View source for Gemara

{{Short description|Component of the Talmud}}
{{distinguish|Gamera|Gomorrah (disambiguation){{!}}Gomorrah}}
{{None}}
{{Rabbinical Literature}}
[[File:Gemara-rosh-hashana-2a.jpg|thumb|The first text page of [[Rosh Hashanah (tractate)|tractate Rosh Hashanah]]. The center column contains the Talmud text, beginning with a section of [[Mishnah]]. The Gemara begins 8 lines down with the abbreviation ''''גמ''' (gimmel-mem). Mishnah and Gemara sections alternate throughout the Talmud text. The large blocks of text on either side are the [[Tosafot]]  and [[Rashi]] commentaries.  Other notes and cross references are in the margins.]]

The '''Gemara''' (also [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''Gemarah''', or in [[Yiddish]] '''Gemore''') is an essential component of the [[Talmud]], comprising a collection of rabbinical analyses and commentaries on the [[Mishnah]] and presented in 63 books. The term is derived from the Aramaic word {{Script/Hebrew|גמרא}} and rooted in the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word [[wiktionary:גמר|ג-מ-ר]] (gamar), which means "to finish" or "complete". Initially, the Gemara was transmitted orally and not permitted to be written down. However, after [[Judah the Prince]] compiled the Mishnah around 200 CE, rabbis from [[Jews in Babylonia|Babylonia]] and the [[Land of Israel]] extensively studied the work.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=The History of the Talmud - What is the Talmud? What is Gemora? What is the Oral Tradition? Why Learn Torah?|url=http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/talmud-history|access-date=2021-03-08|website=www.simpletoremember.com}}</ref> Their discussions were eventually documented in a series of books, which would come to be known as the Gemara. The Gemara, when combined with the Mishnah, forms the full Talmud.

There are two versions of the Gemara: the [[Talmud#Talmud Bavli|Babylonian Talmud]] (Talmud Bavli) and the [[Jerusalem Talmud]] (Talmud Yerushalmi). The Babylonian Talmud, compiled by scholars in Babylonia around 500 CE and primarily from the academies of [[Sura (city)|Sura]], [[Pumbedita]], and [[Nehardea]], is the more commonly cited version when referring to the "Gemara" or "Talmud" without further qualification. The main compilers of the Babylonian Talmud were [[Ravina II|Ravina]] and [[Rav Ashi]].

The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was compiled by Jewish scholars in the Land of Israel, primarily from the academies of [[Tiberias]] and [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], around 350–400 CE.

The Talmud is organized into six ''sedarim'', or "orders," which include Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim, and Taharot.<ref name=":0" />

In 1923, Polish Rabbi [[Meir Shapiro]] introduced a contemporary practice called "[[Daf Yomi]]," or "daily page," wherein participants study one page of the Talmud daily in cycles lasting seven and a half years each. This initiative ensures that both scholars and laypeople across the globe engage in the comprehensive study of the entire Talmud.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=thecjnadmin|date=August 15, 2012|title=A daf a day|url=https://www.cjnews.com/perspectives/opinions/daf-day|access-date=2021-03-08|website=The Canadian Jewish News}}</ref>

==Gemara and Mishnah==
[[File:MEMBERS OF "KVUTZAT RODGES" STUDYING THE "GEMARA". מתיישבים לומדים גמרא בקבוצת רודגס.D29-022.jpg|thumb|Members of [[Kvutzat Yavne|Kvutzat Rodges]] studying the Gemara (June 1, 1935)]]
The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the [[Talmud]]. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (see [[Talmud#Structure|Structure of the Talmud]]).
[[Maimonides]] describes the Gemara component as:
{{cquote|understanding and conceptualizing the ultimate derivation of a concept from its roots, inferring one concept from another and comparing concepts, understanding [the Law] based on the principles of [[Halakha#Rules by which early Jewish law was derived|Torah exegesis]], until one appreciates the essence of those principles and how the prohibitions and the other decisions which one received according to the oral tradition (i.e. Mishnah) can be derived using them....<ref>''[[Mishne Torah]]'', ''Sefer Madda'', [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/1301.htm Laws of Torah Study], [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/910973/jewish/Chapter-One.htm 1:11]</ref>}}

The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as ''[[Tannaim]]'' (sing. ''Tanna'' {{Script/Hebrew|תנא}}). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as ''[[Amoraim]]'' (sing. ''Amora'' אמורא). The analysis of the Amoraim, recorded as ''gemara'', is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim.

Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: the [[Jerusalem Talmud]] (Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|תלמוד ירושלמי}}, "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] (Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|תלמוד בבלי}}, "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Gemara is mostly written in [[Aramaic]], the Jerusalem Gemara in [[Western Aramaic languages|Western Aramaic]] and the Babylonian in [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]], but both contain portions in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story.

==Origins of the word==

In a narrow sense, the word {{Transliteration|he|gemara}} refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed to {{Transliteration|he|sevara}}, which means the deriving of new results by logic.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://benyehuda.org/dict/24412/40175 |title=גְּמָרָה}}</ref> Both activities are represented in the {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} as one literary work.

The Aramaic noun ''gemar'' (and ''gemara'') was formed from the verb that means "learn." This substantive noun thus designates what was learned, and the learning transmitted to scholars by tradition, though it connotes in a more limited sense to exposition of the Mishnah. The word therefore gained currency as a designation of the Talmud.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Bacher |first=Wilhelm |date=1906 |title=Talmud |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |quote=For further details see Bacher, "Gemara," in "Hebrew Union College Annual," pp. 26-36, Cincinnati, 1904, where the word is shown to have been used for "Talmud" from the geonic period (see also idem, "Die Terminologie der Amoräer," pp. 31 et seq., Leipsic, 1905).}}{{source-attribution |inline=y}}</ref> In the modern editions, the term ''gemara'' occurs frequently in this sense—but in nearly every case it was substituted at a later time for the objectionable word ''talmud'', which was [[Talmud#Middle Ages|prohibited by the Christian censors]]. The only passage in which ''gemara'' occurs with the meaning of "Talmud" in the strict sense, and not censored, is [[Eruvin (Talmud)|''Eruvin'']] 32b, where it is used by [[Rav Nachman|Rav Nahman]], a Babylonian amora (3rd C.).<ref name=":2" /> Later editions of the Talmud frequently substitute for the word "Gemara" the Aramaic abbreviation for "the six orders of the Mishnah," pronounced as "Shas," which has become a popular designation for the Babylonian Talmud.<ref name=":2" />

==The ''Sugya''==
[[File:משנה סדורה - סיכום הגמרא - חברותא.jpg|thumb|''Gemara'' students in ''[[chavrusa]]'' recording their summary of each ''sugya'' alongside its ''Mishnah'' (using the [[Mishnah#Commentaries|''Mishnah Sdura'']] edition)]]{{Main|Sugya}}
The building block of gemara is known as a sugya, "a self-contained basic unit of Talmudic discussion" (p.&nbsp;203) that often centers on a statement from the mishnah, the amoraic rabbis (memra), or simply independent of these. They vary in size and complexity and, though self-contained, may mention or assume knowledge of other sugiyot.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strack |first=Hermann L. |title=Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash |last2=Stemberger |first2=Günter |last3=Bockmuehl |first3=Markus N. A. |date=1996 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-0-8006-2524-5 |edition=2nd |location=Minneapolis (Minn.)}}</ref>

The analysis of the ''Amoraim'' is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the ''Tannaim''. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}}; the name for such a passage of Gemara is a {{Transliteration|he|sugya}} ({{Script/Hebrew|סוגיא}}; plural {{Transliteration|he|sugyot}}). A {{Transliteration|he|sugya}} will typically comprise a detailed [[logical argument|proof-based]] elaboration of the {{Transliteration|he|Mishna}}. Every aspect of the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnaic}} text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the {{Transliteration|he|Mishna's}} full meaning.

In the Talmud, a {{Transliteration|he|sugya}} is presented as a series of responsive [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] and questions – with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} thus takes the form of a [[Dialectic|dialectical exchange]] (by contrast, the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah}} states [[posek|concluded legal opinions]] – and often differences in opinion between the ''Tannaim''. There is little dialogue). The disputants here are termed the {{Transliteration|he|makshan}} (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") and {{Transliteration|he|tartzan}} (answerer, "one who puts straight").

The {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} records the [[semantics|semantic disagreements]] between ''Tannaim'' and ''Amoraim''. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the ''Amoraim'', though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...") Only rarely are debates formally closed.

==Argumentation and debate==
[[File:Frankfort, Theologisch debat.jpg|thumb|"Theologisch debat" ([[Eduard Frankfort]], c. 1900), depicting a {{Transliteration|he|[[chavrusa]]}} debating a {{Transliteration|he|sugya}}]]
The distinctive character of the {{Transliteration|he|gemara}} derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above; 
these "back and forth" analytics are characterized by the Talmudic phrase ''shakla v'tarya'' (שקלא וטריא; lit. "taking and throwing"). 
In each {{Transliteration|he|sugya}}, either participant may cite scriptural, {{Transliteration|he|Mishnaic}} and {{Transliteration|he|Amoraic}} proof to build a [[Logical argument|logical support]] for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ohr.edu/judaism/articles/talmud.htm|title=Talmudic Method}}</ref> This analysis has been described as "mathematical" in approach; [[Adin Steinsaltz]] makes the analogy of the ''Amoraim'' as [[scientist]]s investigating the [[Halakha]], where the [[Tanakh]], [[Mishnah]], [[Tosefta]] and [[Halakhic Midrash|midrash]] are the [[phenomena]] studied.

===Prooftexts===
Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and [[theory|theories]] will include:
* verses from the Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant;
* other {{Transliteration|he|mishnayot}}: cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the {{Transliteration|he|Tanna}} in question;
* ''[[Beraita|Beraitot]]'' (ברייתות) – uncodified {{Transliteration|he|mishnayot}} which are also sources of halakha (lit. outside material; sing. {{Transliteration|he|beraita}} ברייתא);
** references to opinions and cases in the {{Transliteration|he|[[Tosefta]]}} (תוספתא);
** references to the {{Transliteration|he|[[Halakhic Midrash]]}} ({{Transliteration|he|[[Midrash#Tannaitic|Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre]]}});
* cross-references to other {{Transliteration|he|sugyot}}: again to analogous cases or logic.

===Questions addressed===
The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:

====Language====
Why does the {{Transliteration|he|Mishna}} use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} seeks to clarify the {{Transliteration|he|Mishna's}} intention.

====Logic====
Exploring the logical principles underlying the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah's}} statements, and showing how different understandings of the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah's}} reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency.
See: [[List of Talmudic principles]] and [[:Category:Talmud concepts and terminology]]

====Legal====
Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah}}, or between the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah}} and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.

====Biblical exposition====
Demonstrating how the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah's}} rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, the {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}} will often ask where in the [[Torah]] the {{Transliteration|he|Mishnah}} derives a particular law. See [[Talmudic hermeneutics]] and {{slink|Oral Torah #The interplay of the Oral and Written Law}}.

==See also==
* {{Transliteration|he|[[Daf Yomi]]}}
* [[Hadran (Talmud)]]
* [[List of masechtot, chapters, mishnahs and pages in the Talmud]]
* [[Oral Torah]]
* {{Transliteration|he|[[Siyum HaShas]]}}
* {{Transliteration|he|[[Geonim#Yarchei Kallah|Yarchei Kallah]]}}
* {{slink|Yeshiva #Talmud study}}
* Rabbinic works elaborating the analytical methods employed in {{Transliteration|he|Gemara}}:
** {{Transliteration|he|[[Shev Shema'tata]]}} - R. [[Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller]]
** {{Transliteration|he|Derech Tevunot}} and {{Transliteration|he|Sefer HaHigayon}} - R. [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]]
** [http://daf-yomi.com/Data/UploadedFiles/Forums/20897.pdf ''Mevo haTalmud''] - [[Samuel ibn Naghrillah|Shmuel HaNagid]]

==Further reading==
* "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T#117 Gemara]", ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
* "[https://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/Gemara.html Gemara]", Prof. Eliezer Segal
* "[[Maimonides]] introduction to the [[Mishneh Torah]]" [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/e0000.htm English translation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034621/https://mechon-mamre.org/e/e0000.htm |date=2023-03-26}}
* "[http://www.judaismo-iberico.org/darke_noam/00.htm Mevo ha-Talmud]", [[Samuel ibn Naghrela|Samuel ha-Nagid]]
* "[http://ohr.edu/judaism/articles/talmud.htm Talmudic Method]", [[Harry Austryn Wolfson]]
* ''The Essential Talmud: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition'', [[Adin Steinsaltz]] (Basic Books, 2006). {{ISBN|0-465-08273-4}} Read more [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/book_details.asp?id=22 here] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060829004122/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/book_details.asp?id%3D22 |date=2006-08-29}}. See also [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/essay_details.asp?id=6&sub=1 here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525191901/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/essay_details.asp?id=6&sub=1 |date=2006-05-25}}.
* ''The Talmud: A Reference Guide'', Adin Steinsaltz (Random House, 1996). {{ISBN|0-679-77367-3}} Read more [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/book_details.asp?id=4&sub=1 here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408032645/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/book_details.asp?id=4&sub=1 |date=2009-04-08}}.
* ''Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash'', H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger (Fortress Press, 1992). {{ISBN|0-567-09509-6}}
* ''The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man'', Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo (Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim, 1989). {{ISBN|978-0-944070-15-4}}

==References==
{{Jewish Encyclopedia|wstitle=Talmud}}{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.dafyomi.co.il/index.htm Point by point summary and discussion of the Gemara]
* [http://www.gemaramarkings.com/ Gemara Marking System: Keys to Structure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202220725/http://gemaramarkings.com/ |date=2021-12-02}}
* [https://thedafmap.com/ The Daf Map System: Innovative method that uses geometric shapes to structure the Gemara]
* [http://www.dafaweek.com/ Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week]
* [http://www.e-daf.com/ The Complete Babylonian Talmud] (Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060826034101/http://books.chabadlibrary.org/sifrey_yesod/bavli/index.php The Complete Babylonian Talmud] (Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available from [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/l/l0.htm other sites] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20131011213928/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/l/l0.htm |date=2013-10-11}})
* [https://torahtools.sourceforge.net/gemarahcharts/ A printable chart with listings of all Dappim from each Mesechta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507014047/http://torahtools.sourceforge.net/gemarahcharts/ |date=2022-05-07}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090201172004/http://kollelbokerbeachwood.com/ Gemara Brochos:"Shema, Tefillah and Brochos"]
* [http://www.dailygemara.com/ Daily Gemara by Rabbi Eli Mansour]
* {{cite NIE|wstitle=Gemara|year=1906 |short=x}}
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[[Category:Talmud| Gemara]]
[[Category:Aramaic words and phrases]]
[[Category:Oral Torah]]
[[Category:Aramaic words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings]]
[[Category:Sifrei Kodesh]]