View source for General Motors EV1

{{Use American English|date=March 2024}}
{{Redirect|EV1}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{short description|Subcompact electric car}}
{{Infobox electric vehicle
| image          = EV1A014 (1) cropped.jpg
| name           = General Motors EV1
| alt            = Three-quarters view picture of a silver electric vehicle, taken in what seems to be a desert.
| manufacturer   = [[General Motors]]
| production     = 1996–1999
| model_years    = {{unbulleted list
  | 1997 (Gen I): 660 units
  | 1999 (Gen II): 457 units
  }}
| assembly       = United States: [[Lansing, Michigan]] ([[Lansing Craft Center]])
| class          = [[Subcompact car]]
| body_style     = 2-door [[coupé]]
| layout         = [[Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout|Transverse front-motor, front-wheel drive]]
| platform       = 
| motor          = {{unbulleted list
  | [[Three-phase]] [[alternating current]]
  | [[induction motor]] with
  | [[insulated-gate bipolar transistor|IGBT]] [[power inverter]]
  }}
| battery        = {{unbulleted list
  | 16.5–18.7&nbsp;kWh [[Lead–acid battery|lead–acid]]
  | 26.4&nbsp;kWh [[nickel–metal hydride battery|nickel–metal hydride]] (NiMH)
  }}
| electric_range = {{unbulleted list
  | [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]], revised to 2019 procedure:
  |{{0|•}}Lead–acid: {{cvt|89|km|mi|order=flip}}
  |{{0|•}}NiMH: {{cvt|169|km|mi|order=flip}}
  | EPA, original 1999 procedure:
  |{{0|•}}Lead–acid: {{cvt|126|km|mi|order=flip}}
  |{{0|•}}NiMH: {{cvt|228|km|mi|order=flip}}
  }}
| transmission   = Single-speed reduction integrated with motor and differential
| charging       = 6.6 kW [[Magne Charge]] inductive converter
| wheelbase      = {{cvt|98.9|in|mm}}{{sfn|''Automotive Engineering'' 1996|p=69}}
| length         = {{cvt|169.7|in|mm}}{{sfn|''Automotive Engineering'' 1996|p=69}}
| width          = {{cvt|69.5|in|mm}}{{sfn|''Automotive Engineering'' 1996|p=69}}
| height         = {{cvt|50.5|in|mm}}{{sfn|''Automotive Engineering'' 1996|p=69}}
| weight         = {{unbulleted list
  | {{cvt|3086|lb|kg}} with [[lead–acid battery|lead–acid batteries]]
  | {{cvt|2908|lb|kg}} with [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|NiMH batteries]]
  }}
| related        = 
| sp = us
| designer = 
}}

The '''General Motors EV1''' is a [[subcompact car]] that was produced from 1996 to 1999 by the American automaker [[General Motors]] (GM). A two-door, two-seat [[coupe]], it was the first [[mass production|mass-produced]] and purpose-built [[battery electric vehicle]] in history.

In 1990, GM debuted the battery electric Impact [[prototype]], from which the design of the production EV1 was largely inspired. The [[California Air Resources Board]] enacted a mandate that year, stating that the seven leading automakers marketing vehicles in the US must produce and sell [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s to maintain access to the California market. GM began manufacturing the car in 1996. In its initial stages of production, most of them were leased to consumers in California, Arizona, and Georgia. Within a year of the EV1's release, leasing programs were also launched in various other American states. 

Produced in two short generations, the EV1 featured a lightweight [[aluminum]] frame and a three-phase [[alternating current|AC]] [[induction motor]] capable of producing {{convert|137|bhp|kW}}. At the [[Detroit Auto Show#1998|1998 Detroit Auto Show]], GM unveiled several EV1 prototypes, including a [[series hybrid]], a [[parallel hybrid]], a [[compressed natural gas]] variant, and four-door model. Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market, ultimately reclaiming and [[car crusher|crushing]] most of the cars. In 2003, GM terminated the EV1 program, disregarding protests from customers. 

Since its demise, the EV1's cancellation has remained a subject of dispute. Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self-sabotaging its electric car program to avoid potential losses in spare parts sales, while also blaming the [[oil industry]] for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road. Its discontinuation inspired the documentary film ''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'' (2006), and GM gained a reputation as the company "that killed the electric car".

== History ==
During the 1970s and 1980s, progress in [[electric vehicle]] development had largely stalled, with over 80{{nbsp}}percent of vehicles produced in the US powered by [[V8 engine]]s.<ref name=USDoeHotEC/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/aug/03/lost-history-electric-car-future-transport|title=The lost history of the electric car – and what it tells us about the future of transport|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|first=Tom|last=Standage|author-link=Tom Standage|date=August 3, 2021|access-date=March 30, 2024|archive-date=2024-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325152330/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/aug/03/lost-history-electric-car-future-transport|url-status=live}}</ref> The enactment of the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|1990 Clean Air Act Amendment]] and the [[Energy Policy Act of 1992|1992 Energy Policy Act]], alongside the introduction of new transportation emissions regulations by the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB), led to a renewed interest in electric vehicles in the US.<ref name=USDoeHotEC>{{cite web|url=https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car|title=The History of the Electric Car|date=September 15, 2014|publisher=[[United States Department of Energy]]|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-date=March 19, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319193516/https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car|url-status=live}}</ref>

As opposed to many electric vehicles of its time, the EV1 was a mass-produced and purpose-built [[battery electric vehicle]] rather than a conversion of another car.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.energy.gov/timeline-history-electric-car|title=Timeline: History of the Electric Car|publisher=[[United States Department of Energy]]|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-date=March 22, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322054509/https://www.energy.gov/timeline-history-electric-car|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/01/gm-electric-car-chevy-bolt-mary-barra/|title=How GM Beat Tesla to the First True Mass-Market Electric Car|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|first=Alex|last=Davies|date=February 2016|access-date=March 29, 2024|archive-date=2024-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324050151/https://www.wired.com/2016/01/gm-electric-car-chevy-bolt-mary-barra/|url-status=live}}</ref> Kenneth Baker, a [[General Motors]] (GM) engineer, was the lead engineer for the EV1 program, having previously served as such for the unsuccessful [[Chevrolet Chevette#Electrovette|Chevrolet Electrovette]] program in the 1970s.<ref name=dicerolls>{{cite news|url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-05-mn-6000-story.html|title= GM Rolls Dice With Roll-Out of Electric Car|first=Donald W.|last=Nauss|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=December 5, 1996|access-date=March 27, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206212921/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-05-mn-6000-story.html|archive-date=February 6, 2023|url-access=subscription|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnm|Eisler|2022|1p=124|Fletcher|2011|2p=226}}

=== Development ===
At the 1990 [[Los Angeles Auto Show]], GM [[chairman]] [[Roger Smith (executive)|Roger Smith]] demonstrated the Impact, a battery electric [[concept car]].{{sfnm|Eisler|2022|1p=65|Wilson|2023|2p=105}} The company initially planned to produce 20,000 units but later raised the goal to 100,000 vehicles per year.<ref name="nyt1990-01-04">{{Cite news |last=Stevenson |first=Richard W. |date=January 4, 1990|url-status=live |title=G.M. Displays the Impact, An Advanced Electric Car |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/04/business/gm-displays-the-impact-an-advanced-electric-car.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120210950/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/04/business/gm-displays-the-impact-an-advanced-electric-car.html|archive-date=January 20, 2023|url-access=subscription|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Developed by the electric vehicle company [[AeroVironment]], the Impact featured design knowledge gained from GM's success in the 1987 [[World Solar Challenge]]—a trans-Australian race for solar-powered cars, which the automaker's [[Sunraycer]] won.{{sfnm|Wakefield|1993|1p=288|Marcus|2019|2p=255|Fessler|2019|3p=120}} [[Alan Cocconi]] from [[AC Propulsion]] designed and built the original drive system electronics for the Impact, which was further developed by [[Hughes Electronics]].{{sfnm|Fialka|2015|1pp=31–40|Quandt|1995|2p=846|''Popular Science'' 1992|3p=59}} The Impact was powered by 32 [[lead–acid battery|lead–acid rechargeable batteries]] and had a top speed of {{cvt|183|mph|kph}}.{{sfnm|Wakefield|1993|1p=129|Berger|1998|2p=276}} On April 18, 1990, Smith announced that the Impact would become a production vehicle, with a goal of 25,000 annual units.<ref name="e559">{{cite web | last=English | first=Andrew | title=The story of the first 'modern' electric vehicle | website=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | url-access=subscription | date=January 1, 2022 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cars/features/story-first-modern-electric-vehicle/ | access-date=November 12, 2025}}</ref>
<!-- [[File:Gm-impact.jpg|thumb|altAn unusually shaped concept car, taken in a mountainous environment with the sun setting.|left|1990 GM Impact concept car]] -->

The CARB launched a major environmental initiative in 1990. The board required the seven largest automakers in the US—with GM as the largest—to ensure that two{{nbsp}}percent of their fleets were emission-free by 1998, rising to five{{nbsp}}percent by 2001 and ten{{nbsp}}percent by 2003, depending on consumer demand.<ref name=dicerolls>{{cite news|url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-05-mn-6000-story.html|title= GM Rolls Dice With Roll-Out of Electric Car|first=Donald W.|last=Nauss|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=December 5, 1996|access-date=March 27, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206212921/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-05-mn-6000-story.html|archive-date=February 6, 2023|url-access=subscription|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Horton>{{cite news|url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-jun-08-tm-ev123-story.html|author-link=Peter Horton|title= Peter Buys an Electric Car|first=Peter|last=Horton|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=June 8, 2003|access-date=March 30, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813071534/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-jun-08-tm-ev123-story.html|archive-date=August 13, 2023|url-access=subscription|url-status=live}}</ref> CARB said that the mandate was intended to combat California's severe air pollution, which at the time exceeded the combined pollution levels of the other forty-nine states. In response, other members of the former American [[Automobile Manufacturers Association]], including [[Toyota]], [[Nissan]], and [[Honda]], also developed prototype zero-emissions vehicles.{{sfnm|Shnayerson|1996|1p=50|Nilsson|2012|2p=166|Graham|2021|3p=120}}

In 1994, GM launched PrEView, a program in which fifty hand-built Impact electric cars were loaned to drivers for one- to two-week periods, with the requirement that participants document their experiences and provide feedback.{{sfnm|Fessler|2019|1p=122|Fialka|2015|2p=83}} Driver feedback on the Impact was positive, as were assessments from the automotive press. ''[[Motor Trend]]'' said that the Impact "is precisely one of those occasions where GM proves beyond any doubt that it knows how to build fantastic automobiles" and called it "the world's only electric vehicle that drives like a real car". ''[[Automobile (magazine)|Automobile]]'' magazine commended its ride and handling as "amazing" and praised its "smooth delivery of power".{{sfnm|Sherman|1998|1p=126|Shnayerson|1996|2p=183}} That same year, a modified Impact set a production electric vehicle land speed record of {{cvt|183|mph|kph}}.{{sfn|Ledgerwood|Broadhurst|2000|p=172}} Despite the good reception, as highlighted in a front-page feature in ''[[The New York Times]]'', GM appeared to be unenthusiastic about the prospect of having created a successful electric car:{{sfn|Fletcher|2011|p=81}}

{{blockquote|General Motors is preparing to put its electric vehicle act on the road, and planning for a flop. With pride and pessimism, the company, the furthest along of the [[Big Three (automobile manufacturers)|Big Three]] in designing a mass-market electric car, says{{nbsp}}[...] it has done its best but that the vehicle has come up short.{{nbsp}}[...] Now it hopes that lawmakers and regulators will agree with it and postpone or scrap the deadline.}}

According to the report, GM considered the PrEView program a failure, concluding that electric cars were not yet commercially viable and that CARB regulations should be rescinded. Dennis Minano, GM's vice president for Energy and Environment, questioned whether consumers actually wanted electric vehicles. [[Robert James Eaton]], chairman of [[Chrysler]], expressed doubt about the readiness of mass-produced electric cars, stating in 1994: "If the law is there, we’ll meet it{{nbsp}}[...] at this point of time, nobody can forecast that we can make an electric car". Their skepticism drew criticism from Thomas C. Jorling, [[New York State Department of Environmental Conservation|Commissioner of Environmental Conservation]] for [[New York (state)|New York State]], which had adopted California's emissions program. Jorling argued that consumers had shown substantial interest in electric vehicles and suggested that automakers were reluctant to move away from internal combustion technology because of their massive existing investments.<ref name="nyt19940128">{{Cite news |last=Wald |first=Matthew L. |date=January 28, 1994 |title=Expecting a Fizzle, G.M. Puts Electric Car to Test |page=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/28/business/expecting-a-fizzle-gm-puts-electric-car-to-test.html|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813071455/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/28/business/expecting-a-fizzle-gm-puts-electric-car-to-test.html|archive-date=August 13, 2023|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== History of production ===
Following the PrEView program, work on the GM electric car program persisted. The original fifty Impact cars were destroyed after testing was completed, and the design had evolved into the EV1 by 1996.{{sfn|Wachenheim III|2022|p=209}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/stories-60160474|title=EV1: How an electric car dream was crushed|date=January 29, 2022|access-date=March 28, 2024|publisher=[[BBC News]]|archive-date=December 4, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204051738/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/stories-60160474|url-status=live}}</ref> The first generation of the EV1 was powered by lead–acid batteries;{{sfnm|1a1=Larminie|1a2=Lowry|1a3=2012|1p=278|2a1=Aifantis|2a2=Kumar|2a3=Hu|2y=2022|2p=88}} 660 units were produced,{{sfnm|Wilson|2023|1p=108|Taylor|2022|2p=41}} all of which were provided under a leasing agreement that explicitly prohibited purchase.<ref name="LAtimes">{{Cite news|last1=Dean |first1=Paul |last2=Reed |first2=Mack |date=December 6, 1996 |title=An Electric Start – Media, Billboards, Web Site Herald Launch of the EV1 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-06-mn-6275-story.html|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029055632/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-06-mn-6275-story.html|archive-date=October 29, 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Saturn Corporation|Saturn]] was responsible for leasing and maintenance of the EV1.<ref name="Truett">{{Cite news |last=Truett |first=Richard |date=June 26, 1997 |title=GM'S EV1 Blazes the Trail to Tomorrow |newspaper=[[Orlando Sentinel]]|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1997/06/26/gms-ev1-blazes-the-trail-to-tomorrow/ |url-status=live |access-date=March 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720022650/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1997-06-26/topic/9706250401_1_ev1-make-electricity-electric-vehicles |archive-date=July 20, 2018}}</ref> Analysts projected a potential market ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 cars annually.<ref name="Fisher01051996">{{Cite news|last=Fisher |first=Lawrence M. |date=January 5, 1996 |title=G.M., in a First, Will Sell a Car Designed for Electric Power This Fall |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/05/us/gm-in-a-first-will-sell-a-car-designed-for-electric-power-thisfall.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324133317/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/05/us/gm-in-a-first-will-sell-a-car-designed-for-electric-power-thisfall.html|archive-date=March 24, 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> An industry insider estimated that each EV1 cost GM roughly $80,000 to produce when factoring in research, development, and related expenses, while other reports placed the figure closer to $100,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2008/08/07/who-really-pulled-the-plug/|title=Who Really pulled the plug?|newspaper=[[The Mercury News]]|first=Jeffrey|last=Steele|access-date=April 4, 2024|date=August 7, 2008|url-access=subscription|archive-date=2023-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207230424/https://www.mercurynews.com/2008/08/07/who-really-pulled-the-plug/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Quiroga|2009|p=52}} GM invested just under $500 million in the EV1 and associated electric vehicle technologies, and more than $1 billion overall.<ref name="i426">{{cite web | title=A Century of New Ideas for GM | website=[[Tampa Bay Times]] | date=September 24, 2008 | url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2008/09/24/a-century-of-new-ideas-for-gm/ | access-date=November 13, 2025}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Mildner|1a2=Ziller|1a3=Baiocchi|1y=2025|1p=21|2a1=Welch|2y=2022|2p=56}} 

GM pre-screened lessees, limiting initial eligibility to residents of Southern California and Arizona, with the program beginning on December 5, 1996.{{sfn|Ingrassia|2012|p=318}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/07/business/gm-is-trying-to-make-a-go-of-its-electric-car.html|title=G.M. Is Trying to Make a Go Of Its Electric Car|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=May 7, 1997|access-date=March 28, 2024|first=Andrea|last=Adelson|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120210921/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/07/business/gm-is-trying-to-make-a-go-of-its-electric-car.html|archive-date=January 20, 2023|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Leasing rates for the EV1s ranged from $399 to $549 a month.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Naughton|first=Keith|date=December 15, 1997 |title=Detroit: It Isn't Easy Going Green |url=http://www.businessweek.com/archives/1997/b3557013.arc.htm#B3557019 |url-status=dead |magazine=[[Business Week]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628194634/http://www.businessweek.com/archives/1997/b3557013.arc.htm#B3557019 |archive-date=June 28, 2011 |access-date=March 28, 2024}}</ref> The car's launch was accompanied by an extensive $8 million promotional campaign that included prime-time television commercials, billboards, a dedicated website, and a tie-in appearance at the premiere of the [[Sylvester Stallone]] film [[Daylight (1996 film)|''Daylight'']] (1996). Early lessees included several high-profile figures, among them celebrities, executives, and politicians. At the debut event, forty leases were signed, with GM projecting 100 by the end of the year.<ref name="LAtimes"/> In its first year, GM leased 288 vehicles.{{sfn|Ingrassia|2012|p=318}} In 1999, Ken Stewart, the brand manager for the EV1 program, characterized the feedback from the car's drivers as "wonderfully-maniacal loyalty".<ref name="e559"/>

[[File:EV1 logo.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Badging with the text "EV1" in large, metallic, and stylized letters. Below that, there is the word "ELECTRIC" in smaller, white, uppercase letters.|Badging of an EV1]]

Joe Kennedy, Saturn's vice president of marketing at GM, acknowledged public concerns about the EV1's high cost, reliance on lead–acid battery technology, and limited driving range, remarking, "Let us not forget that technology starts small and grows slowly before technology improves and costs go down."<ref name="LAtimes"/> Some anti-tax groups criticized the incentives provided to EV1 lessees, claiming they amounted to government-subsidized driving for the wealthy.<ref name="LAtimes"/> [[Marvin V. Rush|Marvin Rush]], a [[cinematographer]] for the television series ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' (1995–2001), observed that GM was failing to properly market the EV1. He spent $20,000 of his own money to produce and air four unofficial radio advertisements promoting the vehicle. Although GM initially disapproved of the advertisements, the company later reimbursed Rush and officially endorsed the commercials. By 1997, GM had committed $10 million to EV1 advertising, with plans to increase the budget by another $5 million the following year.<ref name="LAtimesradio">{{Cite news |last=Gellene |first=Denise |date=March 22, 1998 |title=Electric Car Owner Spots GM Some Ads |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-may-22-fi-52566-story.html |url-status=live |access-date=March 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040842/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-may-22-fi-52566-story.html |archive-date=March 8, 2021}}</ref>

In 1998, GM introduced the second-generation EV1. The update yielded reduced production costs, quieter operation, and significant reductions in weight.{{Sfnm|Pistoia|2013|1p=156|Edgar|2018|2p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdQjEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT152 152]}}<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2013/06/27/cars-of-futures-past-gm-ev1|title=Cars of Futures Past - GM EV1|first=Kurt|last=Ernst|magazine=[[Hemmings Motor News]]|date=June 27, 2013|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114234956/https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2013/06/27/cars-of-futures-past-gm-ev1|archive-date=January 14, 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> The second-generation models were initially released with a [[Panasonic]] lead–acid battery pack; soon after, an [[Ovonics]] [[nickel–metal hydride battery]] (NiMH) was added as an option.{{sfnm|1a1=Katic|1a2=Dumnic|1a3=Corba|1a4=Milicevic|1y=2014|1pp=299–316|2a1=Warner|2y=2024|2p=35}} The second generation EV1 leasing program expanded to several other American cities, with monthly payments ranging from $349 to $574.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-the-man-behind-who-killed-the-electric-car-is-2011nov10-story.html|title=The man behind 'Who Killed the Electric Car?' is back with a sequel|first=Susan|last=Carpenter|newspaper=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]]|date=November 10, 2011|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218220819/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-the-man-behind-who-killed-the-electric-car-is-2011nov10-story.html|archive-date=December 18, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> GM produced and leased 457 second-generation EV1s.{{sfn|Taylor|2022|p=42}} On March 2, 2000, GM issued a [[Product recall|recall]] for 450 first-generation EV1s. The automaker had determined that a faulty charge port cable could eventually build up enough heat to catch on fire.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/2000/03/03/gm-recalls-hundreds-of-electric-cars-pickups/2bde1a5a-0b05-474e-905b-286d88d84d23/|title=GM Recalls Hundreds Of Electric Cars, Pickups|first=Warren|last=Brown|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=March 2, 2000|access-date=March 28, 2024|archive-date=August 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828190634/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/2000/03/03/gm-recalls-hundreds-of-electric-cars-pickups/2bde1a5a-0b05-474e-905b-286d88d84d23/|url-status=live}}</ref> Sixteen "thermal incidents" were reported, including at least one fire that resulted in the destruction of a charging vehicle.{{sfn|Burton|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mZV8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289 289]}} The recall did not affect second generation EV1s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-mar-03-mn-5009-story.html|title=GM Will Tow 450 Original EV1s in Recall|date=March 3, 2000|access-date=March 28, 2024|first=John|last=O'Dell|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url-access=subscription|archive-date=March 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314223400/http://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-mar-03-mn-5009-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Design ==
=== Construction and technology ===
[[File:EV1A014 (20) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|alt=The rear three-quarters view of a car with a hidden rear wheel.|Rear view]]
To maximize the car's efficiency, extensive wind-tunnel testing was conducted on the EV1, and GM additionally implemented partial [[fender skirts]] on the rear wheelhouses. The rear wheels are {{convert|9|in|spell=in}} closer together than the front wheels, thereby creating a "teardrop" shape. These resulted in a very low {{Cd|long=yes|link=car|0.19}} and a {{CdA|long=yes|link=yes|{{cvt|3.95|ft2|m2}}}}.<ref>{{multiref|{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-14-fi-53774-story.html|title=GM's Power Move|first=Donald W.|last=Nauss|date=October 14, 1996|access-date=March 30, 2024|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330051412/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-14-fi-53774-story.html|archive-date=March 30, 2024|url-status=live|ref=none|url-access=subscription}}|{{cite web|url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/automotive-history/gm-ev1-true-inside-story/|title=Mythbusting: The truth about the GM EV1|first=Gary|last=Witzenburg|date=June 16, 2021|access-date=March 30, 2024|publisher=[[Hagerty (insurance)|Hagerty]]|archive-date=2024-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308050958/https://www.hagerty.com/media/automotive-history/gm-ev1-true-inside-story/|url-status=live|ref=none}}|{{harvnb|Brooke|2011|p=143}}|{{harvnb|Genta|Genta|2016|p=182}}}}</ref> The EV1 was supported by super-lightweight [[magnesium alloy wheels]] and low-rolling resistance tires developed by [[Michelin]].{{sfn|Fialka|2015|p=83}} The tires were mounted on light fourteen-inch wheels and inflated to 50 [[pounds per square inch]] (psi). The rubber compound and hardness of these tires helped to minimize [[rolling resistance]].{{sfn|Barabba|2004|p=71}}<ref name=PowerMove>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-14-fi-53774-story.html|title=GM's Power Move|first=Donald W.|last=Nauss|date=October 14, 1996|access-date=March 30, 2024|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330051412/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-14-fi-53774-story.html|archive-date=March 30, 2024|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Almost all of the EV1's components were engineered to maximize energy efficiency.{{sfn|Hordeski|2008|p=107}} Its [[spaceframe]], constructed of rolled, stamped, and cast [[aluminum]], was the lightest of its kind, weighing just {{convert|290|lb}}—40{{nbsp}}percent less than a typical [[steel]] frame.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.motortrend.com/features/mercedes-benz-eqxx-gm-ev1-feature/|title=Ahead of Its Time: How GM's EV1 Lives On in Today's EVs|date=February 7, 2023|magazine=[[Motor Trend]]|access-date=March 30, 2024|first=Angus|last=MacKenzie|archive-date=2024-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312085642/https://www.motortrend.com/features/mercedes-benz-eqxx-gm-ev1-feature/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Edgar|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdQjEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 143]}} The frame was covered with three types of plastic, with reinforced [[fiberglass]] used for the roof, doors, and [[hood (car)|hood]]. For components requiring greater flexibility, such as the [[bumper (car)|bumpers]] and interior [[fascia (car)|fascias]], [[Reaction injection molding|reaction injection-molded]] [[polyurethane]] was used.{{sfn|Edgar|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdQjEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT143 143]}} The EV1 employed a [[regenerative braking]] system that converted the drive motor into a generator when the brakes were applied. This process slowed the vehicle while recovering kinetic energy and feeding it back into the battery.{{sfn|Kelly|2010|p=122}}<ref name="n354">{{cite web | last=Keebler | first=Jack | title=General Motors EV1 – Driving Impression | website=[[Motor Trend]] | date=June 1, 1996 | url=https://www.motortrend.com/news/general-motors-ev1 | access-date=November 13, 2025}}</ref> At {{convert|169.7|in|mm}} long, the EV1 is a two-door, two-seat [[subcompact car]] with a [[coupe]] body style.{{sfnm|1a1=Nikowitz|1y=2016|1p=5|2a1=Larminie|2a2=Lowry|2y=2012|2p=278}} The power-assisted [[anti-lock braking system]] was electrically operated. The front [[disc brakes]] used an electro-hydraulic mechanism, while the rear [[drum brake]]s were fully electric, an industry first.<ref name=PowerMove/>

Conventional vehicles use waste heat from the engine to warm the cabin, but because electric vehicles produce very little excess heat, GM had to develop an alternative system. The company equipped the EV1 with a [[heat pump]] to manage cabin temperature, using only about one-third of the energy required by a conventional heating and cooling system. However, the heat pump was effective only when ambient temperatures were above {{convert|30|F|C}}.<ref name=PowerMove/>

=== Drivetrain and battery ===
[[File:EV1 charging at Walnut Creek BART Station 2002.jpg|thumb|alt=Picture of a silver car charging at a charging station in California.|An EV1 charging at the [[Walnut Creek station|Walnut Creek BART Station]] in California in August 2002]]

The [[electric motor]] in the EV1 operated on a three-phase [[alternating current|AC]] [[induction motor|induction]] system, generating {{convert|137|bhp|kW}} at 7,000 [[revolutions per minute]] (rpm).{{sfnm|1a1=Larminie|1a2=Lowry|1y=2012|1p=276|2a1=Nikowitz|2y=2016|2p=5}} The EV1 could maintain its full [[torque]] capacity across its entire power range, delivering {{convert|110|lbft}} of torque from 0 to 7,000 rpm.{{sfnm|1a1=''Road & Track'' 1997|1p=83|2a1=Chan|2a2=Chau|2y=2001|2p=22}} Power was transmitted to the [[Front-wheel drive|front wheels]] through an integrated single-speed [[Reduction drive|reduction]] [[Transmission (mechanical device)|transmission]].{{sfnm|1a1=Chau|1y=2015|1p=67|2a1=Larminie|2a2=Lowry|2y=2012|2p=276|3a1=Burton|3y=2013|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mZV8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT286 286]}}

The first-generation EV1 used lead–acid batteries that weighed {{convert|1175|lb}}.{{sfnm|Dorf|2001|1p=388|Zhou et al.|2011|2p=1043|Wiser|2012|3p=306}} Supplied by GM's [[Delco Remy]] division, these packs were rated at 53&nbsp;[[amp-hours]] at 312&nbsp;volts (16.5&nbsp;kWh), giving the car a range of {{convert|60 to 100|mi}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Larminie|1a2=Lowry|1a3=2012|1p=278|2a1=Aifantis|2a2=Kumar|2a3=Hu|2y=2022|2p=88|3a1=Graham|3y=2021|3p=121|4a1=Kimble|4y=2015|4p=180}}<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2021/04/27/these-nine-evs-from-the-1990s-set-the-stage-for-every-one-of-todays-electric-vehicles|title=These nine EVs from the 1990s set the stage for every one of today's electric vehicles|first=Daniel|last=Strohl|magazine=[[Hemmings Motor News]]|date=February 14, 2023|access-date=April 1, 2024|archive-date=2023-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216145410/https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2021/04/27/these-nine-evs-from-the-1990s-set-the-stage-for-every-one-of-todays-electric-vehicles|url-status=live}}</ref> When the second generation of the EV1 was introduced in 1999, the car adopted a new set of lead–acid batteries from the Japanese electronics company Panasonic, increasing the battery weight to {{convert|1310|lb}}.{{sfnm|Warner|2024|1p=35|Eisler|2022|2p=148}} The batteries were rated at 60&nbsp;amp-hours at 312&nbsp;volts (18.7&nbsp;kWh), and the car had a range of {{cvt|80 to 100|miles|km}}.{{sfnm|Warner|2024|1p=35|Wilson|2023|2p=109}} Soon after, production began on the Ovonics-manufactured NiMH battery pack.{{sfn|Burton|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mZV8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT281 281]}} This pack was significantly lighter than the lead–acid battery, weighing {{convert|1060|lb}}. The NiMH batteries were rated at 77 amp-hours at 343 volts (26.4 kWh) and allowed the car to travel from {{cvt|75 to 150|miles|km}} between charges.{{sfn|Warner|2024|p=35}}

To charge the EV1, GM equipped the car with the [[Magne Charge]] [[inductive charging]] paddle, developed and manufactured by [[Delco Electronics]], a GM subsidiary.{{sfnm|''Popular Mechanics''|1996|1p=19|''Popular Science''|1996|2p=82}} This paddle was inserted into a slot located between the EV1's [[headlight]]s.{{sfn|''Automotive Engineering''|1997|p=12}} The wireless inductive charging system required no direct electrical contact, though there were isolated reports of fires originating at the charge port.{{sfnm|1a1=Mi|1a2=Masrur|1y=2017|1p=250|2a1=Porter|2y=2014|2p=42}} Rapid recharging depended on the dedicated home charger supplied by GM.{{sfn|Graham|2021|p=122}} GM also provided a 120-volt AC convenience charger for the lead–acid models, which was stored in the [[trunk (car)|trunk]].{{sfn|''Road & Track''|1996|p=49}} With a Magne Charge unit, charging a lead-acid EV1 took from three to fifteen hours; NiMH models typically needed six to eight hours to reach a full charge.<ref name="e666">{{cite web | last=Brown | first=Warren | title=Plugged Into Real Life? | website=[[The Washington Post]] | url-access=subscription | date=January 21, 1996 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1996/01/21/plugged-into-real-life/786ad703-fe83-4d47-9188-8b5d084b0fa0/ | access-date=November 15, 2025}}</ref>{{sfn|Anderson|Anderson|2010|page=207}}

== 1998 conversions ==
GM unveiled a series of [[Alternative fuel vehicle|alternative-fuel]] prototype models at the [[Detroit Auto Show#1998|1998 Detroit Auto Show]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/auto-shows/a1914936/looking-back-1998-detroit-auto-show-automakers-start-take-fuel-efficiency/|title=Looking Back: 1998 Detroit Auto Show: Automakers Start To Take Fuel Efficiency Seriously|first=Angie|last=Fisher|magazine=[[Autoweek]]|date=January 17, 2013|access-date=April 2, 2024|archive-date=April 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402145844/https://www.autoweek.com/news/auto-shows/a1914936/looking-back-1998-detroit-auto-show-automakers-start-take-fuel-efficiency/|url-status=live}}</ref> Among them, the [[compressed natural gas]] version was the only non-electric model, created by modifying the standard two-seat EV1 platform. It used a 1.0-liter [[turbocharged]] engine and was advertised at {{convert|60|mpgus}}.{{sfn|''Popular Science''|1998|p=26}} The [[series hybrid]] prototype incorporated an [[auxiliary power unit]] (APU) with a [[gas turbine engine]] mounted in the trunk. Built by [[Williams International]], the system combined a lightweight gas turbine with a high-speed [[Permanent magnet motor|permanent-magnet]] AC generator, primarily used to charge the batteries.{{sfnm|''Popular Science''|1998|1p=26|''Popular Electronics''|1999|2p=37|''Autocar''|1998|3p=12}} The [[parallel hybrid]] prototype paired a 1.3-liter [[Isuzu]] turbocharged, [[direct injection diesel|direct-injection diesel]] engine to drive the rear wheels with an Ovonics electric motor powering the front wheels.{{sfnm|1a1=Eisler|1y=2022|1p=124|2a1=Khair|2a2=Majewsky|2y=2006|2p=12}} GM also presented a [[fuel cell]] model, whose system converted [[hydrogen]] to electricity.{{sfn|''Popular Science''|1998|p=26}} The company also debuted a four-passenger EV1 concept, which extended the original vehicle by {{convert|19|in}} and replaced the rear [[beam axle]] with an [[independent rear suspension]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.autonews.com/article/19980105/ANA/801050724/1998-auto-show-detroit|date=January 5, 1998|access-date=April 2, 2024|newspaper=[[Automotive News]]|url-access=subscription|title=1998 Auto Show Detroit|issn=0005-1551|archive-date=April 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402064837/https://www.autonews.com/article/19980105/ANA/801050724/1998-auto-show-detroit|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Demise ==
[[File:EV1 Cars Held Hostage 12.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Red, light blue and dark green EV1s at a facility, awaiting to be crushed|EV1s awaiting their crushing at GM's training center in [[Burbank, California]], in 2005]]
Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/green/article/Owners-charged-up-over-electric-cars-but-2677780.php|title=Owners charged up over electric cars, but manufacturers have pulled the plug|website=[[SFGate]]|first=Michael|last=Taylor|date=April 24, 2005|access-date=April 2, 2024|publisher=[[Hearst Newspapers]]|archive-date=October 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026172748/https://www.sfgate.com/green/article/Owners-charged-up-over-electric-cars-but-2677780.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The company ended production of the EV1 in 1999, after 1,117 examples were produced over its three-year manufacture.{{sfnm|Fialka|2015|1p=86|Graham|2021|2p=121|Nikowitz|2016|3p=5|Edgar|2018|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdQjEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT139 139]}} In February 2002, GM notified lessees that they would be recalling the cars, contradicting an earlier statement in which Stewart said that the company had no intention of taking vehicles back from customers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2115071/pulling-plug-gms-decision-end-electric-vehicle-leases-comes-shock-ev1-enthusiasts/|title=Pulling the plug: GM's decision to end electric vehicle leases comes as a shock to EV1 enthusiasts|first=Jeff|last=Sabatini|date=November 7, 2002|access-date=November 16, 2025|website=[[Autoweek]]}}</ref><ref name="GM2001">{{Cite news |date=2001-12-12 |title=GM: Hybrids, Fuel Cells, and the Lawyers. |page=12 |work=Convention and Tradeshow News |url=http://www.ctnpublishing.com/pubs/ETIC/ETIC_2001/ShowTimesDay1.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224214204/http://www.ctnpublishing.com/pubs/ETIC/ETIC_2001/ShowTimesDay1.pdf |archive-date=2019-02-24 |quote='Nowhere in this plan am I going out and taking cars off the road from customers,' he says, 'without the customer requesting it first.'}}</ref> The EV1 program was completely terminated in late 2003 under GM CEO [[Rick Wagoner]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2020-03-11/gm-electric-vehicles-investment|title=Letters to the Editor: GM, killer of its first electric car, now wants to spend billions on them?|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=March 11, 2020|access-date=April 3, 2024|url-access=subscription|archive-date=2024-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402164830/https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2020-03-11/gm-electric-vehicles-investment|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.thetimes.com/uk/environment/article/pulling-the-plug-on-an-electric-dream-dg6g6lv88b3|title= Pulling the plug on an electric dream|newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]]|date=July 30, 2006|access-date=April 3, 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240402164623/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/pulling-the-plug-on-an-electric-dream-dg6g6lv88b3 |archive-date=April 2, 2024| url-status=live | url-access=subscription}}</ref> 

Fifty-eight EV1 drivers submitted letters and deposit checks to GM, proposing lease extensions that would impose no financial burden on the company. They offered to assume responsibility for all maintenance and repairs and allowed GM the right to end the lease if major expenses arose. In June 2002, GM rejected the proposal and returned the checks, which totaled more than $22,000.<ref name="Mieszkowski">{{Cite web |last=Mieszkowski |first=Katharine |date=2002-09-04 |title=Steal this car! |url=https://www.salon.com/2002/09/04/woe_to_ev1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618225555/https://www.salon.com/2002/09/04/woe_to_ev1/ |archive-date=2019-06-18 |access-date=2020-01-31 |website=[[Salon.com|Salon]] |publisher=Salon Media Group|author-link=Katharine Mieszkowski}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.autonews.com/article/20021111/REG/211110754/ev1-lessees-to-gm-don-t-take-our-cars|title= EV1 lessees to GM: Don't take our cars|date=November 11, 2002|access-date=April 3, 2024|newspaper=[[Automotive News]]|url-access=subscription|first=Dave|last=Guilford|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210517191434/https://www.autonews.com/article/20021111/REG/211110754/ev1-lessees-to-gm-don-t-take-our-cars|archive-date=May 17, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003, actor [[Peter Horton]] reported in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' that he had attempted to lease an EV1 but was told he could "join their waiting list [of a few thousand]" with an unspecified number of others, and that his chances of receiving a vehicle were minimal.<ref name="Horton"/> In March 2005, GM spokesman Dave Barthmuss told ''[[The Washington Post]]'' that "there [was] an extremely passionate, enthusiastic and loyal following for this particular vehicle{{nbsp}} [...] There simply [were not] enough of them at any given time to make a viable business proposition for GM to pursue long term".<ref name="Fightthecrusher">{{Cite news |last1=Schneider |first1=Greg |last2=Edds |first2=Kimberly |date=March 10, 2005 |title=Fans of GM Electric Car Fight the Crusher |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=subscription|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21991-2005Mar9_2.html |access-date=November 16, 2025 |archive-date=March 25, 2016  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325165854/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21991-2005Mar9_2.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:EV1 crushed2 1 (5000083574).jpg|thumb|alt=A range of crushed EV1 cars|Crushed EV1s]]

In November 2003, GM began recalling the vehicles.<ref name="f548">{{cite web | last=Voelker | first=John | title=GM riles electric car advocates over charger sharing | agency=[[Reuters]] | date=September 2, 2011 | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUS3437276664/ | access-date=November 16, 2025}}</ref> By the end of August 2004, all leased EV1s had been retrieved; around forty were donated to museums and educational institutions, but with their powertrains disabled to prevent operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com.au/2022/08/gm-ev1-australia/|title=The GM EV1 Is a Legendary Electric Car That Should Have Been a Holden|first=Zachariah|last=Kelly|website=[[Gizmodo]]|date=August 23, 2022|access-date=April 3, 2024|archive-date=2023-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115033823/https://gizmodo.com.au/2022/08/gm-ev1-australia/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Fessler|2019|p=124}} GM retains several working examples in its Heritage Collection, and Holden—GM's Australian subsidiary—preserved one used for evaluation. That vehicle was rediscovered in 2021 and donated to the [[National Motor Museum, Birdwood|National Motor Museum]] in [[Birdwood, South Australia|Birdwood]].<ref name="Hemmings" /> GM also provided a fully operational EV1 to the [[Smithsonian Institution]] after it declined a deactivated unit, though the car is no longer functional due to battery degradation.<ref name="Hemmings">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/how-many-gm-ev1s-remain/ |title=How many GM EV1s still exist, and do any of them still run |date=December 5, 2022 |access-date=March 28, 2024 |magazine=[[Hemmings Motor News]] |first=Daniel |last=Strohl |archive-date=March 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317191826/https://www.hemmings.com/stories/how-many-gm-ev1s-remain/}}</ref> Most of the remaining vehicles were sent to crushing facilities for disposal.{{sfnm|Wachenheim III|2022|1p=209|Wilson|2023|2p=114|Edgar|2018|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdQjEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT139 139]}}  

Filmmaker [[Francis Ford Coppola]] claimed on a 2016 episode of ''[[Jay Leno's Garage]]'' that he had hidden his EV1 from GM, though a company representative disputed this, stating that his leased car had been returned.<ref name="Hemmings"/> The vehicle in Coppola's possession was the only EV1 known to be privately held at the time.<ref name="Hemmings"/> In 2025, an EV1 was sold at a tow yard auction in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], the only documented sale of an EV1. The original lessee of the EV1 later came forward, stating that he had filed a lawsuit against GM when they attempted to repossess the vehicle, which he believes contributed to the car not being destroyed. The vehicle was discovered at [[Clark Atlanta University]] after campus police reported it as an [[abandoned vehicle]] and impounded it.<ref name="n072">{{cite web | last=Hawkins | first=Andrew J. | title=A long-lost EV1 just sold at auction for a crazy amount. | website=[[The Verge]] | date=October 28, 2025 | url=https://www.theverge.com/transportation/808400/a-long-lost-ev1-just-sold-at-auction-for-a-crazy-amount | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref><ref name="x511">{{cite web | last=Guy | first=Matthew | title=Trashed GM EV1 electric car auctions for over US$100,000 | website=Driving | date=October 28, 2025 | url=https://driving.ca/auto-news/entertainment/general-motors-gm-ev1-electric-car-auction-price-salvage | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref>

=== Reaction and image ===
[[File: 14 Mar 05 02 (4999481081).jpg|thumb|left|alt=An SUV (RAV4 EV) with a poster that reads "GM Don't Crush the EV1s! Zero Emissions NOW!|Posters on a [[Toyota RAV4 EV]] protesting against the crushing of the EV1]]
Since its demise and destruction, GM's decision to cancel the EV1 has been a subject of debate and controversy.{{sfnm|1a1=Fessler|1y=2019|1p=124|2a1=Peddapelli|2a2=Virtic|2y=2023|2p=61}} [[Smithsonian (magazine)|''Smithsonian'']] characterized the EV1 as "not technically a failure", while the ''[[Australian Financial Review]]'' argued that although the car was "successful", it was ultimately destined to fail.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-death-of-the-ev-1-118595941/|title=The Death of the EV-1|first=Owen|last=Edwards|date=June 2006|access-date=April 3, 2024|magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|archive-date=2024-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301234927/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-death-of-the-ev-1-118595941/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.afr.com/life-and-luxury/cars-bikes-and-boats/gm-had-an-electric-car-in-1998-why-did-it-fail-20230424-p5d2s7|title=GM had an electric car in 1998. Why did it fail?|first=Tony|last=Davis|newspaper=[[Australian Financial Review]]|date=June 20, 2023|access-date=April 3, 2024|archive-date=2023-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628191510/https://www.afr.com/life-and-luxury/cars-bikes-and-boats/gm-had-an-electric-car-in-1998-why-did-it-fail-20230424-p5d2s7|url-status=live}}</ref> The opinions were often linked to the economic infeasibility of the EV1, and some sources, such as ''[[Automotive News]]'', have acknowledged that GM's decision to end the program helped the company avoid long-term financial losses.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.autonews.com/editorial/despite-demise-ev1-was-risk-worth-taking|title= Despite demise, EV1 was a risk worth taking|date=April 19, 2021|access-date=April 3, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419074237/https://www.autonews.com/editorial/despite-demise-ev1-was-risk-worth-taking|archive-date=April 19, 2021|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|newspaper=[[Automotive News]]}}</ref> However, many critics have opposed GM's move to phase out the EV1.<ref name="e559"/><ref name="Fightthecrusher"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-mar-12-me-electric12-story.html|first=Patricia Ward|last=Biederman|url-access=subscription|date=March 12, 2005|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=April 3, 2024|title=Vigil an Outlet for EV1 Fans|archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207050646/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-mar-12-me-electric12-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Electric vehicle advocates, environmental organizations, and former lessees of the EV1 have accused GM of deliberately undermining its electric vehicle efforts to prevent losses in spare parts sales, and some have also alleged that the [[oil industry]] conspired to suppress the adoption of electric cars.{{sfnm|Blazev|2021|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kbISEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1171 1171]|Williams|2010|2p=80|Fessler|2019|3p=124}}

After the EV1's discontinuation, GM garnered a reputation as the company "that killed the electric car".<ref>{{multiref|{{cite web | title=General Motors recharges on future of electric car | website=[[The Seattle Times]] | date=June 18, 2008 | url=https://www.seattletimes.com/business/general-motors-recharges-on-future-of-electric-car/ | access-date=November 17, 2025}}|{{cite web | last=Dowling | first=Joshua | title=Resurrecting the electric car | website=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] | date=June 28, 2008 | url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/resurrecting-the-electric-car-20080628-gdsjxe.html | access-date=November 17, 2025}}|{{cite web | last=Hiltzik | first=Michael | title=Plug-in hybrids have miles to go for widespread use | website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url-access=subscription | date=December 7, 2009 | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-dec-07-la-fi-hiltzik7-2009dec07-story.html | access-date=November 17, 2025}}}}</ref> In 2006, Wagoner acknowledged that his decision to discontinue the EV1 electric vehicle program and to deprioritize hybrid development was his biggest regret during his time at GM. He said that while it did not directly affect the company's profitability, it did largely tarnish GM's public image.<ref name="k856">{{cite web | title=Interview: Rick Wagoner, General Motors Co. | website=[[Motor Trend]] | date=July 25, 2006 | url=https://www.motortrend.com/features/rick-wagoner-general-motors | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> Wagoner reiterated this in a [[National Public Radio]] interview following the December 2008 Senate hearings on the US auto industry bailout.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Norris |first=Michele |date=December 4, 2008 |title=GM CEO Outlines Company's Plans |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97826113&ft=1&f=1006 |access-date=November 17, 2025 |author-link=Michele Norris |archive-date=December 21, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221011929/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97826113&ft=1&f=1006 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the March 13, 2007, issue of ''[[Newsweek]]'', GM research and development chief [[Larry Burns (General Motors)|Larry Burns]] expressed regret over the company's decision to kill the [[plug-in hybrid]] EV1 prototype that engineers had developed a decade earlier: "If we could turn back the hands of time, we could have had the [[Chevrolet Volt|[Chevrolet] Volt]] ten years earlier", referencing the Volt as an indirect successor to the EV1.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last1=Caryl |first1=Christian |last2=Kashiwagi |first2=Akiko |date=July 12, 2008 |title=Toyota is on track to pass General Motors this year as the world's No. 1 auto company. How GM plans to fight back |magazine=[[Newsweek International]] |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/36484/Page/3 |access-date=November 17, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223033443/http://www.newsweek.com/id/36484/Page/3 |archive-date=December 23, 2008|author-link1=Christian Caryl}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/21/business/global/gm-plans-to-develop-electric-cars-with-chinese-automaker.html|title=G.M. Plans to Develop Electric Cars With China|first=Keith|last=Bradsher|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 20, 2011|access-date=April 3, 2024|author-link=Keith Bradsher|url-access=subscription|archive-date=May 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514200152/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/21/business/global/gm-plans-to-develop-electric-cars-with-chinese-automaker.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Legacy and post-demise ==
{{Multiple image |align=right | direction = vertical | width = 220
| image1 = Acp tzero DSC00657 (cropped).JPG
| alt1 = Two sports cars, the yellow one on the left, and a red one on the right, parked on a large, grassy plain. In the background is the Golden Gate Bridge.|
| caption1 = EV1 (right) next to an [[AC Propulsion tZero]] (left). Three of the latter were built, but only two are still extant as of 2022.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.carmagazine.co.uk/features/car-culture/a-brief-history-of-tesla/|title=A brief history of Tesla: inside the Petersen Museum retrospective|date=November 29, 2022|access-date=April 3, 2024|magazine=[[Car (magazine)|Car]]|archive-date=2023-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307095646/https://www.carmagazine.co.uk/features/car-culture/a-brief-history-of-tesla/|url-status=live}}</ref> Alan Cocconi designed both cars.{{sfn|Eisler|2022|p=147}}
| image2 = GM EV1 crime scene.jpg
| alt2 = Front view of a dark green car, with yellow caution taping exclaiming, "CRIME SCENE DO NOT TOUCH". It is on the tray of a large truck.
| caption2 = An EV1 at a promotional event for ''[[Who Killed The Electric Car?]]'' (2006)
}}

The demise of the EV1 helped inspire the creation of the American battery-electric carmaker [[Tesla Motors]]. Disturbed by GM's decision to discontinue and destroy the vehicle, Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning founded Tesla Motors in July 2003.<ref name="z312">{{cite web | title=EV1: How an Electric Car Dream Was Crushed | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=January 29, 2022 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/stories-60160474 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/car-profiles/ev1-may-have-been-first-demise-launched-tesla/|title=The EV1 may have been first, but its demise launched Tesla|first=Don|last=Sherman|publisher=[[Hagerty (insurance)|Hagerty]]|date=January 23, 2020|access-date=April 3, 2024|archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730225027/https://www.hagerty.com/media/car-profiles/ev1-may-have-been-first-demise-launched-tesla/|url-status=live}}</ref> About six months later, [[Elon Musk]] became a major investor and assumed the role of chairman. In a 2017 [[Twitter]] post, Musk wrote: "Since big car companies were killing their EV programs, the only chance was to create an EV company, even though it was almost certain to fail".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/09/elon-musk-i-started-tesla-after-detroit-tried-to-kill-electric-cars.html |title=Elon Musk: We started Tesla after big auto companies tried to 'kill' the electric car |date=June 9, 2017 |access-date=November 12, 2025 |first=Lauren |last=Thomas |publisher=[[CNBC]] |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923022336/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/09/elon-musk-i-started-tesla-after-detroit-tried-to-kill-electric-cars.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{NoteTag|This was when Twitter limited tweets to 140 [[character limit|characters]].<ref name="l884">{{cite web | agency=[[Associated Press]] | title=Twitter kills its 140-character limit. Now tweets can be twice as long | website=[[Los Angeles Times]] | url-access=subscription | date=November 7, 2017 | url=https://www.latimes.com/business/technology/la-fi-tn-twitter-280-characters-20171107-story.html | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> The quote was changed to spell out unnecessary abbreviations and ensure grammatical accuracy.}}

Research indicated that automakers were at least a decade behind in electric-vehicle adoption, technology, and infrastructure. While the EV1 is often viewed as ahead of its time, it could also be seen as a product of its era and the technologies available at that time. Lead–acid and NiMH batteries had existed for decades, aerodynamics were well understood, and electric motors were already widely used.<ref name="a426">{{cite web | title=GM could have led the electric revolution with the EV1 | website=[[Top Gear (magazine)|Top Gear]] | publisher=[[BBC]] | date=February 4, 2021 | url=https://www.topgear.com/car-news/electric/gm-could-have-led-electric-revolution-ev1 | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> As part of GM's broader electrification strategy, and following the late-2010 US launch of the Volt plug-in hybrid, GM introduced the [[Chevrolet Spark EV]] in June 2013. It was the company's first all-electric passenger car sold in the US since the discontinuation of the EV1 in 1999.<ref name="NYT112812">{{Cite news |first=Jerry |last=Garrett |date=November 28, 2012 | title=2014 Chevrolet Spark EV: Worth the Extra Charge? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/28/2014-chevrolet-spark-ev-worth-the-extra-charge/?ref=automobiles |access-date=November 17, 2025 |archive-date=November 7, 2014  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107114001/http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/28/2014-chevrolet-spark-ev-worth-the-extra-charge/?ref=automobiles |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="t172">{{cite web | last=Cato | first=Jeremy | title=General Motors plugs into electrification in a big way | website=[[The Globe and Mail]] | date=June 24, 2015 | url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/news/trans-canada-highway/general-motors-plugs-into-electrification-in-a-big-way/article25093244/ | access-date=November 17, 2025}}</ref> The Spark EV was phased out in December 2016, coinciding with the introduction of the [[Chevrolet Bolt]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burden, Melissa |date=January 31, 2017 |title=Chevy axes Spark EV in favor of Bolt EV |url=http://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/general-motors/2017/01/31/chevy-axes-spark-ev-favor-bolt-ev/97283876/ |access-date=October 7, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Detroit News]] |archive-date=October 8, 2021  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008081500/https://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/general-motors/2017/01/31/chevy-axes-spark-ev-favor-bolt-ev/97283876/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The EV1's demise is examined in the documentary ''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'' (2006). The film traces the [[History of the electric vehicle|history and development of the electric car]], its path to commercialization, and broader issues such as air pollution, oil dependency, and [[climate change]]. It explores multiple factors behind the EV1’s cancellation, including the CARB's reversal of its mandate following pressure and lawsuits from automakers, the influence of the oil industry, anticipation surrounding future [[hydrogen car|hydrogen-powered vehicles]], and the perfidy of the [[George W. Bush administration]]. The documentary also details GM's efforts to argue that consumer demand for the EV1 was insufficient, followed by the company's decision to reclaim and dispose of nearly all EV1s produced.{{sfn|Saad|2016|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hq_oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT92 92]}}

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] included the EV1 on its list of the "50 Worst Cars of All Time". While praising the vehicle's design and engineering, calling it "a marvel of engineering" and "absolutely the best electric vehicle anyone had ever seen", the magazine criticized its high production costs and the limitations of 1990s battery technology, which prevented electric cars from competing with conventional gasoline vehicles and contributed to the program's end. Writer [[Dan Neil (journalist)|Dan Neil]] lamented that the EV1 is remembered largely as a [[public-relations]] setback rather than a technological breakthrough, stating: "GM, the company that had done more to advance EV technology than any other, became the company that 'killed the electric car'."<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4723114/50-worst-cars-of-all-time/|title=The 50 Worst Cars of All Time|first=Dan|last=Neil|date=April 25, 2017|access-date=April 3, 2024|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author-link=Dan Neil (journalist)|archive-date=May 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513042933/https://time.com/4723114/50-worst-cars-of-all-time/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[History of the electric vehicle]]
* [[List of production battery electric vehicles]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|30em}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|20em}}

== Print sources ==
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* {{cite book | last=Warner | first=John T. | title=The Handbook of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Design | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | date=2024 | isbn=978-0-443-13808-9}}
* {{cite book | last=Welch | first=David | title=Charging Ahead | publisher=[[HarperCollins]] | date=2022 | isbn=978-1-4002-3360-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Chris | title=Ecology and Socialism | publisher=[[Haymarket Books]] | date=2010 | isbn=978-1-60846-091-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Wilson | first=Kevin A. | title=The Electric Vehicle Revolution | publisher=[[Quarto Publishing]] | date=2023 | isbn=978-0-7603-7831-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Wiser | first=Wendell H. | title=Energy Resources: Occurrence, Production, Conversion, Use | publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] | date=2012 | isbn=978-1-4612-1226-3}}
* {{cite journal | last1=Zhou | ref={{sfnref|Zhou et al.|2011}} | first1=Chengke | last2=Qian | first2=Kejun | last3=Allan | first3=Malcolm | last4=Zhou | first4=Wenjun | title=Modeling of the Cost of EV Battery Wear Due to V2G Application in Power Systems | journal=[[List of IEEE publications|IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion]] | volume=26 | issue=4 | date=2011 | issn=0885-8969 | doi=10.1109/TEC.2011.2159977 | pages=1041–1050 | url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5958591/ | access-date=November 15, 2025}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513004320/http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=622 Eulogy for the EV1], ''EV World'' (archived through the [[Wayback Machine]])
* {{cite book |url=https://www.saturnofdanvers.com/p/daniel-and-his-electric-car-kids-book.html |title=Daniel and His Electric Car |first=Ann |last=Hegnauer |publisher=[[General Motors]] |quote=A children's book explaining the EV1.}}


{{General Motors}}

[[Category:General Motors vehicles|EV1]]
[[Category:Vehicles built in Lansing, Michigan]]
[[Category:1990s cars]]
[[Category:Production electric cars]]
[[Category:Electric vehicles introduced in the 20th century]]