View source for General semantics

{{Short description|School of thought on cognition and problem-solving}}
{{For|semantics in general|Semantics}}
{{Distinguish|Generative semantics}}

'''General semantics''' is a [[school of thought]] that incorporates [[philosophy|philosophic]] and [[science|scientific]] aspects. Although it does not stand on its own as a separate [[list of schools of philosophy|school of philosophy]], a separate [[science]], or an [[academic discipline]], it describes itself as a scientifically [[empiricism|empirical]] approach to [[cognition]] and [[problem solving]]. It has been described by nonproponents as a [[self-help]] system, and it has been criticized as having [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] aspects, but it has also been favorably viewed by various scientists as a useful set of [[analysis|analytical]] tools albeit not its own science.

General semantics is concerned with how [[phenomenon|phenomena]] (observable events) translate to [[perception]]s, how they are further modified by the [[name]]s and [[labelling|labels]] we apply to them, and how we might gain a measure of control over our own cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses. Proponents characterize general semantics as an antidote to certain kinds of [[Delusion|delusional thought]] patterns in which incomplete and possibly warped mental constructs are projected onto the world and treated as reality itself. Accurate [[map–territory relation]]s are a central theme.

After partial launches under the names ''human engineering'' and ''humanology'',<ref>{{cite book |author=Korzybski, Alfred |title=Time-Binding: The General Theory. Two Papers 1924–1926 |publisher=Institute of General Semantics |location=Lakeville, CT |year=1974 |pages=(5), 54}}</ref> Polish-American originator [[Alfred Korzybski]]<ref name="kodish1">{{cite book |author=Kodish, Bruce I. |title=Korzybski: A Biography |publisher=Extensional Publishing |location=Pasadena, CA |year=2011 |page=257 |isbn=978-0-9700664-0-4}}</ref> (1879–1950) fully launched the program as ''general semantics'' in 1933 with the publication of ''[[Science and Sanity]]: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics''.

In ''Science and Sanity'', general semantics is presented as both a theoretical and a practical system whose adoption can reliably alter human behavior in the direction of greater sanity. In the 1947 preface to the third edition of ''Science and Sanity'', Korzybski wrote: "We ''need not'' blind ourselves with the old dogma that 'human nature cannot be changed', for we find that it ''can be changed''."<ref name="korzybski1">{{cite book |author=Korzybski, Alfred |title=Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics |edition=5th |publisher=Institute of General Semantics |location=Brooklyn, NY |year=1994 |isbn=0-937298-01-8 |page=xxxv}}</ref> While Korzybski considered his program to be empirically based and to strictly follow the scientific method, general semantics has been described as veering into the domain of [[pseudoscience]].<ref name=Gardner/>

Starting around 1940, university English professor [[S.&nbsp;I. Hayakawa]] (1906–1992), speech professor [[Wendell Johnson]], speech professor Irving J. Lee, and others assembled elements of general semantics into a package suitable for incorporation into mainstream communications curricula. The [[Institute of General Semantics]], which Korzybski and co-workers founded in 1938,<ref>Kodish, Bruce I. ''Korzybski: A Biography'', p. 440.</ref> continues today. General semantics as a movement has waned considerably since the 1950s, although many of its ideas live on in other movements, such as [[media literacy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoffman |first1=Gregg |title=Media literacy and general semantics |journal=ETC: A Review of General Semantics |date=April 2004 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=29–31 |jstor=42580191 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42580191 |access-date=5 August 2022}}</ref> [[neuro-linguistic programming]]<ref>Linder-Pelz, S. and Hall, L.M., 2007. The theoretical roots of NLP-based coaching. The Coaching Psychologist, 3(1), pp. 12–17.</ref><ref>Wmediaitkowski, Tomasz. "A review of research findings on neuro-linguistic programming". Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (2011)</ref> and [[rational emotive behavior therapy]].<ref>Ellis, Albert. "General Semantics and Rational-Emotive Therapy". ''General Semantics Bulletin,'' 1993, Number 58. Institute of General Semantics, Englewood, NJ. pp. 12–28.</ref>

== Overview ==

=== "Identification" and "the silent level" ===
In the 1946 "Silent and Verbal Levels" diagram,<ref name="image1">[[Marjorie Kendig|Kendig, M.]], "Alfred Korzybski's 'An Extensional Analysis of the Process of Abstracting from an Electro-Colloidal Non-Aristotelian Point of View.'" ''General Semantics Bulletin,'' Autumn–Winter 1950–51, Numbers Four & Five. Institute of General Semantics, Lakeville, CT. pp. 9–10.</ref> the arrows and boxes denote ordered stages in human neuro-evaluative processing that happens in an instant. Although newer knowledge in biology has more sharply defined what the text in these 1946 boxes labels "electro-colloidal",<ref>Wright, Barbara E., "The Hereditary-Environment Continuum: Holistic Approaches at 'One Point in Time' and in 'All Time'". ''General Semantics Bulletin,'' 1986, Number 52. Institute of General Semantics, Englewood, NJ. pp. 43–44. Wright, professor of biology at the University of Montana, wrote, "In the 1930s, when Korzybski wrote about colloids, they represented the frontier of our emerging knowledge about the complex interdependence of cellular structures and biochemical systems.... Today, the word colloid is used very rarely; I could not find it in the indices of several current textbooks of biochemistry. Perhaps this change in usage came about because we now know so much more about individual kinds of colloids; the word became so all-inclusive as to lose its usefulness."</ref> the diagram remains, as Korzybski wrote in his last published paper in 1950, "satisfactory for our purpose of explaining briefly the most general and important points".<ref name="korzybski2">Blake, Robert R. and Glenn V. Ramsey, editors (1951). ''Perception: An Approach to Personality''. New York: Ronald Press, pp. 170–205; chapter 7: "The Role of Language in the Perceptual Process" by Alfred Korzybski, p. 172.</ref> General semantics postulates that most people "identify," or fail to differentiate the serial stages or "levels" within their own neuro-evaluative processing. "Most people," Korzybski wrote, "''identify in value'' levels I, II, III, and IV and react ''as if'' our verbalizations about the first three levels were 'it.' Whatever we may say something 'is' obviously ''is not'' the 'something' on the silent levels."<ref name=korzybski2/> 
[[File:G semantics1946model.png|thumb|[[Institute of General Semantics]] "Silent and Verbal Levels" diagram, circa 1946<ref name=image1/>]]

By making it a 'mental' habit to find and keep one's bearings among the ordered stages, general semantics training seeks to sharpen internal orientation much as a [[GPS]] device may sharpen external orientation. Once trained, general semanticists affirm, a person will act, respond, and make decisions more appropriate to any given set of happenings. Although producing saliva constitutes an appropriate response when lemon juice drips onto the tongue, a person has inappropriately identified when an imagined lemon or the word "l–e–m–o–n" triggers a salivation response.

"Once we differentiate, differentiation becomes the denial of identity," Korzybski wrote in ''Science and Sanity''. "Once we discriminate among the objective and verbal levels, we learn 'silence' on the unspeakable objective levels, and so introduce a most beneficial neurological 'delay'—engage the cortex to perform its natural function."<ref>Korzybski, ''Science and Sanity'' (5th ed.), p. 404.</ref> British-American philosopher [[Max Black]], an influential critic of general semantics, called this neurological delay the "central aim" of general semantics training, "so that in responding to verbal or nonverbal stimuli, we are aware of what it is that we are doing".<ref>{{cite book |author=Black, Max |title=Language and Philosophy: Studies in Method |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY. |page=239}} Black's chapter about general semantics originated as an April 1946 lecture at the State University of Iowa.</ref>

=== Abstracting and consciousness of abstracting ===
Identification prevents what general semantics seeks to promote: the additional cortical processing experienced as a delay. Korzybski called his remedy for identification "consciousness of [[abstraction|abstracting]]."<ref>Korzybski, Alfred. ''Science and Sanity'' (5th ed.). p. 500</ref> The term "abstracting" occurs ubiquitously in ''Science and Sanity.'' Korzybski's use of the term is somewhat unusual and requires study to understand his meaning.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} He discussed the problem of identification in terms of "confusions of orders of abstractions" and "lack of consciousness of abstracting".<ref>Korzybski, Alfred. ''Science and Sanity'' (5th ed.). p. 36</ref> To be conscious of abstracting is to differentiate among the "levels" described above; levels II–IV being abstractions of level I (whatever level I "is"—all we really get are abstractions). The techniques Korzybski prescribed to help a person develop consciousness of abstracting he called "extensional devices".<ref>Korzybski, Alfred. ''Science and Sanity'' (5th ed.). p. lx.</ref>

=== Extensional devices ===
Satisfactory accounts of general semantics extensional devices can be found easily.<ref>For example, a source reference for "scare quotes" and other extensional devices not treated in this article is Postman, Neil. "Alfred Korzybski," ''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', Winter 2003</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last=Hauck |first=Ben |contribution=Extensional Devices Revisited |date=October 10, 2020 |title=2020 AKML and General Semantics Symposium |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fhvqPkupXo&t=218s}}</ref> This article seeks to explain briefly only the "indexing" devices. Suppose you teach in a school or university. Students enter your classroom on the first day of a new term, and, if you identify these new students to a memory association retrieved by your brain, you under-engage your powers of observation and your cortex. Indexing makes explicit a differentiating of students<sub>this term</sub> from students<sub>prior terms</sub>. You survey the new students, and indexing explicitly differentiates student<sub>1</sub> from student<sub>2</sub> from student<sub>3</sub>, etc. Suppose you recognize one student—call her Anna—from a prior course in which Anna either excelled or did poorly. Again, you escape identification by your indexed awareness that Anna<sub>this term, this course</sub> is different from Anna<sub>that term, that course</sub>. Not identifying, you both expand and sharpen your apprehension of "students" with an awareness rooted in fresh silent-level observations.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (1947). ''10 Eventful Years: 1937 through 1946''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. Volume 4, pp. 29–32. "Semantics: General Semantics". The article, written by [[S.I. Hayakawa]], states, "Korzybski did not intend these extensional devices simply as things to say by rote or to sprinkle through one's writing. Each of them was intended to point beyond itself to subverbal levels—to observing and feeling and absorbing as directly perceived data the nonlinguistic actualities...." Explaining the name selection for the devices, Hayakawa wrote, "Appropriating from formal logic the term 'extension,' which means the aggregate of things denoted by a term (as opposed to 'intension,' the qualities of properties implied by the term), he [Korzybski] called his rules extensional devices."</ref>

=== Language as a core concern ===
[[Autoassociative memory]] in the [[memory-prediction framework|memory-prediction model]] describes neural operations in mammalian brains generally.<ref>Hawkins, Jeff. ''On Intelligence''. p. 99.</ref> A special circumstance for humans arises with the introduction of language components, both as fresh stimuli and as stored representations. Language considerations figure prominently in general semantics, and three language and communications specialists who embraced general semantics, university professors and authors [[S.I. Hayakawa|Hayakawa]], [[Wendell Johnson]] and [[Neil Postman]], played major roles in framing general semantics, especially for non-readers of ''Science and Sanity''.

=== Criticism ===
Korzybski wrote in the preface to the third edition of ''Science and Sanity'' (1947) that general semantics "turned out to be an empirical natural science".<ref>Korzybski, Alfred. ''Science and Sanity'' (5th ed.). p. xxxiv.</ref>  But the type of existence, if any, of [[universals]] and [[abstract objects]] is an issue of serious debate within [[Philosophy#Metaphysics|metaphysical philosophy]]. So [[Max Black|Black]] summed up general semantics as "some hypothetical neurology fortified with dogmatic metaphysics".<ref name="Black1">Black, Max. ''Language and Philosophy: Studies in Method''. p. 246.</ref> And in 1952, two years after Korzybski died, American skeptic [[Martin Gardner]] wrote, "[Korzybski's] work moves into the realm of cultism and pseudo-science."<ref name=Gardner>Gardner, Martin (1957). ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science''. New York: Dover Publications. ch. 23, pp. 280–291.</ref>
 
Former [[Institute of General Semantics]] executive director Steve Stockdale has compared GS to [[yoga]]. "First, I'd say that there is little if any benefit to be gained by just ''knowing'' something about general semantics. The benefits come from maintaining an awareness of the principles and attitudes that are derived from GS and applying them as they are needed. You can sort of compare general semantics to yoga in that respect... knowing about yoga is okay, but to benefit from yoga you have to ''do'' yoga."<ref name="Stockdale_Folly">{{cite news|title=FOLLY with Steve Stockdale |url=http://www.follymag.com/follyinterviews.html |publisher=FollyMag |date=June 2007 |access-date=2011-10-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425021231/http://www.follymag.com/follyinterviews.html |archive-date=2012-04-25 }} Stockdale: "First, I'd say that there is little if any benefit to be gained by just 'knowing' something about general semantics. The benefits come from maintaining an awareness of the principles and attitudes that are derived from GS and applying them as they are needed. You can sort of compare general semantics to yoga in that respect... knowing about yoga is okay, but to benefit from yoga you have to 'do' yoga." Reprinted in Stockdale, Steve (2009). ''Here's Something about General Semantics: A Primer for Making Sense of Your World''. Santa Fe, NM: Steve Stockdale. p. 36. {{ISBN|978-0-9824645-0-2}}</ref> Similarly, Kenneth Burke explains Korzybski's kind of semantics contrasting it, in ''A Grammar of Motives'', with a kind of Burkean poetry by saying "''Semantics'' is essentially scientist, an approach to language in terms of knowledge, whereas poetic forms are kinds of action".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comm.umn.edu/burke/gm.html|title=Scholarly outline of Burke's "A Grammar of Motives" |first=Kenneth |last=Burke |year=1945|publisher=University of California Press|quote=[Burke] would encourage the "delayed response" (p. 238). Korzybski's technique recommends that an individual interpose a "moment of delay" between the "Stimulus and the Response" in order to control meaning (p. 239). According to Burke, Korzybski's doctrine of the delayed action, as based on the 'consciousness of abstracting,' involves the fact that any term for an object puts the object in a class of similar objects" (p. 240). Burke points out that Korzybski's technique falls short with regard to the "analysis of poetic forms": "For 'semantics' is essentially science, an approach to language in terms of knowledge, whereas poetic forms are kinds of action" (p. 240).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Burke|first=Kenneth|title=A Grammar of Motives|year=1945|publisher=University of California Press|pages=238–242}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Early attempts at validation ===
The First American Congress for General Semantics convened in March 1935 at the Central Washington College of Education in [[Ellensburg, Washington]]. In introductory remarks to the participants, Korzybski said: <blockquote>General semantics formulates a new experimental branch of natural science, underlying an empirical theory of human evaluations and orientations and involving a definite neurological mechanism, present in all humans. It discovers direct neurological methods for the stimulation of the activities of the human cerebral cortex and the direct introduction of beneficial neurological 'inhibition'....<ref>Korzybski, Alfred. "An Outline of General Semantics". In ''Papers from the First American Congress for General Semantics'', collected and arranged by Hansell Baugh (1938). New York: Arrow Editions. p. 1.</ref></blockquote> He added that general semantics "will be judged by experimentation".<ref>Korzybski, Alfred. "An Outline of General Semantics". In ''Papers from the First American Congress for General Semantics''. p. 4.</ref> One paper presented at the congress reported dramatic score improvements for college sophomores on standardized intelligence tests after six weeks of training by methods prescribed in Chapter 29 of ''Science and Sanity.''<ref>Trainor, Joseph C. "Experimental Results of Training in General Semantics upon Intelligence Test Scores". In ''Papers from the First American Congress for General Semantics'', pp. 58–62.</ref>

=== Interpretation as semantics ===
General semantics accumulated only a few early experimental validations. In 1938, economist and writer [[Stuart Chase]] praised and popularized Korzybski in ''The Tyranny of Words''. Chase called Korzybski "a pioneer" and described ''Science and Sanity'' as "formulating a genuine science of communication. The term which is coming into use to cover such studies is 'semantics,' matters having to do with signification or meaning."<ref>{{cite book |author=Chase, Stuart |title=The Tyranny of Words |year=1966 |publisher=Harcourt, Brace |location=New York |page=7}}</ref> Because Korzybski, in ''Science and Sanity'', had articulated his program using "semantic" as a standalone qualifier on hundreds of pages in constructions like "semantic factors," "semantic disturbances," and especially "semantic reactions," to label the general semantics program "semantics" amounted to only a convenient shorthand.<ref>Kodish, Bruce I. ''Korzybski: A Biography''. pp. 343, 439.</ref>

[[S. I. Hayakawa|Hayakawa]] read ''The Tyranny of Words,'' then ''Science and Sanity'', and in 1939 he attended a Korzybski-led workshop conducted at the newly organized [[Institute of General Semantics]] in Chicago. In the introduction to his own ''[[Language in Action]]'', a 1941 [[Book of the Month Club]] selection, Hayakawa wrote, "[Korzybski's] principles have in one way or another influenced almost every page of this book...."<ref>{{cite book |author=Hayakawa, S. I. |title=Language in Action |url=https://archive.org/details/languageinaction0000haya |url-access=registration |year=1941 |publisher=Harcourt, Brace |location=New York |page=viii}}</ref> But, Hayakawa followed Chase's lead in interpreting general semantics as making communication its defining concern. When Hayakawa co-founded the Society for General Semantics and its publication ''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'' in 1943—he would continue to edit ''ETC.'' until 1970—Korzybski and his followers at the Institute of General Semantics began to complain that Hayakawa had wrongly coopted general semantics.<ref>Kodish, Bruce I. ''Korzybski: A Biography, p. 554''.</ref> In 1985, Hayakawa gave this defense to an interviewer: "I wanted to treat general semantics as a subject, in the same sense that there's a scientific concept known as gravitation, which is independent of Isaac Newton. So after a while, you don't talk about Newton anymore; you talk about gravitation. You talk about semantics and not Korzybskian semantics."<ref>Shearer, Julie Gordon (1989). "From Semantics to the U.S. Senate: S. I. Hayakawa". This interview has been posted through the Online Archive of California. The cited statement by Hayakawa can be located via an internet search for Shearer + Hayakawa + "Keeping ETC. Independent of Korzybski" .</ref>

=== Lowered sights ===
The regimen in the Institute's seminars, greatly expanded as team-taught seminar-workshops starting in 1944, continued to develop following the prescriptions laid down in Chapter XXIX of ''Science and Sanity.'' The [[structural differential]], patented by Korzybski in the 1920s, remained among the chief training aids to help students reach "the silent level," a prerequisite for achieving "neurological delay". Innovations in the seminar-workshops included a new "neuro-relaxation" component, led by dancer and Institute editorial secretary Charlotte Schuchardt (1909–2002).

But although many people were introduced to general semantics—perhaps the majority through Hayakawa's more limited 'semantics'—superficial lip service seemed more common than the deep internalization that Korzybski and his co-workers at the Institute aimed for. [[Marjorie Kendig]] (1892–1981), probably Korzybski's closest co-worker, director of the Institute after his death, and editor of his posthumously published ''Collected Writings: 1920–1950'', wrote in 1968:<blockquote>I would guess that I have known about 30 individuals who have in some degree adequately, by my standards, mastered this highly general, very simple, very difficult system of orientation and method of evaluating—reversing as it must all our cultural conditioning, neurological canalization, etc....

To me the ''great error'' Korzybski made—and I carried on, financial necessity—and for which we pay the price today in many criticisms, consisted in not restricting ourselves to training very thoroughly ''a very few people'' who would be competent to utilize the discipline in various fields and to train others. We should have done this before encouraging anyone to popularize or spread the word (horrid phrase) in societies for general semantics, by talking ''about'' general semantics instead of learning, using, etc. the methodology to ''change'' our essential epistemological assumptions, premises, etc. (unconscious or conscious), i.e. the ''un''-learning basic to learning to learn.</blockquote>

<blockquote>Yes, large numbers of people do enjoy making a philosophy of general semantics. This saves them the pain of rigorous training so simple and general and limited that it seems obvious when ''said'', yet so difficult.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Kendig |first=Marjorie |date=1970 |title=Reflections on the State of the Discipline, 1968 |url=https://generalsemantics.org/resources/documents/gsb37-kendig.pdf |magazine=General Semantics Bulletin |edition=37 |page=70 |publisher=Institute of General Semantics |access-date=August 23, 2022}}</ref></blockquote>

Successors at the [[Institute of General Semantics]] continued for many years along the founders' path. [[Stuart Mayper]] (1916–1997), who studied under [[Karl Popper]], introduced Popper's principle of [[falsifiability]] into the seminar-workshops he led at the Institute starting in 1977. More modest pronouncements gradually replaced Korzybski's claims that general semantics can change human nature and introduce an era of universal human agreement. In 2000, [[Robert P. Pula|Robert Pula]] (1928–2004), whose roles at the Institute over three decades included Institute director, editor-in-chief of the Institute's ''General Semantics Bulletin'', and leader of the seminar-workshops, characterized Korzybski's legacy as a "contribution toward the improvement of human evaluating, to the amelioration of human woe...."<ref>{{cite book |author=Pula, Robert P. |title=A General-Semantics Glossary: Pula's Guide for the Perplexed |year=2000 |publisher=International Society for General Semantics |location=Concord, CA |isbn=0-918970-49-0 |page=viii}}</ref>

Hayakawa died in 1992. The Society for General Semantics merged into the Institute of General Semantics in 2003. In 2007, Martin Levinson, president of the Institute's Board of Trustees, teamed with Paul D. Johnston, executive director of the Society at the date of the merger, to teach general semantics with a light-hearted ''Practical Fairy Tales for Everyday Living''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Levinson, Martin H., Illustrations by Paul D. Johnston |title=Practical Fairy Tales for Everyday Living |year=2007 |publisher=iUniverse |location=Lincoln, NE |isbn=978-0-595-42140-4}}</ref>

Other institutions supporting or promoting general semantics in the 21st century include the New York Society for General Semantics,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.nysgs.org |title = New York Society for General Semantics - Home}}</ref> the European Society for General Semantics,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://esgs.free.fr/uk |title = ESGS Home page}}</ref> the Australian General Semantics Society,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ags.org.au|title= The Australian General Semantics Society}}</ref> and the [[Balvant Parekh]] Centre for General Semantics and Other Human Sciences (Baroda, India).<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://balvantparekhcentre.org.in/ | title=This site is shifted to new addr | access-date=2011-10-17 | archive-date=2012-03-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306235829/http://balvantparekhcentre.org.in/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==The major premises==
* ''Non-Aristotelianism'': While [[Aristotle]] wrote that a true definition gives the essence of the thing (defined in Greek ''[[Quiddity#Etymology|to ti ên einai]]'', literally "the what it was to be"), general semantics denies the existence of such an 'essence'.<ref>Gorman, Margaret (1962). ''General Semantics and Contemporary Thomism''. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. p. 31.</ref> In this, general semantics purports to represent an evolution in human evaluative orientation. In general semantics, it is always possible to give a ''description'' of empirical facts, but such descriptions remain just that—''descriptions''—which necessarily leave out many aspects of the objective, microscopic, and submicroscopic events they describe. According to general semantics, language, natural or otherwise (including the language called 'mathematics') can be used to ''describe'' the taste of an orange, but one cannot ''give'' the taste of the orange using language alone. According to general semantics, the ''content of all knowledge is structure'', so that language (in general) and science and mathematics (in particular) can provide people with a structural 'map' of empirical facts, but there can be no 'identity', only structural similarity, between the language (map) and the empirical facts as lived through and observed by people as humans-in-environments (including doctrinal and linguistic environments).
* ''Time binding'': The human ability to pass information and knowledge from one generation to the next. Korzybski claimed this to be a unique capacity, separating people from animals. This ''distinctly human'' ability for one generation to start where a previous generation left off, is a consequence of the uniquely human ability to move to higher and higher levels of abstraction ''without limit''. Animals may have multiple levels of abstraction, but ''their abstractions must stop at some finite upper limit''; this is not so for humans: humans can have 'knowledge about knowledge', 'knowledge about knowledge about knowledge', etc., without any upper limit. Animals possess knowledge, but each generation of animals does things pretty much in the same way as the previous generation, limited by their neurology and genetic makeup. By contrast, at one time most human societies were hunter-gatherers, but now more advanced means of food production (growing, raising, or buying) predominate. Except for some insects (for example, [[ant]]s), all animals are still hunter-gatherer species, even though many have existed longer than the human species. For this reason, animals are regarded in general semantics as ''space-binders'' (doing '''space-binding'''<!--boldface per [[WP:R#PLA]]-->),<ref name="Korzybski">{{cite book |url=https://learn.canvas.net/courses/191/pages/korzybskis-quest |title=General Semantics: An Approach to Effective Language Behavior |chapter=Korzybski's Quest |date=2014 |access-date=2021-01-27}}</ref> and plants, which are usually stationary, as ''energy-binders'' (doing '''energy-binding'''<!--boldface per [[WP:R#PLA]]-->).{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* ''Non-elementalism and non-additivity'': The refusal to separate verbally what cannot be separated empirically, and the refusal to regard such verbal splits as evidence that the 'things' that are verbally split bear an additive relation to one another. For example, space-time cannot empirically be split into 'space' + 'time', a conscious organism (including humans) cannot be split into 'body' + 'mind', etc., therefore, people should never speak of 'space' and 'time' or 'mind' and 'body' in isolation, but always use the terms space-time or mind-body (or other organism-as-a-whole terms).
* ''Infinite-valued determinism'': General semantics regards the problem of 'indeterminism vs. determinism' as the failure of pre-modern epistemologies to formulate the issue properly, as the failure to consider or include all factors relevant to a particular prediction, and failure to adjust our languages and linguistic structures to empirical facts. General semantics resolves the issue in favor of determinism of a special kind called 'infinite-valued' determinism which always allows for the possibility that relevant 'causal' factors may be 'left out' at any given date, resulting in, if the issue is not understood at that date, 'indeterminism', which simply indicates that our ability to predict events has broken down, not that the world is 'indeterministic'. General semantics considers all human behavior (including all human decisions) as, in principle, fully determined once all relevant doctrinal and linguistic factors are included in the analysis, regarding theories of 'free will' as failing to include the doctrinal and linguistic environments ''as environments'' in the analysis of human behavior.

==Connections to other disciplines==
The influence of [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and the [[Vienna Circle]], and of early [[Operationalism|operationalists]] and pragmatists such as [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], is particularly clear in the foundational ideas of general semantics. Korzybski himself acknowledged many of these influences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berman|first=Sanford I.|title=Wittgenstein and General Semantics|date=1988|journal=ETC: A Review of General Semantics|volume=45|issue=1|pages=22–25|jstor=42579411|issn=0014-164X}}</ref>

The concept of "silence on the objective level"—attributed to Korzybski and his insistence on consciousness of abstracting—are parallel to some of the central ideas in [[Buddhism]]. Although Korzybski never acknowledged any influence from this quarter, later Zen-popularizer [[Alan Watts]] was influenced by ideas from general semantics.<ref>An Impolite Interview with Alan Watts, The Realist, Issue 14, December 1959/January 1960, p. 9, https://www.ep.tc/realist/14/09.html</ref>

General semantics has survived most profoundly in the cognitive therapies that emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. [[Albert Ellis (psychologist)|Albert Ellis]] (1913–2007), who developed [[rational emotive behavior therapy]], acknowledged influence from general semantics and delivered the [[Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture]] in 1991. The [[Bruges]] (Belgium) center for [[solution-focused brief therapy]] operates under the name Korzybski Institute Training and Research Center.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.korzybski.com|title= Korzybski International}}</ref> George Kelly, creator of [[personal construct psychology]], was influenced by general semantics.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.pcp-net.org/encyclopaedia/kelly.html |title = George Kelly}}</ref> [[Fritz Perls]] and [[Paul Goodman]], founders of [[Gestalt therapy]] are said to have been influenced by Korzybski<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gestalt.org/alfred.htm|title= Alfred Korzybski and Gestalt Therapy}}</ref> [[Wendell Johnson]] wrote "People in Quandaries: The Semantics of Personal Adjustment" in 1946, which stands as the first attempt{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} to form a therapy from general semantics.

[[Ray Solomonoff]] (1926–2009) was influenced<ref>"The Discovery of Algorithmic Probability," Journal of Computer and System Sciences, Vol 55, No. 1, pp. 73–88 [https://world.std.com/~rjs/barc97.pdf (pdf version)]</ref> by Korzybski. Solomonoff was the inventor of [[algorithmic probability]], and founder of [[algorithmic information theory]] ({{aka}} [[Kolmogorov complexity]]).

Another scientist influenced by Korzybski (verbal testimony) is [[Paul Vitanyi]] (born 1944), a scientist in the theory of computation.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

During the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, general semantics entered the idiom of [[science fiction]]. Notable examples include the works of [[A. E. van Vogt]], ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' and its sequels.<ref>"Van Vogt moves on next to General Semantics, a non-Aristotelian system of logic, which he promulgated in ''The World of Null-A'' and ''The Players of Null-A''." Frederick A. Kreuziger, ''Apocalypse and science fiction: a dialectic of religious and secular soteriologies''. Scholars Press, 1982. {{ISBN|9780891305620}} (p.42)</ref> General semantics appear also in [[Robert A. Heinlein|Robert A. Heinlein's]] work, especially ''[[Gulf (Heinlein)|Gulf]]''.<ref>"Heinlein was intensely interested in the work of Alfred Korzybski from 1933, the date of publication of ''Science and Sanity'', Korzybski's masterwork and the foundation document of General Semantics." William H. Patterson and Andrew Thornton, ''The Martian Named Smith: Critical Perspectives on Robert A. Heinlein's. Stranger in a Strange Land''. Nitrosyncretic Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-9679-8742-3}} (p.44)</ref> [[Bernard Wolfe]] drew on general semantics in his 1952 science fiction novel ''Limbo''.<ref>"...&nbsp;Wolfe's incorporation of cybernetics into ''Limbo'', then, was clearly picking up on contemporary anxieties over the apparently unbridled growth of technologies&nbsp;... One of the figures he refers to positively as introducing a new way of thinking about this issue was Alfred Korzybski, the founder of the General Semantics movement." David Seed, "[https://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/72/seed72.htm Deconstructing the Body Politic in Bernard Wolfe's ''Limbo''"]. ''[[Science Fiction Studies]]'' July 1997. Retrieved 27 April 2018.</ref> [[Frank Herbert|Frank Herbert's]] novels ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]''<ref>[[Tim O'Reilly]].''Frank Herbert''. New York, NY: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., Inc., 1981. (pp. 59–60) {{ISBN|0-8044-2666-X}} . "Herbert had studied general semantics in San Francisco at about the time he was writing ''Dune''. (At one point, he worked as a ghostwriter for a nationally syndicated column by [[S. I. Hayakawa]], one of the foremost proponents of general semantics.)"</ref> and ''[[Whipping Star]]''<ref>O'Reilly, 1981 (p. 180), "The influence of General Semantics is particularly obvious in ''Whipping Star"...</ref> are also indebted to general semantics. The ideas of general semantics became a sufficiently important part of the shared intellectual toolkit of genre science fiction to merit parody by [[Damon Knight]] and others; they have since shown a tendency to reappear in the work of more recent writers such as [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Suzette Haden Elgin]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson]]. In 2008, [[John C. Wright (author)|John Wright]] extended van Vogt's Null-A series with [[Null-A Continuum]]. [[William Burroughs]] references Korzybski's time binding principle in his essay [[The Electronic Revolution]], and elsewhere. [[Henry Beam Piper]] explicitly mentioned general semantics in ''Murder in the Gunroom'', and its principles, such as awareness of the limitations of knowledge, are apparent in his later work. A fictional rendition of the ''Institute of General Semantics'' appears in the 1965 French science fiction film, [[Alphaville (film)|Alphaville]], directed by [[Jean-Luc Godard]].<ref>''Science Fiction, Language, and General Semantics'', The New York Society for General Semantics, https://nysgs.org/event-2475332</ref>

[[Neil Postman]], founder of New York University's [[media ecology]] program in 1971, edited ''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'' from 1976 to 1986. Postman's student [[Lance Strate]], a co-founder of the Media Ecology Association,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.media-ecology.org|title= Media Ecology Association}}</ref> served as executive director of the Institute of General Semantics from 2007 to 2010.

With Charles Weingartner, [[Neil Postman]] included General Semantics within the introductory background analysis in ''Teaching as a Subversive Activity'' (Delacorte, 1969). In particular, they argued that General Semantics fitted with what Postman and Weingartner referred to as the "Whorf-Sapir hypothesis", the claim that the particular language used to describe experience shapes how we perceive and understand that experience; that is, language shapes the way people think. (The "Whorf-Sapir hypothesis" is also known as [[Linguistic relativity]].)

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
'''Related fields'''
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Cognitive therapy]]
* [[E-Prime]]
* [[Gestalt therapy]]
* [[Language and thought]]
* [[Linguistic relativity]]
* [[Perceptual control theory]]
* [[Rational emotive behavior therapy]]
{{Col-break}}
'''Related subjects'''
* [[Cratylus (dialogue)|''Cratylus'' (dialogue)]]
* [[Harold Innis's communications theories]]
* [[Institute of General Semantics]]
* [[Ladder of inference]]
* [[Map–territory relation]]
* [[Neuro-linguistic programming]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* {{slink|Robert Anton Wilson#Probability reliance}}
{{Col-break}}
'''Related persons'''
* [[Aristotle]]
* [[Gregory Bateson]]
* [[Sanford I. Berman]]
* [[Albert Ellis]]
* [[Elwood Murray]]
* [[Allen Walker Read]]
* [[Wilhelm Reich]]
* [[Ida Rolf]]
* [[William Vogt]]
* [[Robert Anton Wilson]]
{{col-end}}
'''Related books'''
* ''[[Levels of Knowing and Existence]]: Studies in General Semantics'', by Harry L. Weinberg
* ''[[Language in Thought and Action]]'', by Professor [[S.I. Hayakawa]] (later a U.S. Senator), popularizing the tenets of General Semantics
* ''[[The World of Null-A]]'', a science fiction novel by [[A. E. van Vogt]], which envisions a world run by General Semanticists
* ''[[Gulf (novella)|Gulf]]'', a science fiction novella by [[Robert A. Heinlein]] (published in [[Assignment in Eternity]]), in which a [[secret society]] trained in General Semantics and the techniques of [[Samuel Renshaw]] act to protect humanity

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
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* ''Dare to Inquire: Sanity and Survival for the 21st Century and Beyond.'' by {{Interlanguage link|Bruce I. Kodish|qid=Q27076490}}, (2003). [[Robert Anton Wilson]] wrote: "This seems to me a revolutionary book on how to transcend prejudices, evade the currently fashionable lunacies, open yourself to new perceptions, new empathy and even new ideas, free your living total brain from the limits of your dogmatic verbal 'mind', and generally wake up and smell the bodies of dead children and other innocents piling up everywhere. In a time of rising rage and terror, we need this as badly as a city with plague needs vaccines and antibiotics. If I had the money I'd send a copy to every delegate at the UN."
*''Trance-Formations: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Structure of Hypnosis'' by [[Richard Bandler]] and [[John Grinder]], (1981). One of the important principles—also widely used in political propaganda—discussed in this book is that trance induction uses a language of pure process and lets the listener fill in all the ''specific content'' from their own personal experience. E.g. the hypnotist might say "imagine you are sitting in a very comfortable chair in a room painted your favorite color" but not "imagine you are sitting in a very comfortable chair in a room painted red, your favorite color" because then the listener might think "wait a second, red is not my favorite color".
*The work of the scholar of political communication [[Murray Edelman]] (1919–2001), starting with his seminal book ''The Symbolic Uses of Politics'' (1964), continuing with ''Politics as symbolic action: mass arousal and quiescience'' (1971), ''Political Language: Words that succeed and policies that fail'' (1977), ''Constructing the Political Spectacle'' (1988) and ending with his last book ''The Politics of Misinformation'' (2001) can be viewed as an exploration of the deliberate manipulation and obfuscation of the map-territory distinction for political purposes.
*''Logic and contemporary rhetoric: the use of reason in everyday life'' by Howard Kahane (d. 2001). (Wadsworth: First edition 1971, sixth edition 1992, tenth edition 2005 with Nancy Cavender.) Highly readable guide to the rhetoric of clear thinking, frequently updated with examples of the opposite drawn from contemporary U.S. media sources.
*''Doing Physics : how physicists take hold of the world'' by Martin H. Krieger, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992. A "cultural phenomenology of doing physics". The General Semantics connection is the relation to Korzybski's original motivation of trying to identify key features of the successes of mathematics and the physical sciences that could be extended into everyday thinking and social organization.
*''Metaphors We Live By'' by [[George Lakoff]] and [[Mark Johnson (professor)|Mark Johnson]], (1980).
*''Philosophy in the flesh: the embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought'' by [[George Lakoff]] and [[Mark Johnson (professor)|Mark Johnson]], (1997).
*''The Art of Asking Questions'' by Stanley L. Payne, (1951) This book is a short handbook-style discussion of how the honest pollster should ask questions to find out what people actually think without leading them, but the same information could be used to slant a poll to get a predetermined answer. Payne notes that the effect of asking a question in different ways or in different contexts can be much larger than the effect of sampling bias, which is the error estimate usually given for a poll. E.g. (from the book) if you ask people "should government go into debt?" the majority will answer "No", but if you ask "Corporations have the right to issue bonds. Should governments also have the right to issue bonds?" the majority will answer "Yes".
{{div col end}}

===Related books===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*''The art of awareness; a textbook on general semantics'' by {{Interlanguage link|J. Samuel Bois|qid=Q27070312}}, Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co., 1966, 1973, 1978; {{Interlanguage link|Gary David (general semantics)|qid=Q27070299|lt=Gary David}}, 1996.
*''Crazy talk, stupid talk: how we defeat ourselves by the way we talk and what to do about it'' by [[Neil Postman]], Delacorte Press, 1976. All of Postman's books are informed by his study of General Semantics (Postman was editor of ''ETC.'' from 1976 to 1986) but this book is his most explicit and detailed commentary on the use and misuse of language as a tool for thought.
* ''Developing sanity in human affairs'' edited by Susan Presby Kodish and Robert P. Holston, Greenwood Press, Westport Connecticut, copyright 1998, [[Hofstra University]]. A collection of papers on the subject of general semantics.
* ''Drive Yourself Sane: Using the Uncommon Sense of General Semantics, Third Edition''. by Bruce I. Kodish and Susan Presby Kodish. Pasadena, CA: Extensional Publishing, 2011.
*''General Semantics in Psychotherapy: Selected Writings on Methods Aiding Therapy'', edited by Isabel Caro and Charlotte Schuchardt Read, Institute of General Semantics, 2002.
*''Language habits in human affairs; an introduction to General Semantics'' by Irving J. Lee, Harper and Brothers, 1941. Still in print from the Institute of General Semantics. On a similar level to Hayakawa.
*''The language of wisdom and folly; background readings in semantics'' edited by Irving J. Lee, Harper and Row, 1949. Was in print (ca. 2000) from the International Society of General Semantics—now merged with the Institute of General Semantics. A selection of essays and short excerpts from different authors on linguistic themes emphasized by General Semantics—without reference to Korzybski, except for an essay by him.
*"Language Revision by Deletion of Absolutisms," by Allen Walker Read. Paper presented at the ninth annual meeting of the Semiotic Society of America, Bloomington, IN, 13 October 1984. Published in ETC: A Review of General Semantics. V42n1, Spring 1985, pp.&nbsp;7–12.
*<cite>Living With Change</cite>, Wendell Johnson, Harper Collins, 1972.
*''Mathsemantics: making numbers talk sense'' by Edward MacNeal, HarperCollins, 1994. Penguin paperback 1995. Explicit General Semantics combined with numeracy education (along the lines of [[John Allen Paulos]]'s books) and simple statistical and mathematical modelling, influenced by MacNeal's work as an airline transportation consultant. Discusses the fallacy of Single Instance thinking in statistical situations.
*''Operational philosophy: integrating knowledge and action'' by [[Anatol Rapoport]], New York: Wiley (1953, 1965).
*''People in Quandaries: the semantics of personal adjustment'' by [[Wendell Johnson]], 1946—still in print from the Institute of General Semantics. Insightful book about the application of General Semantics to psychotherapy; was an acknowledged influence on Richard Bandler and John Grinder in their formulation of [[Neuro-Linguistic Programming]].
*''Semantics'' by Anatol Rapoport, Crowell, 1975. Includes both general semantics along the lines of Hayakawa, Lee, and Postman and more technical (mathematical and philosophical) material. A valuable survey. Rapoport's autobiography ''Certainties and Doubts : A Philosophy of Life'' (Black Rose Books, 2000) gives some of the history of the General Semantics movement as he saw it.
*''Your Most Enchanted Listener'' by Wendell Johnson, Harper, 1956. Your most enchanted listener is yourself, of course. Similar material as in ''People in Quandaries'' but considerably briefer.
{{div col end}}

===Related academic articles===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Bramwell, R. D. (1981). The semantics of multiculturalism: a new element in curriculum. ''Canadian Journal of Education'', Vol. 6, No. 2 (1981), pp.&nbsp;92–101.
* Clarke, R. A. (1948). General semantics in art education. ''[[The School Review]]'', Vol. 56, No. 10 (Dec., 1948), pp.&nbsp;600–605.
* Chisholm, F. P. (1943). Some misconceptions about general semantics. ''[[College English]]'', Vol. 4, No. 7 (Apr., 1943), p.&nbsp;412–416.
* Glicksberg, C. I. (1946) General semantics and the science of man. ''[[Scientific Monthly]]'', Vol. 62, No. 5 (May, 1946), pp.&nbsp;440–446.
* Hallie, P. P. (1952). A criticism of general semantics. ''College English'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (Oct., 1952), pp.&nbsp;17–23.
* Hasselris, P. (1991). From Pearl Harbor to Watergate to Kuwait: "Language in Thought and Action". ''[[The English Journal]]'', Vol. 80, No. 2 (Feb., 1991), pp.&nbsp;28–35.
* Hayakawa, S. I. (1939). General semantics and propaganda. ''[[Public Opinion Quarterly]]'', Vol. 3 No. 2 (Apr., 1939), pp.&nbsp;197–208.
* Kenyon, R. E. (1988). The Impossibility of Non-identity Languages. ''General Semantics Bulletin'', No. 55, (1990), pp.&nbsp;43–52.
* Kenyon, R. E. (1993). E-prime: The Spirit and the Letter. ''ETC: A Review of General Semantics''. Vol. 49 No. 2, (Summer 1992). pp.&nbsp;185–188
* Krohn, F. B. (1985). A general semantics approach to teaching business ethics. ''Journal of Business Communication'', Vol. 22, Issue 3 (Summer, 1985), pp 59–66.
* Maymi, P. (1956). General concepts or laws in translation. ''The Modern Language Journal'', Vol. 40, No. 1 (Jan., 1956), pp.&nbsp;13–21.
* O'Brien, P. M. (1972). The sesame land of general semantics. ''The English Journal'', Vol. 61, No. 2 (Feb., 1972), pp.&nbsp;281–301.
* Rapaport, W. J. (1995). Understanding understanding: syntactic semantics and computational cognition. ''Philosophical Perspectives'', Vol. 9, AI, Connectionism and Philosophical Psychology (1995), pp.&nbsp;49–88.
* Thorndike, E. L. (1946). The psychology of semantics. ''[[American Journal of Psychology]]'', Vol. 59, No. 4 (Oct., 1946), pp.&nbsp;613–632.
* Whitworth, R. (1991). A book for all occasions: activities for teaching general semantics. ''The English Journal'', Vol. 80, No. 2 (Feb., 1991), pp.&nbsp;50–54.
* Youngren, W. H. (1968). General semantics and the science of meaning. ''College English'', Vol. 29, No. 4 (Jan., 1968), pp.&nbsp;253–285.
{{div col end}}

==External links==
*[http://www.generalsemantics.org/ Institute of General Semantics]
*[http://www.gsemantics.com/ Institute of General Semantics in Europe]
*[https://www.nysgs.org/ New York Society for General Semantics]
*[http://esgs.free.fr/uk/gshome.htm European Society For General Semantics]
*[http://www.ags.org.au/ Australian General Semantics Society]
*[http://www.dh.id.au/etcindex.html ETC A Review of General Semantics Index] 

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[[Category:General semantics| ]]
[[Category:1933 introductions]]