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{{Short description|Member of a criminal gang}}
{{About|members of a gang or criminal organization}}
{{Redirect|Mobsters|the film|Mobsters (film)|the TV series|Mobsters (TV series)}}
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[[File:Apachesvspolicebastille.jpg|thumb|[[Apache (gang)|Apache]] gangsters battle Paris Police on 14 August 1904]]
A '''gangster''' (informally '''gangsta''') is a criminal who is a member of a [[gang]]. Most gangs are considered to be part of [[organized crime]]. Gangsters are also called '''mobsters''', a term derived from ''[[Organized crime|mob]]'' and the [[suffix]] ''[[wikt:-ster|-ster]]''.<ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]] (online edition)</ref> Gangs provide a level of organization and resources that support much larger and more [[organized crime|complex criminal transactions]] than an individual criminal could achieve. Gangsters have been active for many years in countries around the world. Gangsters are the subject of many novels, films, television series, and video games.

==Usage==
In modern usage, the term "[[gang]]" is generally used for a criminal organization and the term "gangster" invariably describes a criminal.{{sfn|Taylor|2009}} Much has been written on the subject of gangs, although there is no clear consensus about what constitutes a gang or what situations lead to gang formation and evolution. There is agreement that the members of a gang have a sense of common identity and belonging, which is typically reinforced through shared activities and visual identifications such as special clothing, tattoos, colors, or rings.{{sfn|Kontos|Brotherton|Barrios|2003|pp=xiff}} Some preconceptions may be false. For example, the common view that illegal drug distribution in the United States is largely controlled by gangs has been questioned.{{sfn|Kontos|Brotherton|Barrios|2003|pp=42}}

A gang may be a relatively small group of people who cooperate in criminal acts, as with the [[Jesse James]] gang, which ended with the leader's death in 1882. However, a gang may also be a larger group with a formal organization that survives the death of its leader. For example, each of the [[Five Families]] founded in the early 20th century, outlasted its founders and have survived into the 21st century. Large and well structured gangs such as the [[Mafia]], [[drug cartel]]s, [[Triad (organized crime)|Triads]], [[Crips]], [[Bloods]], or even [[outlaw motorcycle gang]]s can undertake complex transactions that would be far beyond the capability of one individual, and can provide services such as dispute arbitration and contract enforcement that parallel those of a legitimate government.{{sfn|Abadinsky|2009|p=1}}

The term "[[organized crime]]" is associated with gangs and gangsters, but is not synonymous. A small street gang that engages in sporadic low-level crime would not be seen as "organized". An organization that coordinates gangs in different countries involved in the international trade in drugs or prostitutes may not be considered a "gang".{{sfn|Lyman|Potter|2010|pp=213ff}}

==Regional variants==

===Europe===
[[File:Sicilian mafia 1901 maxi trial.jpg|thumb|right|Sketch of the 1901 maxi trial of suspected mafiosi in Palermo. From the newspaper ''[[L'Ora]]'', May 1901.]]

There are several [[organized crime in Italy|organized crime groups in Italy]]. Notably, the [[Sicilian Mafia]], or ''Cosa Nostra'' is a [[criminal syndicate]] that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century in [[Sicily, Italy]]. It is a loose association of criminal groups that share common organizational structure and [[omerta|code of conduct]]. The origins lie in the upheaval of Sicily's transition out of [[feudalism]] in 1812 and its later [[annexation]] by mainland Italy in 1860. Under feudalism, the nobility owned most of the land and enforced law and order through their private armies. After 1812, the feudal barons steadily sold off or rented their lands to private citizens. [[Primogeniture]] was abolished, land could no longer be seized to settle debts, and one fifth of the land was to become private property of the peasants.{{sfn|Sardell|2009}} Other similarly large and powerful Italian criminal organizations, often composed of smaller gangs or "clans" generally operating under a shared criminal subculture or code, include the [[Camorra]] in [[Naples]] and [[Campania]] and the [[Ndrangheta]] in [[Calabria]].

[[File:Stalin mugshot.jpg|left|300px|thumb|[[Criminal]] file and mugshot of Joseph Stalin in 1910]]

Organized crime has existed in Russia since the days of [[Imperial Russia]] in the form of banditry and thievery. [[Joseph Stalin]], who emerged as the absolute dictator of the Soviet Union had previously founded the Outfit, a criminal gang that were involved with [[bank robbery|armed robberies]], [[racketeering]], [[assassinations]], arms procurement and child [[courier]]ing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sebag Montefiore |first1=Simon |title=Young Stalin |date=2007 |publisher=New York : Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-1-4000-4465-8 |pages=xii, xxix, 10, 151–153 |url=https://archive.org/details/youngstalin00seba/page/n35/mode/2up?q=outfit}}</ref>

In the period of [[Soviet Union]], ''[[Thief in law|Vory v Zakone]]'' emerged, a class of criminals that had to abide by certain rules in the prison system. One such rule was that cooperation with the authorities of any kind was forbidden. During [[World War II]] some prisoners made a deal with the government to join the armed forces in return for a reduced sentence, but upon their return to prison they were [[The Bitch Wars|attacked and killed]] by inmates who remained loyal to the rules of the thieves.{{sfn|Shalamov|1998}} In 1988, the Soviet Union legalized private enterprise but did not provide regulations to ensure the security of market economy. Crude markets emerged, the most notorious being the Rizhsky market where prostitution rings were run next to the Rizhsky Railway Station in Moscow.{{sfn|The Rise and rise...}}

As the [[Soviet Union]] headed for collapse many former government workers turned to crime, while others moved overseas. Former [[KGB]] agents and veterans of the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Afghan]] and [[First Chechen War|First]] and [[Second Chechen War]]s, now unemployed but with experience that could prove useful in crime, joined the increasing crime wave.{{sfn|The Rise and rise...}} At first, the Vory v Zakone played a key role in arbitrating the gang wars that erupted in the 1990s.{{sfn|Schwirtz|2008}} By the mid-1990s it was believed that "Don" [[Semion Mogilevich]] had become the "boss of all bosses" of most [[Russian Mafia]] syndicates in the world,  described by the British government as "one of the most dangerous men in the world".{{sfn|Glenny|2008|p=75}} More recently, criminals with stronger ties to big business and the government have displaced the Vory from some of their traditional niches, although the Vory are still strong in gambling and the retail trade.{{sfn|Schwirtz|2008}}

The [[Albanian Mafia]] is active in [[Albania]], the United States, and the [[European Union]] (EU) countries, participating in a diverse range of criminal enterprises including drug and [[arms trafficking]].{{sfn|Stojarová|2007}}{{sfn|UltraGangsteret Shqiptar}} The people of the mountainous country of Albania have always had strong traditions of family and clan loyalty, in some ways similar to that of southern Italy. Ethnic Albanian gangs have grown rapidly since 1992 during the prolonged period of instability in the Balkans after the collapse of Yugoslavia. This coincided with large scale migration throughout Europe and to the United States and Canada. Although based in Albania, the gangs often handle international transactions such as trafficking in economic migrants, drugs and other contraband, and weapons.{{sfn|Abadinsky|2009|pp=154–155}} Other criminal organizations that emerged in the Balkans around this time are popularly called the [[Serbian Mafia]], [[Bosnian Mafia]], [[Bulgarian Mafia]], and so on.

===Asia===
[[File:Du Yuesheng2.jpg|thumb|[[Du Yuesheng]] (1888–1951), a Chinese gangster and important [[Kuomintang]] supporter who spent much of his life in Shanghai]]

In China, [[Triad (organized crime)|Triad]]s trace their roots to resistance or rebel groups opposed to [[Manchu people|Manchu]] rule during the [[Qing dynasty]], which were given the triangle as their emblem.{{sfn|Ter Haar|2000|pp=18}} The first record of a triad society, ''Heaven and Earth Gathering'', dates to the Lin Shuangwen uprising on Taiwan from 1786 to 1787.{{sfn|Ter Haar|2000|pp=19}} The triads evolved into criminal societies. When the [[Chinese Communist Party]] came to power in 1949 in mainland China, law enforcement became stricter and tough governmental crackdown on criminal organizations forced the triads to migrate to Hong Kong, then a British colony, and other cities around the world. Triads today are highly organized, with departments responsible for functions such as accounting, recruiting, communications, training and welfare in addition to the operational arms. They engage in a variety of crimes including extortion, money laundering, smuggling, trafficking and prostitution.{{sfn|Mallory|2007|p=136ff}}
[[File:Japan-Yakuza-Sanja Matsuri-01.jpg|left|thumb|[[Yakuza]], or Japanese mafia, are not allowed to show their tattoos in public except during the [[Sanja Matsuri]] festival.]]
[[Yakuza]] are members of traditional [[organized crime]] syndicates in Japan. They are notorious for their strict codes of conduct and very organized nature. As of 2009 they had an estimated 80,900 members.{{sfn|Corkill|2011}} Most modern yakuza derive from two classifications which emerged in the mid-[[Edo period]]: [[tekiya]], those who primarily peddled illicit, stolen or shoddy goods; and [[bakuto]], those who were involved in or participated in gambling.{{sfn|Kaplan|Dubro|2003|pp=18-21}}

===United States and Canada===
In the late 1860s, many Chinese people emigrated to the United States, escaping from insecurity and economic hardship at home, at first working on the west coast and later moving east. The new immigrants formed Chinese Benevolent Associations. In some cases these evolved into [[Tong (organization)|Tong]]s, or criminal organizations primarily involved in gambling. Members of [[Triad (organized crime)|Triad]]s who migrated to the United States often joined these tongs. With a new wave of migration in the 1960s, street gangs began to flourish in major cities. The Tongs recruited these gangs to protect their extortion, gambling and narcotics operations.{{sfn|Tongs and Street Gangs}}

As American society and culture developed, new immigrants were relocating to the United States. The first major gangs in 19th century New York City were the Irish gangs such as the [[Whyos]] and the [[Dead Rabbits]].{{sfn| English|2006|p=13}} These were followed by the Italian [[Five Points Gang]] and later a Jewish gang known as the [[Eastman Gang]].{{sfn|Iorizzo|2003|p=14}}{{sfn|Fried|1980|p=27}} There were also "[[Know Nothing|Nativist]]" anti-immigration gangs such as the [[Bowery Boys (gang)|Bowery Boys]]. The [[Italian-American Mafia]] arose from offshoots of [[Sicilian Mafia|the Mafia]] that emerged in the United States during the late 19th century, following waves of emigration from Sicily. There were similar offshoots in Canada among [[Italian Canadians]], such as the [[Rizzuto crime family]].

[[File:AlCaponemugshotCPD.jpg|thumb|right|190px|[[Mug shot]] of [[Al Capone]]. Although never convicted of [[Racket (crime)|racketeering]], Capone was a protégé and successor of Torrio, later convicted of income tax evasion by the [[federal government of the United States|federal government]].]]
The terms "gangster" and "mobster" are mostly used in the United States to refer to members of criminal organizations associated with [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]]. In 1920, the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighteenth Amendment]] of the United States Constitution banned the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol for consumption. Many gangs sold alcohol illegally for profit, and used acute violence to stake turf and protect their interest. Often, police officers and politicians were paid off or extorted to ensure continued operation.{{sfn|Iorizzo|2003|pp=15ff}} [[Al Capone]] was one of these notorious gangsters during the [[Depression era]] for the [[Chicago Outfit]]. Capone would rise to control a major portion of illicit activity such as gambling, prostitution, and [[Rum-running|bootlegging]] in Chicago during the early 20th century.{{sfn|Iorizzo|2003|pp=23ff}}

In New York City, by the end of the 1920s, two factions of organized crime had emerged to fight for control of the criminal underworld, one led by [[Joe Masseria]] and the other by [[Salvatore Maranzano]].<ref name="FBI">{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/organizedcrime/italian_mafia |title=Italian Organized Crime |website=Organized Crime |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101010181124/http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/organizedcrime/italian_mafia |archive-date=October 10, 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=August 7, 2011 }}</ref> This caused the [[Castellammarese War]], which led to Masseria's murder in 1931. Maranzano then divided New York City into [[Five Families|five families]].<ref name="FBI"/> Maranzano, the first leader of the American Mafia, established the code of conduct for the organization, set up the "family" divisions and structure, and established procedures for resolving disputes.<ref name="FBI"/> In an unprecedented move, Maranzano set himself up as [[Capo di tutti capi|boss of all bosses]] and required all families to pay tribute to him. This new role was received negatively, and Maranzano was murdered within six months on the orders of [[Lucky Luciano|Charles "Lucky" Luciano]]. Luciano was a former Masseria underling who had switched sides to Maranzano and orchestrated the killing of Masseria.<ref name=Cohen>{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Rich|title=Tough Jews|year=1999|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|isbn=0-375-70547-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/toughjews00cohe/page/65 65]–66|url=https://archive.org/details/toughjews00cohe|url-access=registration|quote=Genovese maranzano.|edition=1st Vintage Books}}</ref> As an alternative to the previous despotic Mafia practice of naming a single Mafia boss as ''[[capo di tutti capi]]'', or "boss of all bosses," Luciano created [[The Commission (mafia)|The Commission]] in 1931,<ref name="FBI"/> where the bosses of the most powerful families would have equal say and vote on important matters and solve disputes between families. This group ruled over the [[National Crime Syndicate]] and brought in an era of peace and prosperity for the American Mafia.<ref>King of the Godfathers: Big Joey Massino and the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family By Anthony M. DeStefano. Kensington Publishing Corp., 2008</ref>

===Latin America===
[[File:Death of Pablo Escobar.jpg|thumb|300px|Members of Colonel Martinez's Search Bloc celebrate over [[Pablo Escobar]]'s body on December 2, 1993.]]

Most cocaine is grown and processed in South America, particularly in [[Colombia]], [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], and smuggled into the United States and Europe, the United States being the world's largest consumer of cocaine.{{sfn|Field Listing...}}
Colombia is the world's leading producer of [[cocaine]], and also produces heroin that is mostly destined for the US market.{{sfn|Colombia - Transnational...}}
The [[Medellín Cartel]] was an organized network of  drug suppliers and smugglers originating in the city of [[Medellín]], Colombia. The gang operated in Colombia, [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], Central America, the United States, as well as Canada and Europe throughout the 1970s and 1980s. It was founded and run by Ochoa Vázquez brothers with [[Pablo Escobar]]. By 1993, the Colombian government, helped by the US, had successfully dismantled the cartel by imprisoning or hunting and gunning down its members.{{sfn|Gugliotta|Leen|2011|p=1ff}}

Although Mexican drug cartels, or drug trafficking organizations, have existed for several decades, they have become more powerful since the demise of Colombia's [[Cali Cartel|Cali]] and Medellín cartels in the 1990s. Mexican drug cartels now dominate the wholesale [[War on Drugs|illicit drug market]] in the United States.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=7}} Sixty five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, and the vast majority of the rest enters through Florida. Cocaine shipments from South America transported through Mexico or Central America are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the [[US-Mexico border|U.S.–Mexico border]].{{sfn|Jacobson|2005|p=40ff}} Arrests of key gang leaders, particularly in the [[Tijuana Cartel|Tijuana]] and [[Gulf Cartel|Gulf]] cartels, have led to increasing [[Mexican Drug War|drug violence]] as gangs fight for control of the trafficking routes into the United States.{{sfn|High U.S. cocaine cost}}

Cocaine traffickers from Colombia, and recently Mexico, have also established a labyrinth of [[smuggling]] routes throughout the [[Caribbean]], the [[Bahama]] Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the [[Dominican Republic]] to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500–700&nbsp;kg in the [[Bahama Islands]] or off the coast of [[Puerto Rico]], mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000&nbsp;kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami. Another route of cocaine traffic goes through Chile, this route is primarily used for cocaine produced in Bolivia since the nearest seaports lie in northern Chile. The arid Bolivia-Chile border is easily crossed by 4x4 vehicles that then head to the seaports of [[Iquique]] and [[Antofagasta]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

==In popular culture==
{{Further|Gangster film}}

Gangs have long been the subject of movies. In fact, the first feature-length movie ever produced was ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' (1906), an Australian production that traced the life of the outlaw [[Ned Kelly]] (1855–1880).{{sfn|Beeton|2005|p=62}} The United States has profoundly influenced the genre, but other cultures have contributed distinctive and often excellent gangster movies.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}

===United States===
[[File:Edward g robinson.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The actor [[Edward G. Robinson]] starred in several American gangster movies.]]
The stereotypical image and myth of the American gangster is closely associated with [[organized crime]] during the [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] era of the 1920s and 1930s.{{sfn|McCarty|2004|p=5}}

The classic [[gangster movie]] ranks with the Western as one of the most successful creations of the American movie industry. The "classic" form of gangster movie, rarely produced in recent years, tells of a gangster working his way up through his enterprise and daring, until his organization collapses while he is at the peak of his powers. Although the ending is presented as a moral outcome, it is usually seen as no more than an accidental failure. The gangster is typically articulate, although at times lonely and depressed, and his worldly wisdom and defiance of social norms has a strong appeal, particularly to adolescents.{{sfn|Talbot|1975|p=148-149}}

The years 1931 and 1932 saw the genre produce three classics: [[Warner Bros.]]' ''[[Little Caesar (film)|Little Caesar]]'' and ''[[The Public Enemy]]'', which made screen icons out of [[Edward G. Robinson]] and [[James Cagney]], and [[Howard Hughes]]' ''[[Scarface (1932 film)|Scarface]]'' starring [[Paul Muni]], which offered a dark psychological analysis of a fictionalized [[Al Capone]].{{sfn|Hark|2007|p=12}} These films chronicle the quick rise, and equally quick downfall, of three young, violent criminals, and represent the genre in its purest form before moral pressure would force it to change and evolve. Though the gangster in each film would face a violent downfall which was designed to remind the viewers of the consequences of crime, audiences were often able to identify with the charismatic anti-hero. Those suffering from the Depression were able to relate to the gangster character who worked hard to earn his place and success in the world, only to have it all taken away from him.{{sfn|Hark|2007|p=13}}

===Latin America===
Latin American gangster movies are known for their gritty realism. ''[[Soy un delincuente]]'' (English: I Am a Criminal) is a 1976 Venezuelan film by director Clemente de la Cerda. The film tells the story of Ramón Antonio Brizuela, a real-life individual, who since childhood has to deal with rampant violence and the drugs, sex and petty thievery of a Caracas slum. Starting with delinquency, Ramón moves on to serious gang activity and robberies. He grows into a tough, self-confident young man who is hardened to violence. His views change when his fiancée's brother is killed in a robbery. The film was a blockbuster hit in Venezuela.{{sfn|Soy un Delincuente}}

''[[City of God (2002 film)|City of God]]'' ({{langx|pt|Cidade de Deus}}) is a 2002 [[Brazilian cinema|Brazilian]] [[Crime film|crime]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] directed by [[Fernando Meirelles]] and co-directed by [[Kátia Lund]], released in its home country in 2002 and worldwide in 2003. All the characters existed in reality, and the story is based on real events. It depicts the growth of organized crime in the [[Cidade de Deus (Rio de Janeiro)|Cidade de Deus]] suburb of [[Rio de Janeiro]], between the end of the '60s and the beginning of the '80s, with the closure of the film depicting the war between the drug dealer [[Zé Pequeno|Li'l Zé]] and criminal [[Knockout Ned (Mané Galinha)|Knockout Ned]].{{sfn|Ebert|2003}} The film received four [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] nominations in 2004.{{sfn|City of God}}

===East Asia===
The first [[yakuza]] (gangster) film made in Japan was ''[[Bakuto]]'' (Gambler, 1964). The genre soon became popular, and by the 1970s the Japanese film industry was turning out a hundred mostly low-budget yakuza films each year. The films are descendants of the samurai epics, and are closer to Westerns than to Hollywood gangster movies. The hero is typically torn between compassion for the oppressed and his sense of duty to the gang. The plots are generally highly stylized, starting with the protagonist being released from prison and ending in a gory sword fight in which he dies an honorable death.{{sfn|Kaplan|Dubro|2003|pp=141-142}}

Although some Hong Kong gangster movies are simply vehicles for violent action, the mainstream movies in the genre deal with Triad societies portrayed as quasi-benign organizations.{{sfn|Nochimson|2007|p=70}} The movie gangster applies the Taoist principles of balance and honor to his conduct. The plots are often similar to those of Hollywood gangster movies, often ending with the fall of the subject of the movie at the hands of another gangster, but such a fall is far less important than a fall from honor.{{sfn|Nochimson|2007|p=70}} The first movie made by the acclaimed director [[Wong Kar-wai]] was a gangster movie, ''[[As Tears Go By (film)|As Tears Go By]]''. In it the protagonist finds himself torn between his desire for a woman and his loyalty to a fellow gangster.{{sfn|Nochimson|2011|p=306}} ''[[Infernal Affairs]]'' (2002) is a thriller about a police officer who infiltrates a triad and a triad member who infiltrates the police department. The film was remade by [[Martin Scorsese]] as ''[[The Departed]]''.{{sfn|Reiber|2011|p=31}}

Gangster films make up one of the most profitable segments of the South Korean film industry. Films made in the 1960s were often influenced by Japanese [[yakuza]] films, dealing with internal conflict between members of a gang or external conflict with other gangs. The gangsters' code of conduct and loyalty are important elements. Starting in the 1970s, strict censorship caused decline in the number and quality of gangster movies, and none were made in the 1980s.{{sfn|Choi|2010|p=60}} In the late 1980s and early 1990s there was a surge of imports of action movies from Hong Kong. The first of the new wave of important home grown gangster movies was [[Im Kwon-taek]]'s ''[[General's Son]]'' (1990). Although this movie followed the earlier tradition, it was followed by a series of sophisticated gangster noirs set in contemporary urban locations, such as ''[[A Bittersweet Life]]'' (2005).{{sfn|Choi|2010|p=61}}

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Gang]]
* [[Dacoity]]
* [[Organized crime]]
* [[Banditry]]
* [[Racketeering]]
* [[List of crime bosses]]
* [[List of mobsters by city]]
{{colend}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist |colwidth=30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/organizedcrime00howa|url-access=registration|title=Organized Crime|first=Howard|last=Abadinsky|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2009|isbn=978-0-495-59966-1}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gangstersswindle00lawr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/gangstersswindle00lawr/page/85 85]|title=Gangsters, Swindlers, Killers, and Thieves: The Lives and Crimes of Fifty American Villains|first=Lawrence|last=Block|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516952-2}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6A9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52|title=Crime in Britain Today|first1=Clive|last1=Borrell|first2=Brian|last2=Cashinella|publisher=Routledge|year=1975|isbn=0-7100-8232-0}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|Colombia - Transnational...}}|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/colombia/|title=Colombia - Transnational Issues|work=CIA World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=2011-11-24}}
* {{Cite book|chapter=Mexico's Drug Cartels|title=CRS Report for Congress|first=Colleen W.|last=Cook|publisher=Congressional Research Service|year=2007|chapter-url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf|access-date=2009-08-09|archive-date=2009-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511073044/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20111106x1.html|last=Corkill|first=Edan|title=Ex-Tokyo cop speaks out on a life fighting gangs — and what you can do|journal=[[Japan Times]]|date=6 November 2011|access-date=2011-11-26|archive-date=2011-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123220653/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20111106x1.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|Field Listing...}}|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2086.html|title=Field Listing – Illicit drugs (by country)|publisher=CIA|access-date=2011-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229044611/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2086.html|archive-date=2010-12-29|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fN7noidk2KsC|first=Misha|last=Glenny|author-link=Misha Glenny|year=2008|title=McMafia: A Journey Through the Global Criminal Underworld|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-1-4000-9512-4|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617131340/https://books.google.com/books?id=fN7noidk2KsC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3dGino_7DoC|title=Kings of Cocaine: Inside the Medellín Cartel - An Astonishing True Story of Murder, Money and International Corruption|first1=Guy|last1=Gugliotta|first2=Jeff|last2=Leen|publisher=Garrett County Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-891053-34-4|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425040621/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3dGino_7DoC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|chapter-url=http://gangresearch.net/Archives/hagedorn/gangcomref.html|chapter=Gangs (references)|first=John|last=Hagedorn|title=Encyclopedia of Community|year=2003|pages=517–522|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc|isbn=978-0-7619-2598-9|access-date=2008-12-15|archive-date=2007-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314104726/http://gangresearch.net/Archives/hagedorn/gangcomref.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite news|ref={{harvid|High U.S. cocaine cost}}|title=High U.S. cocaine cost shows drug war working: Mexico|date=September 14, 2007|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN1422771920070914|access-date=2009-04-01|archive-date=2008-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204232646/https://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN1422771920070914|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=Robert|title=Illegal Drugs: America's Anguish|publisher=Thomson Gale|year=2005|isbn=1-4144-0419-0|url=https://archive.org/details/illegaldrugsamer00jaco}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj1FDe5IevYC|title=Godfather of the Kremlin: The Decline of Russia in the Age of Gangster Capitalism|first=Paul|last=Klebnikov|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2001|isbn=0-15-601330-4|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604010738/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj1FDe5IevYC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VO1sYpR5OcAC&pg=PA31|title=Gangs and society: Alternative Perspectives|first1=Louis|last1=Kontos|first2=David|last2=Brotherton|first3=Luis|last3=Barrios|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-231-12141-5|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522081200/https://books.google.com/books?id=VO1sYpR5OcAC&pg=PA31|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pm71ElFPDuMC|title=Drugs in Society: Causes, Concepts and Control|first1=Michael D.|last1=Lyman|first2=Gary W.|last2=Potter|publisher=Elsevier|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4377-4450-7|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502213607/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pm71ElFPDuMC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fbcPBAOJcXYC&pg=PA136|title=Understanding Organized Crime|first=Stephen L.|last=Mallory|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7637-4108-2|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513051249/https://books.google.com/books?id=fbcPBAOJcXYC&pg=PA136|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWu8_LXO6A8C|title=Lucky Luciano: The Real and the Fake Gangster|first=Tim|last=Newark|publisher=Macmillan|year=2010|isbn=978-0-312-60182-9|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603113659/https://books.google.com/books?id=gWu8_LXO6A8C&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|first=Jason|last=Sardell|url=http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-031609-103313/unrestricted/JSardellMafia.pdf|title=Economic Origins of the Mafia and Patronage System in Sicily|year=2009|access-date=2011-11-24|archive-date=2011-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720120749/http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-031609-103313/unrestricted/JSardellMafia.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal|url=http://iht.com/articles/2008/07/29/europe/moscow.php?page=2|title=Vory v Zakone has hallowed place in Russian criminal lore|first=Michael|last=Schwirtz|date=July 29, 2008|journal=The New York Times|access-date=2011-11-26|archive-date=2020-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910104410/https://www.nytimes.com/?page=2|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.tyurem.net/books/shalamov/ocherki/005.htm|language=ru|first=Varlam|last=Shalamov|author-link=Varlam Shalamov|title=Essays on Criminal World|chapter=Bitch War|year=1998|publisher=Vagrius and [[Khudozhestvennaya Literatura]]|isbn=5-280-03163-1|access-date=2011-11-26|archive-date=2011-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718202232/http://www.tyurem.net/books/shalamov/ocherki/005.htm|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|url=http://www.humsec.eu/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/humsec/Journal/Stojarova_Organized_Crime_in_the_Western_Balkans.pdf|title=Organized Crime in the Western Balkans|first=Věra|last=Stojarová|journal=HUMSEC Journal|issue=1|pages=91–119|access-date=2011-11-24|year=2007|archive-date=2012-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319224518/http://www.humsec.eu/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/humsec/Journal/Stojarova_Organized_Crime_in_the_Western_Balkans.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/display/id/obo-9780195396607-0028|last=Taylor|first=Terrance, J.|title=Gangs, Peers, and Co-Offending|work=Oxford Bibliographies Online|date=2009-12-14|access-date=2011-11-26|archive-date=2020-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910104413/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396607/obo-9780195396607-0028.xml|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMRG5gX8kh0C|title=The Ritual and Mythology of the Chinese Triads: Creating an Identity|first=B. J.|last=Ter Haar|publisher=BRILL|year=2000|isbn=90-04-11944-2|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603152707/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMRG5gX8kh0C&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|UltraGangsteret Shqiptar}}|url=http://lindja.hpage.com/|language=sq|title=UltraGangsteret Shqiptar|work=Lindja|access-date=2011-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615104112/http://lindja.hpage.com/|archive-date=2012-06-15|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|The Rise and rise...}}|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/03/98/russian_mafia/70095.stm|work=BBC News|title=The rise and rise of the Russian mafia|date=21 November 1998|access-date=2011-11-26|archive-date=2009-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215122844/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/03/98/russian_mafia/70095.stm|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZgm8E3cWR8C|title=Tokyo Underworld: The Fast Times and Hard Life of an American Gangster in Japan|first=Robert|last=Whiting|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|year=2000|isbn=0-375-72489-3|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430113815/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZgm8E3cWR8C&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWQmx84lZeIC|title=Organised Crime|first=Alan|last=Wright|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|year=2006|isbn=1-84392-140-5|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527023548/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWQmx84lZeIC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RHHke8USeDUC|title=Gangster Tour of Texas|first=T. Lindsay|last=Baker|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-60344-258-9|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509011448/https://books.google.com/books?id=RHHke8USeDUC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oj1P520aEcoC|title=Tough Jews: Fathers, Sons, and Gangster Dreams|first=Rich|last=Cohen|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|year=1999|isbn=0-375-70547-3|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512144426/https://books.google.com/books?id=Oj1P520aEcoC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7n82nYdgpzEC|title=Paddy Whacked: The Untold Story of the Irish American Gangster|first=T. J.|last=English|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2006|isbn=0-06-059003-3|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518101252/https://books.google.com/books?id=7n82nYdgpzEC|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4YhM2qGfewC|title=The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Gangster in America|first=Albert|last=Fried|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1980|isbn=0-231-09683-6|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517163438/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4YhM2qGfewC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eC6EnjnNG9UC|title=From Wiseguys to Wise Men: the Gangster and Italian American Masculinities|first=Fred L.|last=Gardaphé|publisher=CRC Press|year=2006|isbn=0-415-94648-4|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515102451/https://books.google.com/books?id=eC6EnjnNG9UC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8yfHUPgna3gC|title=Bonnie and Clyde: A Biography|first=Nate|last=Hendley|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2007|isbn=978-0-313-33871-7|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508130319/https://books.google.com/books?id=8yfHUPgna3gC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/alcapone00luci|url-access=registration|title=Al Capone: A Biography|first=Luciano J.|last=Iorizzo|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=0-313-32317-8}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|Mob Life...}}|url=http://www.life.com/gallery/37642/mob-life-gangster-kings-of-crime#index/0|title=Mob Life: Gangster Kings of Crime — slideshow|publisher=[[Life magazine]]|access-date=2011-11-24|archive-date=2011-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119073004/http://www.life.com/gallery/37642/mob-life-gangster-kings-of-crime#index/0|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnQduXa4JdoC&pg=PA267|title=The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide|first=Athan G.|last=Theoharis|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1999|isbn=0-89774-991-X|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501103948/https://books.google.com/books?id=VnQduXa4JdoC&pg=PA267|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|first=Frederic Milton, 1892-1962.|last=Thrasher|title=Chicago's Gangland 1923-1926.|url=https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/collections/maps/chisoc/G4104-C6E625-1926-T5.html|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1936|access-date=2011-11-24|archive-date=2012-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105171135/http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/collections/maps/chisoc/G4104-C6E625-1926-T5.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|Tongs and Street Gangs}}|url=http://www.mafianj.com/asian/tongs.shtml|title=Tongs and Street Gangs|work=MafiaNJ|access-date=2011-11-24|archive-date=2011-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714020119/http://www.mafianj.com/asian/tongs.shtml|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Toplin|first=Robert B.|title=History by Hollywood: The Use and Abuse of the American Past|location=Urbana, IL|publisher=University of Illinois|year=1996|isbn=0-252-06536-0|url=https://archive.org/details/historybyhollywo00topl}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc-Ms8-YMUAC|title=The Ultimate Book of Gangster Movies: Featuring the 100 Greatest Gangster Films of All Time|first1=George|last1=Anastasia|first2=Glen|last2=Macnow|first3=Joe|last3=Pistone|publisher=Running Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7624-4154-9}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/filminducedtouri0000beet|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/filminducedtouri0000beet/page/62 62]|title=Film-induced tourism|first=Sue|last=Beeton|publisher=Channel View Publications|year=2005|isbn=1-84541-014-9}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc-Ms8-YMUAC|title=Gangster Priest: the Italian American Cinema of Martin Scorsese|first=Robert|last=Casillo|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2006|isbn=0-8020-9403-1|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610204135/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc-Ms8-YMUAC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aN2swhJnTRoC|title=The South Korean Film Renaissance: Local Hitmakers, Global Provocateurs|first=Jinhee|last=Choi|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8195-6940-0|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503200712/https://books.google.com/books?id=aN2swhJnTRoC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|City of God}}|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=cityofgod.htm|title=City of God|work=Box Office Mojo|access-date=2011-11-25|archive-date=2017-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018152832/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=cityofgod.htm|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|url=http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030124/REVIEWS/301240301/1023|title=City of God|publisher=Chicago Sun Times|first=Roger|last=Ebert|date=January 24, 2003|access-date=2011-11-25|archive-date=2012-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008033157/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20030124%2FREVIEWS%2F301240301%2F1023|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cp_1IjXwrEcC|title=American Cinema of the 1930s: Themes and Variations|first=Ina Rae|last=Hark|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8135-4082-5|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603181630/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cp_1IjXwrEcC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MojifSr_GwsC&pg=PA77|chapter=Gangster Formula|title=In Search of the Paper Tiger: A Sociological Perspective of Myth, Formula, and the Mystery Genre in the Entertainment Print Mass Medium|first=Gary|last=Hoppenstand|publisher=Popular Press|year=1987|isbn=0-87972-356-4|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603180634/https://books.google.com/books?id=MojifSr_GwsC&pg=PA77|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1vi31vifg0C&pg=PA142|title=Yakuza: Japan's Criminal Underworld|first1=David E.|last1=Kaplan|first2=Alec|last2=Dubro|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003|isbn=0-520-21562-1|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425115724/https://books.google.com/books?id=W1vi31vifg0C&pg=PA142|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AvbWtMc9IoC|title=Dangerous Men, Dangerous Media: Constructing Ethnicity, Race, and Media's Impact Through the Gangster Image, 1959-2007|first=Laura Cook|last=Kenna|publisher=The George Washington University|year=2007|isbn=978-0-549-32685-4}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFBraBMN6_AC|title=Bullets Over Hollywood: The American Gangster Picture From The Silents To "The Sopranos"|first=John|last=McCarty|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=2004|isbn=0-306-81301-7|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423221925/https://books.google.com/books?id=AFBraBMN6_AC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdO9bAFmTiYC|title=Public Enemies, Public Heroes: Screening the Gangster from Little Caesar to Touch of Evil|first=Jonathan|last=Munby|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1999|isbn=0-226-55033-8|access-date=2015-11-20 |archive-date=2016-05-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529075916/https://books.google.com/books?id=mdO9bAFmTiYC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJLz4A9j5tYC|title=Dying to Belong: Gangster Movies in Hollywood and Hong Kong|first=Martha|last=Nochimson|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4051-6371-2|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527214049/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJLz4A9j5tYC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c3Kn7dsGGA0C&pg=PT306|title=World on Film: An Introduction|first=Martha P.|last=Nochimson|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4443-5833-9|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623222608/https://books.google.com/books?id=c3Kn7dsGGA0C&pg=PT306|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5wl61GSwu8C&pg=PT31|title=Frommer's Hong Kong|first=Beth|last=Reiber|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|isbn=978-0-470-87633-6|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430080004/https://books.google.com/books?id=o5wl61GSwu8C&pg=PT31|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRBkS21Kl94C|title=Jewish Gangsters of Modern Literature|first=Rachel|last=Rubin|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2000|isbn=0-252-02539-3|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617134128/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRBkS21Kl94C&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3_Ok5hsPUgC|title=Inventing the Public Enemy: The Gangster in American Culture, 1918-1934|first=David E.|last=Ruth|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1996|isbn=0-226-73218-5|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519123411/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3_Ok5hsPUgC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrjEVDjO6g8C|title=Dreams and Dead Ends: The American Gangster/Crime Film|first=Jack|last=Shadoian|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-514292-6|access-date=2015-11-20|archive-date=2016-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501004006/https://books.google.com/books?id=PrjEVDjO6g8C&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|Soy un Delincuente}}|url=http://www.allmovie.com/work/soy-un-delincuente-146411|title=Soy un Delincuente|publisher=[[Allmovie]]|access-date=2011-11-25|archive-date=2020-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910104412/https://www.allmovie.com/movie/soy-un-delincuente-v146411|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_3zcjaXOc6YgC|title=Film: an anthology|first=Daniel|last=Talbot|publisher=University of California Press|year=1975}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Wiktionary-inline|mob}}

{{Gangs}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gangsters| ]]
[[Category:Organized crime members by role]]