In the Ganges Delta, many large rivers come together, both merging and [[River bifurcation|bifurcating]] in a complicated network of [[Channel (geography)|channels]]. The two largest rivers, the Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining the Bay of Bengal. But this current channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have often [[Avulsion (river)|changed course]], sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Island area changes in the Sundarban region of the abandoned western Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna Delta, India and Bangladesh |date= 2023 |doi= 10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108482 |last1= Bandyopadhyay |first1= Sunando |last2= Kar |first2= Nabendu Sekhar |last3= Dasgupta |first3= Susmita |last4= Mukherjee |first4= Dipanwita |last5= Das |first5= Abhijit |journal= Geomorphology |volume= 422 |bibcode= 2023Geomo.42208482B }}</ref>

Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill-channel. The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but rather by the [[Adi Ganga]]. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant. After the 16th century, the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2001| pp=126–27}} It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River. By the end of the 18th century, the Padma had become the main distributary of the Ganges.{{sfn|Parua|2009}} One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganges now joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The present confluence of the Ganges and Meghna was formed very recently, about 150 years ago.<ref name="Catling1992">{{cite book|last=Catling|first=David|title=Rice in deep water|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5JxwKx1RAgC&pg=PA175|year=1992|publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]]|isbn=978-971-22-0005-2|page=175}}</ref>

Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, significantly altering its relationship with the Ganges. In 1787 there was a great flood on the [[Teesta River]], which at the time was a tributary of the Ganges-Padma River. The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course, an [[Avulsion (river)|avulsion]], shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south, cutting a new channel. This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River. It flows south to join the Ganges-Padma. During ancient times, the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city of [[Mymensingh]] and joining the Meghna River. Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.<ref name="Britannica-Brahmaputra">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Brahmaputra River |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=Online Library |url=http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-48056 |access-date=25 April 2011 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172525/https://library.eb.com/?target=%2Feb%2Farticle-48056 |url-status=live }}</ref> The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, in the locality of [[Langalbandh]], is still considered sacred by Hindus. Near the confluence is a major early historic site called [[Wari-Bateshwar ruins|Wari-Bateshwar]].{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2001|pp=126–127}}

In the rainy season of 1809, the lower channel of the Bhagirathi, leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again and was nearly of the same size as the upper channel but both however suffered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi on the upper channel.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Martin|first=Robert|title=The History, Antiquities, Topography, and Statistics of Eastern India. Vol-II: Bhagulpoor, Goruckpoor, and Dinajepoor |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283662|year=1838|pages=Book 1, Chapter 1, Page 9}}</ref>

==Discharge==

Discharge of the Ganges River at [[Farakka Barrage]] (period from 1998/01/01 to 2023/12/31):<ref name="The Flood Observatory">{{cite web|url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/51.htm|title=The Flood Observatory|access-date=15 February 2024|archive-date=15 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215134146/https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/51.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 ! rowspan="2" |Year
! colspan="3" |Discharge (m<sup>3</sup>/s)
! rowspan="2" |Year
! colspan="3" |Discharge (m<sup>3</sup>/s)
|-
!''Annual average''
!Average minimum
!Average maximum
!''Annual average''
!Average minimum
!Average maximum
|-
|1998
|''21,200''
|11,260
|32,139
|2011
|''8,315''
|4,942
|15,648
|-
|1999
|''20,227''
|12,308
|27,275
|2012
|''10,531''
|5,529
|16,404
|-
|2000
|''18,953''
|11,558
|26,789
|2013
|''14,350''
|8,559
|19,534
|-
|2001
|''14,825''
|9,371
|19,872
|2014
|''12,409''
|7,118
|17,682
|-
|2002
|''10,495''
|5,636
|16,783
|2015
|''12,104''
|7,256
|17,030
|-
|2003
|''12,580''
|6,881
|19,516
|2016
|''15,220''
|9,035
|23,490
|-
|2004
|''9,735''
|5,468
|14,631
|2017
|''11,919''
|6,856
|17,604
|-
|2005
|''12,200''
|7,019
|18,397
|2018
|''11,967''
|6,176
|18,805
|-
|2006
|''11,522''
|7,741
|16,718
|2019
|''14,923''
|7,079
|24,757
|-
|2007
|''14,816''
|9,574
|20,325
|2020
|''15,882''
|9,837
|23,491
|-
|2008
|''16,183''
|9,968
|22,870
|2021
|''17,818''
|9,543
|27,003
|-
|2009
|''9,241''
|4,524
|13,282
|2022
|''14,142''
|7,148
|22,569
|-
|2010
|''7,148''
|3,343
|12,375
|2023
|''9,417''
|1,645
|18,744
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
| colspan="5" |'''''Average''' (1998/01/01 to 2023/12/31):''
|'''''13,389.3'''''
|''7,514.4''
|''20,143.6''
|}

==History==
The first European traveller to mention the Ganges was the Greek envoy [[Megasthenes]] (ca. 350–290 BCE). He did so several times in his work [[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica]]: "India, again, possesses many rivers both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganges. Now this river, which at its source is 30&nbsp;[[Stadion (unit)|stadia]] broad, flows from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern boundary of the [[Gangaridai]], a nation which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants." (Diodorus II.37).<ref>{{cite journal | title=Alexander and the Ganges| author=W. W. Tarn| journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies| year=1923| volume=43 | issue = 2 | pages=93–101| jstor=625798| doi=10.2307/625798| s2cid=164111602}}</ref>

In 1951, the [[Ganges water dispute]] arose between India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage. The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to divert up to {{convert|1100|m3/s|abbr=on}} of water from the Ganges to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary to restore navigability at the [[Port of Kolkata]]. It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow would be around {{convert|1400|to|1600|m3/s|abbr=on}}, thus leaving {{convert|280|to|420|m3/s|abbr=on}} for the then East Pakistan.{{sfn|Salman|Uprety|2002|pp=136–137}} East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed with Bangladesh. The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence, they state that if the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than {{convert|2000|m3/s|abbr=on}} then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each receiving at least {{convert|1000|m3/s|abbr=on}} for alternating ten-day periods. However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water. In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever, {{convert|180|m3/s|abbr=on}}. Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following, but efforts were made to address the problem. One plan is for another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at [[Pangsha Upazila|Pangsha]], west of [[Dhaka]]. This barrage would help Bangladesh better utilize its share of the waters of the Ganges.{{efn|1={{harvtxt|Salman|Uprety|2002|pp=172, 178–187, 387–391}}<br />Treaty Between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh on Sharing of the Ganges/Ganga Waters at Farakka.
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==Religious and cultural significance==
{{See also|Ganga in Hinduism}}

===Embodiment of sacredness===
[[File:IndianWomanFloatingLampsGanges.jpg|thumb|right|Chromolithograph, ''Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges'', by William Simpson, 1867]]
The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length. All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters,<ref name=eck1982-p212>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=212}}</ref> paying homage to their ancestors and their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it, and letting it fall back into the river; they offer flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks (diyas).<ref name=eck1982-p212/> On the journey back home from the Ganges, they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals; Ganga Jal, literally "the water of the Ganges".<ref name=eck1982-p212-213>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=212–13}}</ref>

The Ganges is the embodiment of all [[sacred waters]] in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref name=eck1982-p214>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=214}}</ref> Local rivers are said to be ''like'' the Ganges and are sometimes called the local Ganges.<ref name=eck1982-p214/> The [[Godavari River]] of [[Maharashtra]] in Western India is called the Ganges of the South or the 'Dakshin Ganga'; the Godavari is the Ganges that was led by the sage [[Gautama Maharishi|Gautama]] to flow through Central India.<ref name=eck1982-p214/> The Ganges is invoked whenever water is used in Hindu ritual and is therefore present in all sacred waters.<ref name=eck1982-p214/> Despite this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous [[Tirtha and Kshetra|tirthas]] such as [[Varanasi]], [[Gangothri|Gangotri]], [[Haridwar]], or the [[Triveni Sangam]] at [[Prayagraj]].<ref name=eck1982-p214/> The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindus, even their skeptics, have agreed upon.<ref name=eck1982-p214-215>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=214–15}}</ref> Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges.<ref name=eck1982-p214-215/> "The Ganga", he wrote in his will, "is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever-flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga."<ref name=eck1982-p214-215/>

===''Avatarana'' – Descent of Ganges===
[[File:Ravi Varma-Descent of Ganga.jpg|thumb|upright|''Descent of Ganga'', painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] c. 1910]]

In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate the ''karunasiri'' and the rise of the Ganges from earth to heaven.<ref name=eck1998-p144>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=144}}</ref> The day of the celebration, ''Ganga Dashahara'', the ''Dashami'' (tenth day) of the [[waxing moon]] of the [[Hindu calendar]] month [[Jyestha|Jyeshtha]], brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river.<ref name=eck1998-p144/> A dip in the Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit "ten"; hara = to destroy) or ten lifetimes of sins.<ref name=eck1998-p144/> Those who cannot journey to the river, however, can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body of water, which, for the true believer, takes on all the attributes of the Ganges.<ref name=eck1998-p144/>

The ''karunasiri'' is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different versions of the story.<ref name=eck1998-p144/> In the [[Vedas|Vedic]] version, [[Indra]], the Lord of [[Svarga]] ([[Heaven]]) slays the celestial serpent, [[Vritra]], releasing the celestial liquid, ''[[soma (drink)|soma]]'', or the nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.<ref name=eck1998-p144/>

In the [[Vaishnava]] version of the myth, the heavenly waters were then a river called ''Vishnupadi'' ([[Sanskrit]]: "from the foot of Vishnu").<ref name=eck1998-p144/> As Vishnu as the avatar [[Vamana]] completes his celebrated three strides —of earth, sky, and heaven— he stubs his toe on the vault of heaven, punches open a hole and releases the ''Vishnupadi'', which until now had been circling the cosmic egg.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|pp=144–45}}</ref> Flowing out of the vault, she plummets down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by [[Dhruva]], once a steadfast worshipper of Vishnu, now fixed in the sky as the [[Pole star]].<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/> Next, she streams across the sky forming the [[Milky Way]] and arrives on the moon.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/> She then flows down earthwards to [[Brahma]]'s realm, a divine lotus atop [[Mount Meru]], whose petals form the earthly continents.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/> There, the divine waters break up, with one stream, the Bhagirathi, flowing down one petal into [[Names for India|Bharatavarsha]] (India) as the Ganges.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/>

It is [[Shiva]], however, among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, who appears in the most widely known version of the ''avatarana'' story.<ref name=eck1998-p145>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=145}}</ref> Told and retold in the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and several [[Puranas]], the story begins with a sage, [[Kapila]], whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty thousand sons of King [[Sagara (Vedic king)|Sagara]]. Livid at being disturbed, Kapila sears them with his angry gaze, reduces them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld. Only the waters of the Ganges, then in heaven, can bring the dead sons their salvation. A descendant of these sons, King [[Bhagiratha]], anxious to restore his ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of Ganges's descent from heaven. However, since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on [[Mount Kailash]] to receive the Ganges in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall. The Ganges descends, is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas. She is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar, across the plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi, and eventually to Ganges Sagar (Ganges delta), where she meets the ocean, sinks to the netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara.<ref name=eck1998-p145/> In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role in the ''avatarana'', the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi, (Sanskrit, "of Bhagiratha").<ref name=eck1998-p145/>

===Redemption of the Dead===
[[Image:HinduCremationVaranasi1903.jpg|thumb|upright|Preparations for cremations on the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi, 1903. The dead are being bathed, wrapped in cloth, and covered with wood. The photograph has a caption, "Who dies in the waters of the Ganges obtains heaven."]]
As the Ganges had descended from heaven to earth in the Hindu tradition, she is also considered the vehicle of ''ascent'', from earth to heaven.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|pp=145–46}}</ref> As the ''Triloka-patha-gamini'', (Sanskrit: ''triloka'' = "three worlds", ''patha'' = "road", ''gamini'' = "one who travels") of the tradition, she flows in [[Svarga|heaven]], [[Prithvi|earth]], and the [[Patala|netherworld]], and, consequently, is a "tirtha" or crossing point of all beings, the living as well as the dead.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> It is for this reason that the story of the ''avatarana'' is told at ''[[Śrāddha|Shraddha]]'' ceremonies for the deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in [[Vedic rituals after death]].<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges, there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipper's wish to breathe his last surrounded by her waters.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> The ''Gangashtakam'' expresses this longing fervently:<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/><blockquote>O Mother!&nbsp;... Necklace adorning the worlds!<br />Banner rising to heaven!<br />I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks,<br />Drinking your water, rolling in your waves,<br />Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze upon you.<ref>Quoted in: {{Harvnb|Eck|1998|pp=145–46}}</ref></blockquote>
No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Cremation Ground, or ''[[Shmashana|Mahashmshana]]''.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> Those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation.<ref name=eck1982-p215>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=215}}</ref> If the death has occurred elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges.<ref name=eck1982-p215/> If the ashes have been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges, if possible during the lunar "fortnight of the ancestors" in the Hindu calendar month of [[Ashwin]] (September or October), and performing the ''Shraddha'' rites.<ref name=eck1982-p215/>

Hindus also perform ''[[Pinda (riceball)|pinda]] pradana'', a rite for the dead, in which balls of rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited.<ref name=eck1982-p215-216>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=215–16}}</ref> Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered, according to one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for each relative.<ref name=eck1982-p215-216/> Indeed, the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the ''Mahabharata'', in one of its popular ''ślokas'', says, "If only (one) bone of a (deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges, that person shall dwell honoured in heaven."<ref>Quoted in: {{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=216}}</ref> As if to illustrate this truism, the ''Kashi Khanda'' (Varanasi Chapter) of the [[Skanda Purana]] recounts the remarkable story of ''Vahika'', a profligate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed by a tiger in the forest. His soul arrives before [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]], the Lord of Death, to be judged for the afterworld. Having no compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to [[Naraka (Hinduism)|hell]]. While this is happening, his body on earth, however, is being picked at by vultures, one of whom flies away with a foot bone. Another bird comes after the vulture, and in fighting him off, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below. Blessed by this event, Vahika, on his way to hell, is rescued by a celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven.<ref name=eck1982-p216>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=216}}</ref>

===The Purifying Ganges===
[[Image:BathingGhatBanares1885.jpg|right|thumb|Women and children at a bathing [[ghat]] on the Ganges in Banares (Varanasi), 1885.]]
Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying.<ref name=eck1982-p216-217>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=216–217}}</ref> Regardless of all scientific understanding of its waters, the Ganges is always ritually and symbolically pure in Hindu culture.<ref name=eck1982-p216-217/> Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganga.<ref name=eck1982-p217>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=217}}</ref> Moving water, as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away.<ref name=eck1982-p217/> The swiftly moving Ganga, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain to not be carried away, is especially purifying.<ref name=eck1982-p217/> What the Ganges removes, however, is not necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic dirt; it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime.<ref name=eck1982-p217/>

A popular paean to the Ganga is the ''Ganga Lahiri'' composed by a 17th-century poet Jagannatha who, legend has it, was turned out of his Hindu [[Brahmin]] caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman. Having attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold, the poet finally appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless, and the comforter of last resort. Along with his beloved, Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading to the water at the famous ''Panchganga'' [[Ghat]] in Varanasi. As he recites each verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises one step until in the end it envelops the lovers and carries them away.<ref name=eck1982-p217/> "I come to you as a child to his mother", begins the ''Ganga Lahiri''.<ref name=eck1982-p218>Quoted in {{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=218}}</ref> <blockquote> I come as an orphan to you, moist with love.<br />I come without refuge to you, giver of sacred rest.<br />I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all.<br />I come undone by disease to you, the perfect physician.<br />I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you, ocean of sweet wine.<br />Do with me whatever you will.<ref name=eck1982-p218/></blockquote>

===Consort, Shakti, and Mother===
Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.<ref name=eck1982-p219>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=219}}</ref> As Brahma's partner she always travels with him in the form of water in his [[kamandalu]] (water-pot).<ref name=eck1982-p219/> She is also [[Vishnu]]'s consort.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> Not only does she emanate from his foot as ''Vishnupadi'' in the ''avatarana'' story, but is also, with [[Sarasvati]] and [[Lakshmi]], one of his co-wives.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> In one popular story, envious of being outdone by each other, the co-wives begin to quarrel. While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati, heap misfortune on each other. They curse each other to become rivers, and to carry within them, by washing, the sins of their human worshippers. Soon their husband, Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses. He orders Sarasvati to marry Brahma, Ganga to marry Shiva, and Lakshmi, as the blameless conciliator, to remain as his own wife. Ganga and Sarasvati, however, are so distraught at this dispensation, and wail so loudly, that Vishnu is forced to take back his words. Consequently, in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be with him.<ref name=eck1998-p146>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=146}}</ref>

[[Image:Gangadhara.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Shiva]], as ''Gangadhara'', bearing the Descent of the [[Ganges river|Ganges]], as the goddess [[Parvati]], the sage [[Bhagiratha]], and the bull [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] look on (circa 1740).]]
It is [[Shiva]]'s relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known in Ganges mythology.<ref name=eck1998-p147>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=147}}</ref> Her descent, the ''avatarana'' is not a one-time event, but a continuously occurring one in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed.<ref name=eck1998-p147/> Shiva, is depicted in Hindu iconography as ''Gangadhara'', the "Bearer of the Ganga", with Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his hair.<ref name=eck1998-p147/> The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate.<ref name=eck1998-p147/>  Shiva is sometimes called ''Uma-Ganga-Patiswara'' ("Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and Ganga"), and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's better-known consort.<ref name=eck1998-p147/>

Ganga is the ''[[shakti]]'' or the moving, restless, rolling energy in the form of which the otherwise reclusive and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.<ref name="eck1982-p219"/> As water, this moving energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> The war-god [[Murugan|Skanda]] addresses the sage [[Agastya]] in the ''Kashi Khand'' of the ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' in these words:<ref name=eck1982-p219/> <blockquote>One should not be amazed&nbsp;... that this Ganges is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water?<br />This Ganges, filled with the sweet wine of compassion, was sent out for the salvation of the world by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords.<br />Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers, filled with water.<ref name=eck1982-p219/></blockquote>

The Ganga is also the mother, the ''Ganga Mata'' (''mata''="mother") of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.<ref name=eck1982-p218/> Unlike other goddesses, she has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive though she might be as a river in nature.<ref name=eck1982-p218/> She is also a mother to other gods.<ref name=eck1998-p149>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=149}}</ref> She accepts Shiva's incandescent seed from the fire-god [[Agni]], which is too hot for this world and cools it in her waters.<ref name=eck1998-p149/> This union produces Skanda, or Kartikeya, the god of war.<ref name=eck1998-p149/> In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', she is married to [[Shantanu]], and the mother of heroic warrior-patriarch, [[Bhishma]].<ref name=eck1998-p149/> When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body.<ref name=eck1998-p149/>

The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> As such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation (''avahana'') at the beginning and dismissal (''visarjana'') at the end, required in the worship of other gods.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> Her divinity is immediate and everlasting.<ref name=eck1982-p219/>

===Ganges in classical Indian iconography===
{{Gallery
|width = 130
|align = center
|File:GangaBeshnagarBhopalStateCloseUp.jpg|alt1=|Photograph (1875) of goddess Ganga (Gupta period, 5th or 6th century CE) from [[Vidisha#Historic Places and Monuments|Besnagar]], Madhya Pradesh, now in [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]].
|File:GangaElloraRameshwarCaveCloseUp.jpg|alt2=|Goddess Ganga with left hand resting on a dwarf attendant's head from the [[Ellora Caves#Other Hindu caves|Rameshwar Temple]], [[Ellora Caves]], Maharashtra (6th century)
|File:GangaTerracottaAhichchhatra.JPG|alt3=|The goddess Ganga stands on her mount, the ''[[makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]]'', with a ''[[kumbha]]'', a full pot of water, in her hand, while an attendant holds a parasol over her. Terracotta, [[Ahichatra]], Uttar Pradesh, [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]], 5th century, now in [[National Museum, New Delhi]]
|File:GoddessGangaInTribhangaWithRetinue.JPG|alt4=|The goddess Ganga (right) in [[tribhanga]] pose with retinue. [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]], 10th century, now in [[National Museum, New Delhi]]
}}

Early in ancient Indian culture, the river Ganges was associated with fecundity, its redeeming waters, and its rich silt providing sustenance to all who lived along its banks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blurton|1993|p=100}}</ref> A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer, the Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to be revered in anthropomorphic form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wangu|2003|p=90}}</ref> By the 5th century CE, an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges, now a goddess in her own right, and a symbol for all rivers of India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wangu|2003|p=90}}, {{Harvnb|Pal|1997|p=43}}</ref> Hindu temples all over India had statues and reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances, symbolically washing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the gods within.<ref name=pal-1997-p43>{{Harvnb|Pal|1997|p=43}}</ref> As protector of the [[sanctum sanctorum]], the goddess soon came to be depicted with several characteristic accessories: the ''[[Makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]]'' (a crocodile-like undersea monster, often shown with an elephant-like trunk), the ''[[kumbha]]'' (an overfull vase), various overhead parasol-like coverings, and a gradually increasing retinue of humans.<ref name=darian2001-p114>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=114}}</ref>

Central to the goddess's visual identification is the ''makara'', which is also her ''[[vahana]]'', or mount. An ancient symbol in India, it pre-dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in art.<ref name=darian2001-p114/> The ''makara'' has a dual symbolism. On the one hand, it represents the life-affirming waters and plants of its environment; on the other, it represents fear, both fear of the unknown which it elicits by lurking in those waters, and real fear which it instils by appearing in sight.<ref name=darian2001-p114/> The earliest extant unambiguous pairing of the ''makara'' with Ganga is at the [[Udayagiri Caves]] in Central India (circa 400 CE). Here, in the [[Udaygiri Caves#Description|Cave V]], flanking the main figure of Vishnu shown in his boar incarnation, two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna appear atop their respective mounts, ''makara'' and ''[[kurma]]'' (a turtle or tortoise).<ref name=darian2001-p114/>

The ''makara'' is often accompanied by a ''[[gana]]'', a small boy or child, near its mouth, as, for example, shown in the Gupta period relief from [[Vidisha#Historic Places and Monuments|Besnagar]], Central India, in the left-most frame above.<ref name=darian-2001-p118>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=118}}</ref> The ''gana'' represents both posterity and development (''udbhava'').<ref name=darian-2001-p118/> The pairing of the fearsome, life-destroying ''makara'' with the youthful, life-affirming ''gana'' speaks to two aspects of the Ganges herself. Although she has provided sustenance to millions, she has also brought hardship, injury, and death by causing major floods along her banks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|pp=119–20}}</ref> The goddess Ganga is also accompanied by a dwarf attendant, who carries a cosmetic bag, and on whom she sometimes leans, as if for support.<ref name=pal-1997-p43/> (See, for example, frames 1, 2, and 4 above.)

The ''purna kumbha'' or full pot of water is the second most discernible element of the Ganga iconography.<ref name=darian-2001-p125>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=125}}</ref> Appearing first also in the relief in the Udayagiri Caves (5th century), it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme of the goddess matured.<ref name=darian-2001-p125/> By the 7th century it had become an established feature, as seen, for example, in the [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh#Dashavatara temple|Dashavatara temple]], Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (7th century), the [[Badoli Temples|Trimurti temple]], [[Badoli]], [[Chittor Fort|Chittorgarh]], Rajasthan, and at the [[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh#Tourist attractions|Lakshmaneshwar temple]], [[Kharod]], [[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh]],<ref name=darian-2001-p125/> (9th or 10th century), and seen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the remaining frames. Worshipped even today, the full pot is emblematic of the formless [[Brahman]], as well as of woman, of the womb, and of birth.<ref name=darian-2001-p126>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=126}}</ref> Furthermore, The river goddesses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma's pot, containing the celestial waters.<ref name=darian-2001-p126/>

In her earliest depictions at temple entrances, the goddess Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch of a tree, as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves.<ref name=darian-2001-p130>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=130}}</ref> However, soon the tree cover had evolved into a ''[[Chatra (umbrella)|chatra]]'' or parasol held by an attendant, for example, in the 7th-century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh.<ref name=darian-2001-p130/> (The parasol can be clearly seen in frame 3 above; its stem can be seen in frame 4, but the rest has broken off.) The cover undergoes another transformation in the temple at Kharod, Bilaspur (9th or 10th century), where the parasol is lotus-shaped,<ref name=darian-2001-p130/> and yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the parasol has been replaced entirely by a lotus.<ref name=darian-2001-p130/>

As the iconography evolved, sculptors, especially in central India, were producing animated scenes of the goddess, replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route to a river to bathe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Los Angeles County Museum of Art|Pal|1988|p=33}}</ref> A relief similar to the depiction in frame 4 above, is described in {{Harvnb|Pal|1997|p=43}} as follows: <blockquote> A typical relief of about the ninth century that once stood at the entrance of a temple, the river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously endowed lady with a retinue. Following the iconographic prescription, she stands gracefully on her composite ''makara'' mount and holds a water pot. The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic bag, and a&nbsp;... female holds the stem of a giant lotus leaf that serves as her mistress's parasol. The fourth figure is a male guardian. Often in such reliefs, the ''makara''{{'s}} tail is extended with great flourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both vegetation and water.<ref name=pal-1997-p43/></blockquote>

===Kumbh Mela===
[[File:Kumbh Mela2001.JPG|thumb|A procession of [[Akhara]]s marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges River. Kumbh Mela at [[Prayagraj]], 2001.]]
{{main|Kumbh Mela}}
Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu [[pilgrimage]] in which Hindus gather at the Ganges River. The normal Kumbh [[Mela]] is celebrated every 3 years, the ''Ardh'' (half) Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and [[Prayagraj]],<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,828666,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025060100/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,828666,00.html |archive-date=25 October 2007 |title=The Urn Festival |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 February 1960 |access-date=10 May 2013}} {{subscription required}}</ref> the ''Purna'' (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years<ref name=hydro/> at four places ([[Triveni Sangam]] (Prayagraj), Haridwar, [[Ujjain]], and [[Nashik]]). The ''Maha'' (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at Prayagraj.<ref name=hydro>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JI65-MygMm0C&pg=PA165 |title=The Basis of Civilization: Water Science? |publisher= International Association of Hydrological Science |page=165 |isbn= 978-1-901502-57-2 |year=2004 |editor=J. C. Rodda |editor2=Lucio Ubertini}}</ref>

The major event of the festival is [[Ritual purification|ritual bathing]] at the banks of the river. Other activities include religious discussions, devotional singing, mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardized. Kumbh Mela is the most sacred of all the pilgrimages.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25 | magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] | title=A Million Hindus Wash Away Their Sins | date=1 May 1950 | volume=18 | pages=25–29 | access-date=27 October 2020 | archive-date=28 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172555/https://books.google.com/books?id=-UwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.tt/columnist/2012-10-25/kumbh-mela-most-sacred-hindu-pilgrimages | title=Kumbh Mela, most sacred of Hindu pilgrimages | work=The Guardian | date=25 October 2012 | access-date=10 May 2013 | author=Maharaj | archive-date=8 August 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808035132/http://www.guardian.co.tt/columnist/2012-10-25/kumbh-mela-most-sacred-hindu-pilgrimages | url-status=live }}</ref> Thousands of holy men and women attend, and the auspiciousness of the festival is in part attributable to this. The [[sadhu]]s are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of ancient traditions. Some called ''[[Dashanami Sampradaya#Naga Sadhus|naga sanyasis]]'', may not wear any clothes.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/The-17-shringars-of-Naga-sadhus/articleshow/18421671.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222063810/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-02-09/allahabad/37007389_1_naga-sadhu-shringar-shahi-snan | url-status=live | archive-date=22 February 2013 | title=The 17 'shringars' of Naga sadhus | work=[[The Times of India]] |location = Allahabad | date=9 February 2013 | access-date=10 May 2013 | author=Mani, Rajiv}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSWDL6AMKrc| title = Kumbha Mela Video: Amazing and Magical Celebration of Life| website = [[YouTube]]| date = 27 March 2021| access-date = 2 June 2021| archive-date = 10 August 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220810040847/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSWDL6AMKrc| url-status = live}}</ref>

==Irrigation==
The Ganges and its all tributaries, especially the Yamuna, have been used for irrigation since ancient times.{{sfn|Singh|2005|pp=69–79}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/04/14/d5041401065.htm|title=Water board to carry out inflated project|date=14 April 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://en.barta24.com/details/national-en/187841/farmers-are-disoriented-due-to-lack-of-water|title=GK projects' irrigation pumps shut; farmers are disoriented due to lack of water|date=21 September 2023}}</ref> Dams and canals were common in the Gangetic plain by the 4th century BCE.{{sfn|Hill|2008}} The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a huge [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] potential, on the order of 200,000 to 250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could easily be harnessed. As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganges and just 1% of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra.{{sfn|Elhance|1999|p=163}}

===Canals===
[[File:Headworks ganges canal haridwar1860.jpg|thumb|Head works of the Ganges canal in Haridwar (1860). Photograph by [[Samuel Bourne]].]]
Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer who visited India during the 3rd century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the Gangetic plain. Kautilya (also known as [[Chanakya]]), an advisor to [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the founder of [[Maurya Empire]], included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during the war.{{sfn|Hill|2008}} [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]] had many canals built, the longest of which, {{convert|240|km|mi|abbr=on}}, was built in 1356 on the Yamuna River. Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal, it has fallen into disrepair and been restored several times. The [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] built an irrigation canal on the Yamuna River in the early 17th century. It fell into disuse until 1830, when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna Canal, under British control. The reopened canal became a model for the Upper Ganges Canal and all following canal projects.{{sfn|Singh|2005|pp=69–79}}
[[File:GangesCanal2.jpg|thumb|The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the Ganges River in Haridwar and its confluences with the Jumna (Yamuna) River in [[Etawah]] and with the Ganges in [[Cawnpore]] (now Kanpur).]]
The first British canal in India (which did not have Indian antecedents) was the [[Ganges Canal]] built between 1842 and 1854.<ref name="stone2002-p16">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=16}}</ref>
Contemplated first by Col. [[John Russell Colvin]] in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir [[Proby Thomas Cautley]], who balked at the idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the [[Agra famine of 1837–38]], during which the [[East India Company]]'s administration spent [[Rs.]] 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company's budget-conscious Court of Directors. In 1839, the [[Governor General of India]], [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire [[Doab]] region.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ce8FpJzR-4C&pg=PA103|title=Uttar Pradesh General Knowledge|first=C. L.|last=Khanna|date=1 September 2010|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7482-408-0}}</ref>

The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short-lived. Auckland's successor as Governor-General, [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]], appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project. Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Lord Hardinge]], was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautley's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the [[North-Western Provinces]], with [[James Thomason (British colonial governor)|James Thomason]] as Lt. Governor, and in [[British India]] with [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] as Governor-General. Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into full swing. A {{convert|350|mi|km|abbr=on|order=flip}} long canal, with another {{convert|300|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in Haridwar, splitting into two branches below [[Aligarh]], and its two confluences with the Yamuna (Jumna in map) [[Mainstem (hydrology)|mainstem]] in [[Etawah]] and the Ganges in Kanpur (Cawnpore in map). The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15&nbsp;million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie.{{sfn|Prakash|1999|p=162}} According to historian Ian Stone: <blockquote>It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of [[Lombardy]] and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the [[Pennsylvania Canal]].</blockquote>

===Dams and barrages===
A major [[Barrage (dam)|barrage]] at Farakka was opened on 21 April 1975,{{sfn|Brichieri-Colombi|Bradnock|2003}} It is located close to the point where the main flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal past
Kolkata. This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a {{convert|26|mi|km|adj=on|order=flip|abbr=on}} long feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a long-lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Ganges Water Dispute: An Appraisal of a Third Party Settlement| author=M. Rafiqul Islam| journal=Asian Survey| year=1987| volume=27 | issue = 8| pages=918–34| doi=10.2307/2644864| jstor=2644864}}</ref> [[Sharing the water of the Ganges|Indo-Bangladesh Ganges Water Treaty]] signed in December 1996 addressed some of the water sharing issues between India and Bangladesh.{{sfn|Brichieri-Colombi|Bradnock|2003}} There is [[Lav Khush Barrage]] across the River Ganges in Kanpur.

[[Tehri Dam]] was constructed on [[Bhagirathi]] River, a tributary of the Ganges. It is located 1.5&nbsp;km downstream of Ganesh Prayag, the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi is called the Ganges after Devprayag.{{sfn|Sharma|Bahuguna|Chauhan|2008}} Construction of the dam in an earthquake-prone area{{sfn|Brune|1993}} was controversial.<ref>{{cite journal| title=The dam that should not be built| author1=Fred Pearce| author2=Rob Butler| journal=New Scientist| date=26 January 1991| url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917534.600--the-dam-that-should-not-be-built-india-is-building-the-largest-dam-in-asia-in-a-valley-beset-by-earthquakes-and-landslips-seismologists-say-the-site-is-too-dangerous-but-engineers-are-using-discredited-data-to-push-ahead-with-construction--.html| access-date=28 August 2017| archive-date=22 October 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022182636/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917534.600--the-dam-that-should-not-be-built-india-is-building-the-largest-dam-in-asia-in-a-valley-beset-by-earthquakes-and-landslips-seismologists-say-the-site-is-too-dangerous-but-engineers-are-using-discredited-data-to-push-ahead-with-construction--.html| url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Bansagar Dam]] was built on the [[Sone River]], a tributary of the Ganges for both irrigation and [[hydroelectric]] power generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/anu228556756739.pdf |title=Bansagar Dam project |access-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=Government of India Ministry of Water Sources |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111008223133/http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/anu228556756739.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2011}}</ref> Ganges floodwaters along with Brahmaputra waters can be supplied to most of its right side basin area along with central and south India by constructing a [[coastal reservoir]] to store water on the Bay of Bengal sea area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sasidhar |first=Nallapaneni |date=May 2023 |title=Multipurpose Freshwater Coastal Reservoirs and Their Role in Mitigating Climate Change |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i1/A1842053123.pdf |access-date=15 August 2023 |journal=Indian Journal of Environment Engineering |issn=2582-9289 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.54105/ijee.A1842.053123 |s2cid=258753397 |archive-date=11 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611114313/https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i1/A1842053123.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:A girl selling plastic containers for carrying Ganges water, Haridwar.jpg|thumb|upright|A girl selling plastic containers in Haridwar for carrying Ganges water.]]

The [[Ganges Basin]] with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, [[sugarcane]], [[lentil]]s, [[oil seed]]s, potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the river, the presence of [[swamp]]s and lakes provides a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also many fishing opportunities along the river, though it remains highly polluted. Also, the major industrial towns of [[Unnao]] and Kanpur, situated on the banks of the river with the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/pollution%20caused%20by%20leather%20tannery%20industry%20in%20Unnao%20district.pdf|title=Report of the committee on pollution caused by leather tanning industry to the water bodies / ground water in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh|type=PDF|access-date=23 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140822200701/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/pollution%20caused%20by%20leather%20tannery%20industry%20in%20Unnao%20district.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2014}}</ref>

===Tourism===
Tourism is another related activity. Three towns holy to Hinduism—Haridwar, Prayagraj, and Varanasi—attract millions of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The rapids of the Ganges are also popular for [[rafting|river rafting]] in the town of Rishikesh, attracting adventure seekers in the summer months. Several cities such as Kanpur, Kolkata and Patna have also developed riverfront walkways along the banks to attract tourists.<ref name=Behteri1>{{cite news|author=Sushovan Sircar|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140311/jsp/calcutta/story_18037449.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424060712/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140311/jsp/calcutta/story_18037449.jsp|archive-date=24 April 2014|title=Take a walk along the Hooghly|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]|date=11 March 2014|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=Behteri3>{{cite news|author=Piyush Kumar Tripathi|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130803/jsp/bihar/story_17188971.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424210840/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130803/jsp/bihar/story_17188971.jsp|archive-date=24 April 2014|title=Funds flow for riverfront project|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]|date=3 August 2013|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=Behteri2>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-pathway-to-be-complete-in-three-years/articleshow/34068161.cms|title=Ganga pathway to be complete in three years|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=22 April 2014|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=14 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914064419/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-pathway-to-be-complete-in-three-years/articleshow/34068161.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Central-govt-approval-to-KDAs-riverfront-development-project/articleshow/45304859.cms |title=Central govt approval to KDA's riverfront development project |newspaper=The Times of India |date=28 November 2014 |publisher=The Times of India Mobile Site |access-date=7 August 2016 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622080137/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/central-govt-approval-to-kdas-riverfront-development-project/articleshow/45304859.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Ecology and environment==

[[File:Bangladesh tmo 2011313.jpg|thumb|''Ganges from Space'']]
Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganges basin. More than 95% of the upper Gangetic Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas. Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains, running along the Himalayan foothills and including [[Rajaji National Park]], [[Jim Corbett National Park]], and [[Dudhwa National Park]].<ref name=wwf0166>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0166 |name= Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests|access-date=6 May 2011}}</ref> As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild [[Asian elephant]]s (''Elephas maximus''), [[Bengal tiger]]s (''Panthera t. tigris''), [[Indian rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros unicornis''), [[gaur]]s (''Bos gaurus''), [[barasingha]]s (''Rucervus duvaucelii''), [[sloth bear]]s (''Melursus ursinus'') and [[Indian lion]]s (''Panthera leo leo'').<ref name=wwf0166/> In the 21st century there are few large wild animals, mostly deer, [[wild boar]]s, [[wildcat]]s, and small numbers of [[Indian wolf|Indian wolves]], [[golden jackal]]s, and [[Red fox|red]] and [[Bengal fox]]es. Bengal tigers survive only in the [[Sundarbans]] area of the Ganges Delta.<ref name=Britannica/> The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.<ref name=wwf0162>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0162 |name= Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests|access-date=6 May 2011}}</ref> The [[Heritiera fomes|Sundarbans mangroves]] (''Heritiera fomes'') also grow in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=The Sundarbans |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/ |access-date=2022-06-24 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=8 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208015435/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Threatened species|Threatened]] mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant, sloth bear, and [[four-horned antelope]] (''Tetracerus quadricornis'').<ref name=wwf0166/>

[[File:Florican, 1781.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Lesser florican]] (''Sypheotides indicus'')]]

Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as [[myna]], ''[[Psittacula]]'' parakeets, [[crow]]s, [[Kite (bird)|kites]], [[partridge]]s, and [[fowl]]s. [[Duck]]s and [[snipe]]s migrate across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland areas.<ref name=Britannica/> There are no [[Endemism|endemic]] birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The [[great Indian bustard]] (''Ardeotis nigriceps'') and [[lesser florican]] (''Sypheotides indicus'') are considered globally threatened.<ref name=wwf0166/>

The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty. There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the upper plains may have supported a [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist deciduous forest]] with sal (''[[Shorea robusta]]'') as a [[climax species]].<ref name=wwf0166/>

A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain, which includes the lower Brahmaputra River. The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by ''[[Bombax ceiba]]'' in association with ''[[Albizzia procera]]'', ''[[Duabanga grandiflora]]'', and ''[[Sterculia vilosa]]''. There are early [[seral]] forest communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species sal (''Shorea robusta'') if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes.<ref name=wwf0120>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0120 |name= Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests|access-date=6 May 2011}}</ref> The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement, remained largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about 3% of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of Varanasi, remains. There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but over half of these are less than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi}}.<ref name=wwf0120/> The fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a number of other species such as the [[smooth-coated otter]] (''Lutrogale perspicillata'') and the [[large Indian civet]] (''Viverra zibetha'').<ref name=wwf0120/>

===Fish===
[[File:Catla catla India.jpg|thumb|The [[catla]] (''Catla catla'') is one of the Indian carp species that support major fisheries in the Ganges.]]

It has been estimated that about 350 fish species live in the entire Ganges drainage, including several [[Endemism|endemics]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Allen, D.J. |editor2=S. Molur |editor3=B.A. Daniel  | title=The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalaya | year=2010 | publisher=IUCN | page=23 | isbn=978-2-8317-1324-3 }}</ref> In a major 2007–2009 study of fish in the Ganges basin (including the river itself and its tributaries, but excluding the Brahmaputra and Meghna basins), a total of 143 fish species were recorded, including 10 non-native [[introduced species]].<ref name=Sarkar2012>{{cite journal |author1=Sarkar |author2=Pathak |author3=Sinha |author4=Sivakumar |author5=Pandian |author6=Pandey |author7=Dubey |author8=Lakra  | title=Freshwater fish biodiversity in the River Ganga (India): changing pattern, threats and conservation perspectives | year=2012 | journal=Rev Fish Biol Fisheries | volume=22 |issue=1 | pages=251–272 | doi=10.1007/s11160-011-9218-6 |bibcode=2012RFBF...22..251S |s2cid=16719029 }}</ref> The most diverse orders are [[Cypriniformes]] (barbs and allies), [[Siluriformes]] (catfish) and [[Perciformes]] (perciform fish), each comprising about 50%, 23% and 14% of the total fish species in the drainage.<ref name=Sarkar2012/>

There are distinct differences between the different sections of the river basin, but [[Cyprinidae]] is the most diverse throughout. In the upper section (roughly equalling the basin parts in Uttarakhand) more than 50 species have been recorded and Cyprinidae alone accounts for almost 80% those, followed by [[Balitoridae]] (about 15.6%) and [[Sisoridae]] (about 12.2%).<ref name=Sarkar2012/> Sections of the Ganges basin at altitudes above {{convert|2400-3000|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level are generally without fish. Typical genera approaching this altitude are ''[[Schizothorax]]'', ''[[Tor (fish)|Tor]]'', ''[[Barilius]]'', ''[[Nemacheilus]]'' and ''[[Glyptothorax]]''.<ref name=Sarkar2012/> About 100 species have been recorded from the middle section of the basin (roughly equalling the sections in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar) and more than 55% of these are in family Cyprinidae, followed by [[Schilbeidae]] (about 10.6%) and [[Clupeidae]] (about 8.6%).<ref name=Sarkar2012/> The lower section (roughly equalling the basin in parts of Bihar and West Bengal) includes major floodplains and is home to almost 100 species. About 46% of these are in the family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 11.4%) and [[Bagridae]] (about 9%).<ref name=Sarkar2012/>

The Ganges basin supports major fisheries, but these have declined in recent decades. In the [[Prayagraj]] region in the middle section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 424.91 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 38.58 metric tons in 2001–2006, and catches of catfish fell from 201.35 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 40.56 metric tons in 2001–2006.<ref name=Sarkar2012/> In the [[Patna]] region in the lower section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 383.2 metric tons to 118, and catfish from 373.8 metric tons to 194.48.<ref name=Sarkar2012/> Some of the fish commonly caught in fisheries include [[catla]] (''Catla catla''), [[golden mahseer]] (''Tor putitora''), [[tor mahseer]] (''Tor tor''), [[rohu]] (''Labeo rohita''), [[walking catfish]] (''Clarias batrachus''), [[pangas catfish]] (''Pangasius pangasius''), [[Bagarius|goonch catfish]] (''Bagarius''), [[Snakehead (fish)|snakeheads]] (''Channa''), [[bronze featherback]] (''Notopterus notopterus'') and [[milkfish]] (''Chanos chanos'').<ref name=Britannica/><ref name=Sarkar2012/>

The Ganges basin is home to about 30 fish species that are listed as threatened with the primary issues being [[overfishing]] (sometimes illegal), pollution, water abstraction, [[siltation]] and [[invasive species]].<ref name=Sarkar2012/> Among the threatened species is the [[critically endangered]] [[Ganges shark]] (''Glyphis gangeticus'').<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fishbase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?genusname=Glyphis&speciesname=gangeticus |title= Glyphis gangeticus, Ganges shark |publisher= [[FishBase]] |access-date= 7 May 2011 |archive-date= 28 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172528/https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/summary/Glyphis-gangeticus.html |url-status= live }}</ref> Several fish species [[Fish migration|migrate]] between different sections of the river, but these movements may be prevented by the building of dams.<ref name=Sarkar2012/>

===Crocodilians and turtles===
[[File:Gavialis gangeticus, ZOO Praha 045.jpg|thumb|The threatened [[gharial]] (''Gavialis gangeticus'') is a large fish-eating [[crocodilian]] that is harmless to humans<ref>{{cite web | title=Gharial biology | publisher=Gharial Conservation Alliance | url=http://www.gharialconservationalliance.org/?page_id=216 | access-date=12 September 2017 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414200745/http://www.gharialconservationalliance.org/?page_id=216 | archive-date=14 April 2013 }}</ref>]]

The main sections of the Ganges River are home to the [[gharial]] (''Gavialis gangeticus'') and [[mugger crocodile]] (''Crocodylus palustris''), and the Ganges delta is home to the [[saltwater crocodile]] (''C. porosus''). Among the numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles in the Ganges basin are the [[northern river terrapin]] (''Batagur baska''; only in the lowermost section of the basin), [[three-striped roofed turtle]] (''B. dhongoka''), [[red-crowned roofed turtle]] (''B. kachuga''), [[black pond turtle]] (''Geoclemys hamiltonii''), [[Brahminy river turtle]] (''Hardella thurjii''), [[Indian black turtle]] (''Melanochelys trijuga''), [[Indian eyed turtle]] (''Morenia petersi''), [[brown roofed turtle]] (''Pangshura smithii''), [[Indian roofed turtle]] (''Pangshura tecta''), [[Indian tent turtle]] (''Pangshura tentoria''), [[Indian flapshell turtle]] (''Lissemys punctata''), [[Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle]] (''Chitra indica''), [[Indian softshell turtle]] (''Nilssonia gangetica''), [[Indian peacock softshell turtle]] (''N. hurum'') and [[Cantor's giant softshell turtle]] (''Pelochelys cantorii''; only in the lowermost section of Ganges basin).<ref name=turtles>{{cite book |editor1=Rhodin |editor2=Pritchard |editor3=Dijk |editor4=Saumure |editor5=Buhlmann |editor6=Iverson |editor7=Mittermeier  | title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group |author1=van Dijk |author2=Iverson |author3=Rhodin |author4=Shaffer |author5=Bour  |s2cid=88824499 | chapter=Turtles of the World, 7th Edition: Annotated Checklist of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution with Maps, and Conservation Status | year=2014 | publisher=IUCN | volume=5 | doi=10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v7.2014 | series=Chelonian Research Monographs | isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7 }}</ref> Most of these are seriously threatened.<ref name=turtles/>

===Ganges river dolphin===
[[File:GangeticDolphin.jpg|thumb|The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P. Smit, 1894.]]
The river's most famed faunal member is the freshwater [[Ganges river dolphin]] (''Platanista gangetica gangetica''),<ref name=wwf0166/> which has been declared India's [[List of national animals|national aquatic animal]].<ref>{{cite web | url= http://wildpolitics.net/2010/01/19/ganges-river-dolphin-declared-indias-national-aquatic-animal/ | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110902103154/http://wildpolitics.net/2010/01/19/ganges-river-dolphin-declared-indias-national-aquatic-animal/ | archive-date= 2 September 2011 | title= Ganges River Dolphin Declared India's National Aquatic Animal | publisher= WildPolitics.net | access-date= 6 May 2011 }}</ref>

This dolphin used to exist in large schools near urban centres in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers but is now seriously threatened by pollution, dam construction and improper fishing methods.<ref>{{cite news | url= https://news.mongabay.com/2023/01/banned-but-abundant-gillnets-pose-main-threat-to-bangladeshs-river-dolphins/ | title= Banned but abundant, gillnets pose main threat to Bangladesh's river dolphins | access-date= 14 April 2024 }}</ref> Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fifteen years before, and they have become extinct in the Ganges' main tributaries.{{efn|name=puttick|1= {{harvtxt|Puttick|2008}}<br />"Sacred ritual is only one source of pollution. The main source of contamination is organic waste—sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Around a billion liters of untreated raw sewage are dumped into the Ganges each day, along with massive amounts of agricultural chemicals (including DDT), industrial pollutants, and toxic chemical waste from the booming industries along the river. The level of pollution is now 10,000 percent higher than the government standard for safe river bathing (let alone drinking). One result of this situation is an increase in waterborne diseases, including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid, and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80 percent of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to waterborne illnesses." (p. 247)<br />"There have been various projects to clean up the Ganges and other rivers, led by the Indian government's Ganga Action Plan launched in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, grandson of Jawaharlal Nehru. Its relative failure has been blamed on mismanagement, corruption, and technological mistakes, but also lack of support from religious authorities. This may well be partly because the Brahmin priests are so invested in the idea of the Ganges' purity and afraid that any admission of its pollution will undermine the central role of the water in ritual, as well as their own authority. There are many temples along the river, conducting a brisk trade in ceremonies, including funerals, and sometimes also the sale of bottled Ganga Jal. The more traditional Hindu priests still believe that blessing Ganga Jal purifies it, although they are now a very small minority given the scale of the problem." (p. 248)<br />"Wildlife is also under threat, particularly the river dolphins. They were one of the world's first protected species, given special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. They're now a critically endangered species, although protected once again by the Indian government (and internationally under the CITES convention). Their numbers have shrunk by 75 per cent over the last 15 years, and they have become extinct in the main tributaries, mainly because of pollution and habitat degradation." (p. 275)
----}} A 2012 survey by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] found only 3,000 left in the water catchment of both river systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/cetaceans/about/river_dolphins/ganges_river_dolphin/ |title=Ganges River dolphin |publisher=WWF |website=wwf.panda.org |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415221525/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/cetaceans/about/river_dolphins/ganges_river_dolphin/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Ganges river dolphin is one of only five true [[freshwater dolphin]]s in the world. The other four are the [[baiji]] (''Lipotes vexillifer'') of the [[Yangtze River]] in China, now likely extinct; the [[Indus River dolphin]] of the Indus River in Pakistan; the [[Amazon river dolphin]] of the Amazon River in South America; and the [[Araguaian river dolphin]] (not considered a separate species until 2014<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hrbek | first1 = Tomas| last2 = Da Silva | first2 = Vera Maria Ferreira| last3 = Dutra | first3 = Nicole| last4 = Gravena | first4 = Waleska| last5 = Martin | first5 = Anthony R.| last6 = Farias | first6 = Izeni Pires| editor1-last = Turvey | editor1-first = Samuel T.| title = A New Species of River Dolphin from Brazil or: How Little Do We Know Our Biodiversity| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0083623 | journal = [[PLOS One]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| article-number = e83623 | date = 22 January 2014| pmid =  24465386| pmc = 3898917| bibcode = 2014PLoSO...983623H| doi-access = free}}</ref>) of the [[Tocantins River|Araguaia–Tocantins]] basin in Brazil. There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, but these five are the only dolphins who live only in freshwater rivers and lakes.<ref name=wwf0120/>

=== Effects of climate change ===
The [[Tibetan Plateau]] contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:

{{blockquote|Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world.&nbsp;... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows&nbsp;... In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril.<ref>{{cite web|author=AFP  |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ |title=Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official|date=17 August 2009 |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123192540/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ |archive-date=23 January 2010 }}</ref>}}

In 2007, the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), in its Fourth Report, stated that the Himalayan glaciers which feed the river were at risk of melting by 2035.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR4/website/10.pdf |title=See s. 10.6 of the WGII part of the report at |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124044114/http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR4/website/10.pdf |archive-date=24 November 2010}}</ref> The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction, as the original source admitted that it was speculative and the cited source was not a peer-reviewed finding.{{efn|1= The IPCC report is based on a non-peer-reviewed work by the World Wildlife Federation. They, in turn, drew their information from an interview conducted by ''New Scientist'' with Hasnain, an Indian glaciologist, who admitted that the view was speculative. See: {{cite journal
| url         = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527432.800-sifting-climate-facts-from-speculation.html
| title       = Sifting climate facts from speculation
| date        = 13 January 2010
| journal=New Scientist
}} and {{cite news
| url         = http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/health/pachauri-calls-indian-govt-report-on-melting-himalayan-glaciers-as-voodoo-science_100301232.html
| title         = Pachauri calls Indian govt. report on melting Himalayan glaciers as 'voodoo science'
| date         = 9 January 2010
| publisher         = Thaindian News
| access-date         = 20 January 2010
| archive-date         = 28 January 2010
| archive-url         = https://web.archive.org/web/20100128104205/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/health/pachauri-calls-indian-govt-report-on-melting-himalayan-glaciers-as-voodoo-science_100301232.html
}} On the IPCC statement withdrawing the finding, see: {{cite news
| url         = http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/presentations/himalaya-statement-20january2010.pdf
| title         = IPCC statement on the melting of Himalayan glaciers
| date         = 20 January 2010
| publisher         = IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
| access-date         = 20 January 2010
| archive-date         = 15 February 2010
| archive-url         = https://web.archive.org/web/20100215024454/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/presentations/himalaya-statement-20january2010.pdf
}}
----}} In its statement, the IPCC stands by its general findings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from global warming (with consequent risks to water flow into the Gangetic basin). Many studies have suggested that [[climate change]] will affect the water resources in the Ganges river basin including increased summer (monsoon) flow, and peak runoff could result in an increased risk of flooding.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Impact of climate change on the hydrological regime of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins: a review of the literature|first1=Santosh|last1=Nepal|first2=Arun Bhakta|last2=Shrestha|date=3 April 2015|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|volume=31|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1080/07900627.2015.1030494|bibcode=2015IJWRD..31..201N |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Pollution and environmental concerns==
{{main|Pollution of the Ganges}}
[[File:Cremation in Varanasi.jpg|thumb|Burning ''[[Ghats in Varanasi|ghats]]'' in [[Varanasi]]; the ashes of the dead are released along the banks of the Ganges.<ref name="Natgeo 2014">{{cite magazine |last=McBride |first=Pete |date=7 August 2014 |title=The Pyres of Varanasi: Breaking the Cycle of Death and Rebirth |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/the-pyres-of-varanasi-breaking-the-cycle-of-death-and-rebirth |magazine=[[National Geographic]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |issn=0027-9358 |oclc=643483454 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425202234/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/the-pyres-of-varanasi-breaking-the-cycle-of-death-and-rebirth |archive-date=25 April 2022 |access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref>]]
[[File:Clothing by the river.jpg|thumb|People bathing and washing clothes along the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi]]

The Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels,<ref>{{cite journal|title=River Ganga pollution: Causes and failed management plans|journal=Environment International|volume=126|pages=202–206|doi=10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.033|pmid=30802637|date=May 2019|last1=Chaudhary|first1=M.|last2=Walker|first2=T. R.|doi-access=free}}</ref> caused by the 400&nbsp;million people who live close to the river.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cleanganga.com/newsletter/index.php |title=June 2003 Newsletter |publisher=Clean Ganga |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518135014/http://www.cleanganga.com/newsletter/index.php |archive-date=18 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1581251,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126170535/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1581251,00.html | archive-date=26 January 2007 | magazine=Time | title=The World's Dirty Rivers | date=22 January 2007 | access-date=3 May 2010 | first=Elisabeth | last=Salemme}}</ref> Sewage from many cities along the river's course, industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in non-degradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows through densely populated areas.<ref name=cleanperish/>{{sfn|Abraham|2011}}<ref name=Behteri4>{{cite news|author=Akanksha Jain|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/draw-plan-to-check-ganga-pollution-by-sugar-mills/article5939897.ece|title=Draw plan to check Ganga pollution by sugar mills|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=23 April 2014|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=19 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819064050/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/draw-plan-to-check-ganga-pollution-by-sugar-mills/article5939897.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/447339-delivering-clean-water-to-vulnerable-communities-on-the-ganga |title=Delivering clean water to vulnerable communities on the Ganga |access-date=14 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= A comprehensive assessment of macro and microplastics from Rivers Ganga and Yamuna: Unveiling the seasonal, spatial and risk factors |date= 2024 |doi= 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133926 |last1= Gupta |first1= Priyansha |last2= Saha |first2= Mahua |last3= Naik |first3= Akshata |last4= Kumar |first4= M. Manish |last5= Rathore |first5= Chayanika |last6= Vashishth |first6= Shrish |last7= Maitra |first7= Shukla Pal |last8= Bhardwaj |first8= K.D. |last9= Thukral |first9= Harsh |journal= Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume= 469 |pmid= 38484661 |bibcode= 2024JHzM..46933926G }}</ref> The problem is exacerbated by the fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing, washing, and cooking.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}} The [[World Bank]] estimates that the health costs of [[water pollution in India]] equal three percent of India's GDP.{{efn|name=bharati}} It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses in India and one-third of deaths can be attributed to water-borne diseases.{{efn|name=puttick}}

Varanasi, a city of one million people that many pilgrims visit to take a "holy dip" in the Ganges, releases around 200&nbsp;million liters of untreated human sewage into the river each day, leading to large concentrations of [[fecal coliform]] bacteria.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}} According to official standards, water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, yet upstream of [[Ghats in Varanasi|Varanasi's ghats]] the river water already contains 120 times as much, 60,000 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml.<ref name="economist2008-ganges-pollution">[http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11751397 "India and pollution: Up to their necks in it"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612093603/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11751397 |date=12 June 2009 }}, ''[[The Economist]]'', 27 July 2008.</ref><ref name=nomoreabuse>{{cite news | title = Ganga can bear no more abuse | date = 18 July 2009 | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/Ganga-can-bear-no-more-abuse/articleshow/4792921.cms | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111103163826/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-18/varanasi/28183373_1_ganga-action-plan-river-water-sewage-treatment-plants | url-status = live | work = [[The Times of India]] | archive-date = 3 November 2011 }}</ref>

After the [[cremation]] of the deceased at Varanasi's ghats, the bones and ashes are immersed into the Ganges. However, in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown into the Ganges during [[cholera]] epidemics, spreading the disease. Even today, holy men, pregnant women, people with [[leprosy]] or [[chicken pox]], people who have been bitten by snakes, people who have committed suicide, the poor, and children under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are left to float free, to decompose in the waters. In addition, those who cannot afford the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body, leave behind many half-burned body parts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.travelpod.co.uk/travel-blog-entries/miller-stone/1/1293729235/tpod.html#ixzz1W7q8JJhI|title=Miller-stone's Travel Blog: Varanasi: The Rich, The Poor, and The Afterlife|date=14 December 2010}}</ref>

After passing through Varanasi, and receiving 32 streams of raw sewage from the city, the concentration of fecal coliforms in the river's waters rises from 60,000 to 1.5&nbsp;million,<ref name="economist2008-ganges-pollution"/><ref name=nomoreabuse/> with observed peak values of 100&nbsp;million per 100 ml.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}} Drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}}

Between 1985 and 2000, [[Indian rupee|Rs.]] 10&nbsp;billion, around US$226&nbsp;million, or less than 4 cents per person per year,<ref>{{cite news|title=Journey of River Ganga, from Purest to the Dirtiest river of the World –|publisher=Mobile Site India TV News|url=http://m.indiatvnews.com/news/india/river-ganga-purest-river-dirtiest-river-37927.html/page/7|work=m.indiatvnews.com|language=en|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808033348/http://m.indiatvnews.com/news/india/river-ganga-purest-river-dirtiest-river-37927.html/page/7}}</ref> were spent on the [[Ganga Action Plan]],<ref name=cleanperish/> an environmental initiative that was "the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world".{{efn|name=singh}} The Ganga Action Plan has been described variously as a "failure"<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/indias-long-term-effort-to-clean-up-pollution-in-sacred-ganga-river |title=India's effort to clean up sacred but polluted Ganga River |publisher=pbs.org |date=16 December 2009 |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212170449/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/indias-long-term-effort-to-clean-up-pollution-in-sacred-ganga-river |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=mandal/>{{efn|1= {{harvtxt|Caso|Wolf|2010}}<br />"Chronology: 1985 *India launches Phase I of the Ganga Action Plan to restore the Ganges River; most deem it a failure by the early 1990s." (p. 320)
----}}{{efn|1= {{harvtxt|Dudgeon|2005}}<br />"To reduce the water pollution in one of Asia's major rivers, the Indian Government initiated the Ganga Action Plan in 1985. The objective of this centrally funded scheme was to treat the effluent from all the major towns along the Ganges and reduce pollution in the river by at least 75%. The Ganga Action Plan built upon the existing but weakly enforced, 1974 Water Prevention and Control Act. A government audit of the Ganga Action Plan in 2000 reported limited success in meeting effluent targets. Development plans for sewage treatment facilities were submitted by only 73% of the cities along the Ganges, and only 54% of these were judged acceptable by the authorities. Not all the cities reported how much effluent was being treated, and many continued to discharge raw sewage into the river. Test audits of installed capacity indicated poor performance, and there were long delays in constructing planned treatment facilities. After 15 yr. of implementation, the audit estimated that the Ganga Action Plan had achieved only 14% of the anticipated sewage treatment capacity. The environmental impact of this failure has been exacerbated by the removal of large quantities of irrigation water from the Ganges which offset any gains from effluent reductions."
----}} and a "major failure".{{efn|name=haberman|1= {{harvtxt|Haberman|2006}}<br />"The Ganga Action Plan, commonly known as GAP, was launched dramatically in the holy city of Banares (Varanasi) on 14 June 1985, by Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]], who promised, {{'}}We shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again.{{'}} The stated task was {{'}}to improve water quality, permit safe bathing all along the 2,525 kilometers from the Ganges's origin in the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal, and make the water potable at important pilgrim and urban centres on its banks.{{'}} The project was designed to tackle pollution from twenty-five cities and towns along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal by intercepting, diverting, and treating their effluents. With the GAP's Phase II, three important tributaries—Damodar, Gomati, and Yamuna—were added to the plan. Although some improvements have been made to the quality of the Ganges's water, many people claim that the GAP has been a major failure. The environmental lawyer M. C. Mehta, for example, filed public interest litigation against the project, claiming {{'}}GAP has collapsed.{{'}}"
----}}{{efn|name=gardner|1={{harvtxt|Gardner|2003}}<br />"The Ganges, also known as the Ganga, is one of the world's major rivers, running for more than 2,500 kilometres from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. It is also one of the most polluted, primarily from sewage, but also from animal carcasses, human corpses, and soap, and other pollutants from bathers. Indeed, scientists measure fecal coliform levels at thousands of times what is permissible and levels of oxygen in the water are similarly unhealthy. Renewal efforts have centred primarily on the government-sponsored Ganga Action Plan (GAP), started in 1985 intending to clean up the river by 1993. Several western-style sewage treatment plants were built along the river, but they were poorly designed, poorly maintained, and prone to shut down during the region's frequent power outages. The GAP has been a colossal failure, and many argue that the river is more polluted now than it was in 1985." (p. 166)
----}}{{efn|name=bharati|1= {{harvtxt|Bharati|2006}}<br />"The World Bank estimates the health costs of water pollution in India to be equivalent to three per cent of the country's gross domestic product. With Indian rivers being severely polluted, interlinking them may actually increase these costs. Also, with the widely recognised failure of the Ganga Action Plan, there is a danger that contaminants from the Gangetic basin might enter other basins and destroy their natural cleansing processes. The new areas that will be river-fed after the introduction of the scheme may experience crop failures or routing due to alien compounds carried into their streams from the polluted Gangetic basin streams." (p. 26)
----}}

According to one study,<ref name=mandal>{{Citation|last=Mandal|first=R. B.|title=Water Resource Management|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2006|isbn=978-81-8069-318-2}}</ref> <blockquote>
The Ganga Action Plan, which was taken on priority and with much enthusiasm, was delayed for two years. The expenditure was almost doubled. But the result was not very appreciable. Much expenditure was done on political propaganda. The concerning governments and the related agencies were not very prompt to make it a success. The public of the areas was not taken into consideration. The release of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not controlled fully. The flowing of dirty water through drains and sewers were not adequately diverted. The continuing customs of burning dead bodies, throwing carcasses, washing of dirty clothes by washermen, and immersion of idols and cattle wallowing were not checked. Very little provision of public latrines was made and the open defecation of [[lakh]]s of people continued along the riverside. All these made the Action Plan a failure.</blockquote>

The failure of the Ganga Action Plan has also been variously attributed to "environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions",{{efn|name=singh|1= {{harvtxt| Singh|Singh|2007}}<br />"In February 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan, an environmental project to improve the river water quality. It was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world and has not achieved any success in terms of preventing pollution load and improvement in the water quality of the river. Failure of the Ganga Action Plan may be directly linked with environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions. The bibliography of selected environmental research studies on the Ganga River is, therefore, an essential first step for preserving and maintaining the Ganga River ecosystem in future."
----}} Indian "traditions and beliefs",{{efn|1= {{harvtxt|Tiwari|2008}}<br />"Many social traditions and customs are not only helping in environmental degradation but are causing obstruction to environmental management and planning. The failure of the Ganga Action Plan to clean the sacred river is partly associated with our traditions and beliefs. The disposal of dead bodies, the immersion of idols, and public bathing are part of Hindu customs and rituals which are based on the notion that the sacred river leads to the path of salvation, and under no circumstances its water can become impure. Burning of dead bodies through wood, bursting of crackers during Diwali, putting thousands of tonnes of fuelwood under fire during Holi, immersion of Durga and Ganesh idols into rivers and seas, etc. are part of Hindu customs and are detrimental to the environment. These and many other rituals need rethinking and modification in the light of contemporary situations." (p. 92)
----}} "corruption and a lack of technical knowledge"{{efn|name=sheth|1= {{harvtxt|Sheth|2008}}<br />"But the Indian government, as a whole, appears typically ineffective. Its ability to address itself to a national problem like environmental degradation is typified by the 20-year, $100 million Ganga Action Plan, whose purpose was to clean up the Ganges River. Leading Indian environmentalists call the plan a complete failure, due to the same problems that have always beset the government: poor planning, corruption, and a lack of technical knowledge. The river, they say, is more polluted than ever." (pp. 67–68)
----}} and "lack of support from religious authorities".{{efn|name=puttick}}

In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US$1&nbsp;billion over the next five years to help save the river.<ref name=BBC_Ganges_World_Bank>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8392118.stm |title=World Bank loans India $1bn for Ganges river clean up |work=BBC News |date=3 December 2009 |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822112135/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8392118.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates, an investment of almost Rs. 70&nbsp;billion (Rs. 70&nbsp;billion, approximately US$1.5&nbsp;billion) is needed to clean up the river.<ref name=cleanperish/>

In November 2008, the Ganges, alone among India's rivers, was declared a "National River", facilitating the formation of a [[National Ganga River Basin Authority]] that would have greater powers to plan, implement and monitor measures aimed at protecting the river.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081108084537/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081105/jsp/nation/story_10065466.jsp "Ganga gets a tag: national river – Vote whiff in step to give special status"], ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'', 5 November 2008</ref>

In July 2014, the Government of India announced an integrated Ganges-development project titled ''Namami Gange Programme'' and allocated {{INR}}2,037&nbsp;[[crore]] for this purpose.<ref>{{cite web|title=Namami Ganga development Project gets 2037 crores|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/namami-ganga-development-project-gets-2037-crores/|work=IANS|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|access-date=10 July 2014|archive-date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531074720/http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/namami-ganga-development-project-gets-2037-crores/|url-status=live}}</ref> The main objectives of the Namami Gange project is to improve the water quality by the abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of river Ganga by creating infrastructures like sewage treatment plants, river surface cleaning, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, and public awareness.<ref>{{cite web |title=Namami Gange Programme |url=https://nmcg.nic.in/NamamiGanga.aspx |website=nmcg.nic.in |access-date=27 November 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817190528/https://nmcg.nic.in/NamamiGanga.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2017 the [[High Court of Uttarakhand]] declared the Ganges River a [[Legal personality|legal "person"]], in a move that according to one newspaper, "could help in efforts to clean the pollution-choked rivers".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Trivedi |first1=Anupam |last2=Jagati |first2=Kamal |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/uttarakhand-hc-says-ganga-is-india-s-first-living-entity-grants-it-rights-equal-to-humans/story-VoI6DOG71fyMDihg5BuGCL.html |title=Uttarakhand HC declares Ganga, Yamuna living entities, gives them legal rights |location=Dehradun/Nainital |work=Hindustan Times |date=22 March 2017 |access-date=5 April 2017 |archive-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406111433/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/uttarakhand-hc-says-ganga-is-india-s-first-living-entity-grants-it-rights-equal-to-humans/story-VoI6DOG71fyMDihg5BuGCL.html |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2017|04|06}}, the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce,<ref name=mint>{{citation needed|date= April 2017}}{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/gsttRTScpIuLTXreHqwvkN/Rights-of-rivers-hard-to-enforce.html|last=De Sarkar|first=Dipankar|title=Rights of rivers, hard to enforce|date=24 March 2017|newspaper=Live Mint|access-date=6 April 2017|archive-date=20 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820101010/http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/gsttRTScpIuLTXreHqwvkN/Rights-of-rivers-hard-to-enforce.html|url-status=live}}</ref> that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits,<ref name= mint/> that the ruling is "hardly game changing",<ref name=hindu>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-river-as-being/article17669377.ece|last=Ghosh|first=Shibani|title=The river as being|date=27 March 2017|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=6 April 2017|archive-date=22 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822112135/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-river-as-being/article17669377.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> that experts believe "any follow-up action is unlikely",<ref name=econtimes>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/will-granting-legal-rights-to-rivers-like-the-ganga-change-on-ground-situation/articleshow/57818653.cms|last=Goswami|first=Urmi|title=Will granting legal rights to rivers like the Ganga, change the on-ground situation?|date=25 March 2017|newspaper=Economic Times|access-date=6 April 2017|archive-date=30 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830203814/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/will-granting-legal-rights-to-rivers-like-the-ganga-change-on-ground-situation/articleshow/57818653.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and that the "judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others (in states outside Uttarakhand) who have stakes in the matter."<ref name=outlook>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/by-making-ganga-yamuna-living-entities-did-high-court-unwittingly-open-the-door-/298319|last=Bhaskar|first=B. R. P.|title=By Making Ganga, Yamuna Living Entities, Did High Court Unwittingly Open The Door For River Pollution Victims To Sue For Damages?|date=24 March 2017|magazine=Outlook|access-date=6 April 2017|archive-date=22 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822112116/https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/by-making-ganga-yamuna-living-entities-did-high-court-unwittingly-open-the-door-/298319|url-status=live}}</ref>

The incidence of water-borne and [[enteric]] diseases—such as [[gastrointestinal disease]], cholera, [[dysentery]], [[hepatitis A]] and [[typhoid]]—among people who use the river's waters for bathing, washing dishes and brushing teeth is high, at an estimated 66% per year.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}}

Recent studies by [[Indian Council of Medical Research]] (ICMR) say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in the country. Conducted by the National Cancer Registry Programme under the ICMR, the study throws up shocking findings indicating that the river is thick with heavy metals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer. According to Deputy Director-General of NCRP A. Nandkumar, the incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas drained by the Ganges and stated that the problem would be studied deeply and with the findings presented in a report to the health ministry.<ref>"Ganga is now a deadly source of cancer, study says", ''Anirban Ghosh'' 17 October 2012, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-a-deadly-source-of-cancer-now-Study/articleshow/16858510.cms [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-a-deadly-source-of-cancer-now-Study/articleshow/16858510.cms]</ref>

Apart from that, many NGOs have come forward to rejuvenate the river Ganges. Vikrant Tongad, an Environmental specialist from SAFE Green filed a petition against Simbhaoli Sugar Mill (Hapur UP) to NGT. NGT slapped a fine of Rs.&nbsp;5&nbsp;crores to Sugar Mill and a fine of Rs.&nbsp;25&nbsp;lakhs to Gopaljee Dairy for discharging untreated effluents into the Simbhaoli drain.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/ngt-slaps-rs-5-cr-fine-on-sugar-mills/article6509417.ece|title=NGT slaps Rs. 5 cr. fine on sugar mills|first=Akanksha|last=Jain|newspaper=The Hindu|date=17 October 2014|via=www.thehindu.com|access-date=13 November 2019|archive-date=26 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826202653/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/ngt-slaps-rs-5-cr-fine-on-sugar-mills/article6509417.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Water shortages===
Along with ever-increasing pollution, water shortages are getting noticeably worse. Some sections of the river are already completely dry. Around Varanasi, the river once had an average depth of {{convert|60|m|ft}}, but in some places, it is now only {{convert|10|m|ft}}.<ref>"How India's Success is Killing its Holy River". Jyoti Thottam. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. 19 July 2010, pp. 12–17.</ref>

{{blockquote|To cope with its chronic water shortages, India employs electric groundwater pumps, diesel-powered tankers, and coal-fed power plants. If the country increasingly relies on these energy-intensive short-term fixes, the whole planet's climate will bear the consequences. India is under enormous pressure to develop its economic potential while also protecting its environment—something few, if any, countries have accomplished. What India does with its water will be a test of whether that combination is possible.<ref>"How India's Success is Killing its Holy River". Jyoti Thottam. ''Time''. 19 July 2010, p. 15.</ref>}}

===Mining===
[[Illegal mining in India#Illegal mining and stone crushing in the Ganges river bed|Illegal mining in the Ganges river bed]] for stones and sand for construction work has long been a problem in [[Haridwar district]], Uttarakhand, where it touches the plains for the first time. This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned in [[Kumbh Mela]] area zone covering 140&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> area in Haridwar.<ref name=tri>{{cite news |title=Looting the Ganga shamelessly |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110616/main5.htm |newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |date=16 June 2011 |access-date=7 July 2011 |archive-date=27 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727091533/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110616/main5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==In art and literature==
* {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838/The Ganges|The Ganges]]}} A painting of the Ganges entering the plains near [[Haridwar]] by William Purser with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.<ref>{{cite book|last=Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA110|section=picture|year=1837|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.|access-date=20 December 2022|archive-date=20 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220211543/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA108|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA112|section=poetical illustration|pages=33-34|year=1837|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.|access-date=20 December 2022|archive-date=20 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220211544/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA108|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839/Colgong on the Ganges|Colgong on the Ganges]]}} A painting of the Ganges near [[Kahalgaon]] by [[J. M. W. Turner]] with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839.<ref>{{cite book|last=Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA28|section=picture|year=1838|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.|access-date=6 February 2023|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231014/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA28|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA31|section=poetical illustration|page=17|year=1838|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.|access-date=6 February 2023|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231013/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA31|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Environmental personhood]]
* [[Fair river sharing]]
* [[Ganga Pushkaram]]
* [[Gangaputra Brahmin]]
* [[Ganga Talao]]
* [[Ganga Lake (Mongolia)]]
* [[List of most-polluted rivers]]
* [[List of rivers by discharge]]
* [[List of rivers by length]]
* [[List of rivers of India]]
* [[Mahaweli Ganga]]
* [[National Waterway 1]]
* [[Pollution of the Ganges]]
* [[River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts]]
* [[Sacred waters]]
* [[Sankat Mochan Foundation]]
* [[Ganga (goddess)]]
* [[Peninsular River System]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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* {{cite book| first1=M. Monirul Qader| last1= Mirza|title=The Ganges water diversion: environmental effects and implications| volume= 49| date=2004| location=Dordecht| publisher=Springer| isbn=978-90-481-6665-7| pages=1–6| doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-2792-5| series= Water Science and Technology Library| oclc= 853267663}}
* {{citation|last=Newby|first=Eric|title=Slowly down the Ganges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4sBAAAACAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-0-86442-631-4}}
* {{citation|last=Pal|first=Pratapaditya|title=Divine images, human visions: the Max Tanenbaum collection of South Asian and Himalayan art in the National Gallery of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMUp4nxAqwwC|year=1997|publisher=National Gallery of Canada|isbn=978-1-896209-05-0}}
* {{citation| last1=Parua| first1=Pranab Kumar| title=The Ganga: water use in the Indian subcontinent| chapter='''14''' Necessity of Regional Co-operation| pages=267–72| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUc7Cus2a-MC| date=2009| publisher=Springer| isbn=978-90-481-3102-0}}
* {{cite book
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* {{Citation|last=Puttick|first=Elizabeth|chapter=Mother Ganges, India's Sacred River|year = 2008|title=The Healing Power of Water|editor1-last=Emoto|editor1-first=Masaru| editor1-link=Masaru Emoto| publisher=Hay House|pages=241–52|isbn=978-1-4019-0877-5}}
* {{citation|last=Rahaman|first=M.M.|year=2009|url=http://www.iwaponline.com/wp/01102/wp011020168.htm|title=Integrated Ganges Basin Management: conflicts and hope for regional development|journal=Water Policy|volume=11|issue=2|pages=168–90|doi=10.2166/wp.2009.012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927060952/http://www.iwaponline.com/wp/01102/wp011020168.htm|archive-date=27 September 2011|url-access=subscription}}
* {{citation|last=Rahaman|first=M.M.|year=2009|title=Principles of transboundary water resources management and Ganges Treaties: An Analysis|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|volume=25|issue=1|pages=159–73|doi=10.1080/07900620802517574|bibcode=2009IJWRD..25..159R |s2cid=155016224}}
* {{Cite book
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* {{cite journal|vauthors=Sack DA, Sack RB, Nair GB, Siddique AK|title=Cholera |journal=Lancet |volume=363 |issue=9404 |pages=223–33 |year=2004 |pmid=14738797 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15328-7 |s2cid=208793200}}
* {{cite book|last1=Salman|first1=Salman M. A.|last2=Uprety|first2=Kishor|title=Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers: A Legal Perspective|publisher=Kluwer Law International|location=London, The Hague, New York|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8213-5352-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC}} {{cite web |title=Alternate copy |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/15171/multi0page.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=27 April 2011 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407170309/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/15171/multi0page.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}
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* {{cite book|last=Sheth|first=Jagdish N.|title=Chindia Rising|publisher = Tata McGraw-Hill|year = 2008|isbn=978-0-07-065708-3}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Munendra|last2=Singh|first2=Amit K.|title=Bibliography of Environmental Studies in Natural Characteristics and Anthropogenic Influences on the Ganga River|journal=Environ Monit Assess |year=2007 |volume=129|issue=1–3|pages=421–32|doi=10.1007/s10661-006-9374-7|pmid=17072555|bibcode=2007EMnAs.129..421S |s2cid=39845300}}
* {{cite book| last1=Singh| first1=Nirmal T.| title=Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent: past and present| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4RCXuoMotAC&pg=PA69| date=2005| publisher=Lehigh University| location=Bethlehem, PA| isbn=978-0-934223-78-2}}
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* {{cite book|last=Suvedī|first=Sūryaprasāda|title=International watercourses law for the 21st century: the case of the river Ganges basin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vn4OSPZXo3QC|date=2005|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-4527-6}}
* {{cite journal | title=The Image of the Barbarian in Early India| first1=Romila| last1= Thapar| journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|date=October 1971| volume=13|issue=4|pages=408–36|jstor=178208| doi=10.1017/s0010417500006393| s2cid=143480731}}
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of Ganges}}
{{refbegin|30em}} 
* [[Christopher de Bellaigue]], "The River" (the Ganges; review of [[Sunil Amrith]], ''Unruly Waters: How Rains, Rivers, Coasts, and Seas Have Shaped Asia's History''; [[Sudipta Sen]], ''Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River''; and Victor Mallet, ''River of Life, River of Death: The Ganges and India's Future''), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 15 (10 October 2019), pp.&nbsp;34–36. "[I]n 1951 the average Indian [inhabitant of India] had access annually to 5,200 cubic meters of water. The figure today is 1,400&nbsp;... and will probably fall below 1,000 cubic meters – the [[UN]]'s definition of '[[water scarcity]]' – at some point in the next few decades. Compounding the problem of lower summer rainfall&nbsp;... India's [[water table]] is in freefall [due] to an increase in the number of [[tube well]]s&nbsp;... Other contributors to India's seasonal dearth of water are [[canal]] leaks [and] the continued sowing of thirsty crops" (p.&nbsp;35.)
* {{cite book|last=Berwick|first=Dennison|title=A Walk Along the Ganges|publisher=Dennison Berwick|isbn=978-0-7137-1968-0|title-link=A Walk Along the Ganges|year=1987}}
* {{cite book|last=Cautley|first= Proby Thomas|author-link=Proby Thomas Cautley|title=Ganges canal. A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges of Jumna canals, North-western Provinces |url=https://archive.org/stream/gangescanaladis01cautgoog#page/n7/mode/1up|year=1864|publisher=London, Printed for Private circulation}}
* {{cite book|last=Fraser|first=James Baillie|author-link=James Baillie Fraser|title=Journal of a tour through part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains, and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges|url=https://archive.org/stream/journaloftourthr00fras#page/n3/mode/2up|year=1820|publisher=Rodwell and Martin, London}}
* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Francis|title=An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches |url=https://archive.org/stream/accountoffishesf00hami#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1822|publisher=A. Constable and company, Edinburgh}}
* {{cite book |title=Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River |year=2018 |first=Sudipta |last=Sen |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11916-9}}
* {{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Indra Bir|title=Geological Evolution of the Ganga Plain|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=41|year=1996|pages=99–137}}
* Tandon, S.K., and R. Sinha. The Ganga River: A Summary View of a Large River System of the Indian Sub-Continent, in Sen Singh, Dhruv (Ed.), The Indian Rivers: Scientific and Socio-Economic Aspects. Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018, pp.&nbsp;61–74. ISBN 978-981-10-2983-7
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

* [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_138.gif Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909]
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/photo/gallery/070607/GAL-07Jun07-77064/index.html Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga]
* [http://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/331-the-impacts-of-water-infrastructure-and-climate-change-on-the-hydrology-of-the-upper-ganges-river-basin.html The impacts of water infrastructure and climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River Basin] IWMI research report
* [https://www.npr.org/series/9358334/the-ganges-a-journey-into-india ''The Ganges: A Journey into India''] ([[NPR]])
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iF3PVnfvB8&t=52s ''Ganga Ma: A Pilgrimage to the Source''] 58 min Documentary
* [https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/earthquake-2500-years-ago-abruptly-changed-ganga-river-course/article68488930.ece?cx_testId=78&cx_testVariant=cx_1&cx_artPos=1&cx_experienceId=EXPO56ZDYSGX&cx_experienceActionId=showRecommendationsTOBNV60LJD3H24#cxrecs_s Earthquake 2,500 years ago abruptly changed Ganga river's course]

{{Subject bar|India|d=y|auto=1}}
{{Waters of India}}
{{Waters of South Asia}}
{{Symbols of India}}
{{India Rivers}}
{{Bangladesh topics}}
{{Hinduism footer small}}
{{Hydrography of Uttarakhand}}
{{Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Rivers in Bihar}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ganges| ]]<!--eponymous cat. 1st-->
[[Category:Ganges basin|.]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Bangladesh–India border]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Sacred rivers]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bihar]]
[[Category:Rivers of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Rivers of Delhi]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rivers of West Bengal]]
[[Category:National symbols of India]]
[[Category:Rigvedic rivers]]
[[Category:Rivers in Buddhism]]
[[Category:Environmental personhood]]
[[Category:Braided rivers in India]]