View source for Germania

{{Short description|Historical region in north-central Europe}}
{{Distinguish|Germany}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Germanias.png|thumb|400x400px|Several different regions called Germania (modern borders in green)]]
'''Germania''' ({{IPAc-en|dʒ|ər|ˈ|m|eɪ|n|i|.|ə}} {{respell|jər|MAY|nee|ə}}; {{IPA|la|ɡɛrˈmaːni.a|lang}}), also more specifically called '''Magna Germania''' (English: ''Greater Germania''), '''Germania Libera''' (English: ''Free Germania''), or '''Germanic [[Barbaricum]]''' to distinguish it from the Roman provinces of [[Germania Inferior]] and [[Germania Superior]], was a [[historical region]] in north-central Europe during the [[Roman era]], which was associated by Roman authors with the [[Germanic peoples]]. According to Roman geographers, this region stretched roughly from the [[Rhine]] in the west to the [[Vistula]] in the east, and to the [[Danube#Sectioning|Upper Danube]] in the south, and the known parts of southern [[Scandinavia]] in the north. Archaeologically, these people correspond roughly to the [[Roman Iron Age]] of those regions. 

The [[Latin]] name ''Germania'' means "land of the [[Germani]]", but the [[etymology]] of the name ''Germani'' itself is uncertain. During the [[Gallic Wars]] of the 1st century BC, the Roman general [[Julius Caesar]] encountered ''Germani'' originating from beyond the [[Rhine]]. He referred to their lands beyond the Rhine as "Germania". West of the Rhine, the prosperous [[Roman province]]s of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as "Roman Germania", were established in northeast [[Roman Gaul]], while territories east of the Rhine remained independent of Roman control. The Roman emperors also sought to expand east of the Rhine to the [[Elbe]], but these efforts were hampered by the victory of [[Arminius]] at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in 9 AD. 

From the 3rd century AD, Germanic peoples moving out of Magna Germania began encroaching upon and occupying parts of Roman Germania. This contributed to the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century AD, after which territories of Roman Germania were captured and settled by [[Migration Period|migrating]] Germanic people. Large parts of Germania subsequently became part of the [[Frankish Empire]] and later [[East Francia]]. The [[name of Germany]] in English and many other languages is derived from the name ''Germania''.

==Etymology==
{{Quote box
 |quote = "The name '''Germany''', on the other hand, they say, is modern and newly introduced, from the fact that the tribes which first crossed the Rhine and drove out the Gauls, and are now called Tungrians, were then called Germans. Thus what was the name of a tribe, and not of a race, gradually prevailed, till all called themselves by this self-invented name of Germans, which the conquerors had first employed to inspire terror."<ref name="Tacitus_II"/><ref name="Murdoch_55"/>
 |author = — [[Tacitus]]
 |source =
 |align =
 |width = 35%
}}

In [[Latin]], the name ''Germania'' means "lands where people called [[Germani]] live".<ref>{{harvnb|James|Krmnicek|2020|pp=XI, XVII}}. "Augustus, Rome's first emperor, tried to conquer ''Germania'' ("land of the people(s) called ''Germani''") but failed.... ''Germania'' means "lands where people called ''Germani'' live". The etymological origins of the word ''Germanus'' remain obscure. It might well, as Tacitus claimed (''Germania'' 2), originally have been the name of one small group, which was picked up by the Greeks and Romans, perhaps following Gaulish usage, and applied to any other foreign neighbours considered similar in language and other aspects of culture."</ref> Modern scholars do not agree on the etymology of the name ''Germani''. [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] and Latin etymologies have been suggested.{{sfn|Todd|2004|p=9}}

The main source on the origin of the names ''Germania'' and ''Germani'' is the book ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' (98 AD) by [[Tacitus]].<ref name="Murdoch_55">{{harvnb|Murdoch|2004|p=55}}. "[T]he origins of the name “Germani” are uncertain. Our main source for this, as for so much about Germany at this period, is Tacitus, whose Germania, subtitled On the Origin and Geography of Germany (De origine et situ Germanorum) was completed toward the end of the first century. He suggests that the name is a modern invention. “It comes from the fact,” he tells us in the second chapter of the Germania, “that the tribes which first crossed the Rhine and drove out the Gauls, and are now called Tungrians, were then called Germans. Thus what was the name of a tribe, and not of a race, gradually prevailed, till all called themselves by this self-invented name of Germans, which the conquerors had first employed to inspire terror.” It is as plausible an explanation as any..."</ref> Tacitus writes that the name ''Germania'' was "modern and newly introduced". According to Tacitus, the name ''Germani'' had once been applied only to the [[Tungri]], west of the Rhine, but it became an "artificial name" (''[[:wikt:inventus|invento]] [[:wikt:nomen#Latin|nomine]]'') for supposedly-related peoples east of the Rhine.<ref name="Tacitus_II">{{harvnb|Tacitus|1876a|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:Germania (Church & Brodribb)#II|II]]</ref><ref name="Murdoch_55"/> Many modern scholars consider Tacitus's story to be plausible, but they are unsure whether the name was commonly used by ''Germani'' to refer to themselves.{{sfn|Todd|2004|p=9}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2005|p=4}}{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XVII}}<ref name="Murdoch_55"/>

==Geography==
[[File:Ptolemaeus Magna Germania.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|15th-century map of Germania as described by [[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy]] in ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)]]'' ({{Circa|150}} AD)]]
The boundaries of Germania are not clearly defined, particularly at its northern and eastern fringes.{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}} Magna Germania stretched approximately from the [[Rhine]] in the west to beyond the [[Vistula]] river in the east, and from the [[Danube]] in the south and northwards along the [[North Sea|North]] and [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] seas, including [[Scandinavia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heather|2007|p=49}}. "Germanic-speaking groups dominated most of central and northern Europe beyond Rome's riverine frontiers. The Germani, as the Romans called them, spread all the way from the Rhine in the west (which, before the Roman conquest, had marked an approximate boundary between Europe's Germanic and Celtic speakers) to beyond the River Vistula in the east, and from the Danube in the south to the North and Baltic Seas."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}}. "In recent decades, a vast amount of new information has been discovered and published about the peoples and cultures of the region, both inside the empire (in ''Germania Superior'', ''Germania Inferior'', and other nearby provinces) and beyond the imperial frontiers in ''Germania Magna'' ('Great Germany' or central European ''Barbaricum''). This vast and (especially to the east and north) ill-defined and fluid region spanned what today comprises multiple modern countries from the Netherlands to Poland, and from Scandinavia to the Danube..."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wolfram|1999|p=466}}. "Germania, an area, roughly speaking, between the oceans in the north and the Danube in the south, the Rhine in the west and the Vistula in the east. This ancient Germania also included Scandinavia, which was considered to be an island in the Baltic Sea."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|1988|p=5}}. "What the Romans knew as Germania was the area between the Rhine and the Danube, extending possibly as far as the Vistula, and including in north Denmark and the southern parts of Norway and Sweden."</ref> [[Germania Superior]] encompassed parts of modern-day Switzerland, southwest Germany and eastern France, while [[Germania Inferior]] encompassed much of modern-day Belgium and Netherlands.{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}}

In his ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' (AD 150), the Roman geographer [[Ptolemy]] provides descriptions of the geography of Germania.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} Modern scholars have been able to localize many of the place names mentioned by Ptolemy, and associated them with place names of the present day.{{sfn|Kleineberg|Lelgemann|Knobloch|Marx|2012}}

Germania was inhabited by a large number of peoples, and there was not much unity among them.{{sfn|Heather|2007|p=53}} It appears that Germania was not entirely inhabited by [[Germanic peoples]]. [[Hydronymy]] provides evidence for the presence of another Indo-European group, which probably lived under Germanic domination.<ref>{{harvnb|Heather|2007|p=53}}. "While the territory of ancient Germania was clearly dominated in a political sense by Germanic-speaking groups, it has emerged that the population of this vast territory was far from entirely Germanic... [Germanic] expansion did not annihilate the indigenous, non-Germanic population of the areas concerned, so it is important to perceive Germania as meaning ''Germanic-dominated Europe''."</ref>

[[File:Nordic Bronze Age.png|thumb|Area of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, which is considered ancestral to the [[Germanic people]], {{Circa|1750}}–500 BC<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Karl Horst|author-link1=:de:Karl Horst Schmidt|year=1991|title=The Celts and the Ethnogenesis of the Germanic People|journal=[[Historische Sprachforschung]]|publisher=[[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]]|volume=104|issue=1|pages=129–152|jstor=40849016}}</ref>]]

== History ==
{{Further|Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic tribes}}
[[File:Germania romana.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Roman province of [[Germania Antiqua]] (marked in yellow), from 7 BC to AD 9]] 

During the [[Gallic Wars]] of the 1st century BC, the Roman general [[Julius Caesar]] came into contact with peoples originating east of the Rhine. In his ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'', Caesar refers to these peoples as the Germani, and the lands from where they originated as Germania.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} The Romans appear to have borrowed the name from the [[Gauls]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wolfram|1999|p=467}}. "The Romans borrowed the Germanic name from the conquered Gauls... Caesar did not discover the Germans..."</ref> Having defeated the Germanic chieftain [[Ariovistus]] in [[Gaul]], Caesar built [[Caesar's Rhine bridges|bridges]] across the Rhine and conducted punitive expeditions in Germania.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolfram|2005|p=6}}. "Caesar advanced into Germania..."</ref> He writes the area was composed of numerous Germanic states, which were not entirely united.<ref name="Caesar_5_55">{{harvnb|Caesar|1869|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 5#55|5. 55]]</ref><ref name="Caesar_6_32">{{harvnb|Caesar|1869|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#32|6. 32]]</ref> According to Caesar, the Gallic [[Volcae Tectosages]] had once crossed the Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to the Germani.<ref name="Caesar_6_24">{{harvnb|Caesar|1869|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#24|6. 24]]</ref> He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the [[Belgae]] claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders.<ref name="Caesar_2_3">{{harvnb|Caesar|1869|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2#3|2. 3–4]]</ref>

{{Quote box
 |quote = "There are still to be seen in the groves of Germany the Roman standards which I hung up to our country's gods... [O]ne thing there is which Germans will never thoroughly excuse, their having seen between the Elbe and the Rhine the Roman rods, axes, and toga... If you prefer your fatherland, your ancestors, your ancient life to tyrants and to new colonies, follow as your leader Arminius to glory and to freedom..."<ref name="Tacitus_1_59">{{harvnb|Tacitus|1876b|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#59|1. 59]]</ref>
 |author = — [[Arminius]]
 |source =
 |align =
 |width = 30%
}}

In the late 1st century BC, the Roman emperor [[Augustus]] launched [[Early Imperial campaigns in Germania|campaigns]] across the Rhine, and incorporated areas of Germania as far east as the [[Elbe]] into the [[Roman Empire]], creating the short-lived Roman province of [[Germania Antiqua]] in 7 BC, with further aims of establishing a greater province of Magna Germania, with headquarters at [[Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium|Colonia]] (modern-day [[Cologne]]). The Roman campaign was severely hampered by the victory of [[Arminius]] at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in AD 9.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in [[European history]].{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=57}} The Rhine eventually became the border between the Roman Empire and Magna Germania. Areas of northeast [[Gaul]] bordering the Rhine remained under Roman control, and are often referred to as "Roman Germania". Four [[Roman legion]]s were stationed there, and a Roman fleet, the ''[[Classis Germanica]]'', was also established. The area was effectively governed as [[Roman province]]s.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}}

Areas of Germania independent of Roman control were referred to as "Magna Germania".{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} Modern scholars sometimes refer to the Magna Germania as "Free Germania" (Latin: ''Germania Libera'') or Germanic [[Barbaricum]].{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XIII}} As parts of Roman [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] efforts, large numbers of Germani, including [[Ubii]] and [[Sicambri]], were settled within Roman Germania in order to prevent revolts by resident Gauls. Roman Germania became characterized by a mixed Celtic, Germanic and Roman population, which became progressively [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]].{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}}{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}}

By the mid 1st century AD, between eight and ten Roman legions were stationed in Roman Germania to protect the frontiers. From AD 69 to AD 70, Roman Germania was heavily affected by the [[Revolt of the Batavi]].{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} Tacitus writes that the leader of the revolt, [[Gaius Julius Civilis]], recruited a vast amount of warriors from his self-described "kinsmen" all over Germania,  and hailed Arminius for having liberated Germania from slavery.<ref name="Tacitus_4_14">{{harvnb|Tacitus|1876c|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#14|4. 14]]</ref><ref name="Tacitus_4_17">{{harvnb|Tacitus|1876c|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#17|4. 17]]</ref><ref name="Tacitus_4_28">{{harvnb|Tacitus|1876c|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#28|4. 28]]</ref> Civilis' rebels seized Colonia (modern-day [[Cologne]]), capital of Roman Germania and home of the Germanic Ubii, who according to Tacitus were considered traitors by other Germani for having "forsworn its native country".<ref name="Tacitus_4_28"/>{{sfn|Clay|2008|pp=136–138}} After initially seeking to raze all of Colonia to the ground, the forces of Civilis declared the city returned "into the unity of the German nation and name" and  "an open city for all Germans".<ref name="Tacitus_4_63">{{harvnb|Tacitus|1876c|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#63|4. 63–65]]</ref>{{sfn|Clay|2008|pp=136–138}} Although initially declaring the rebels and "other Germans" their "kinsmen by blood", the Ubii, a Germanic Tribe eventually assisted the Romans in recapturing the Colonia.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}}<ref name="Tacitus_4_63"/>

[[File:Imperium Romanum Germania.png|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Map of the [[Roman Empire]] and Magna Germania in the early 2nd century AD]]

In the late 1st century AD, under the leadership of the [[Flavian dynasty]], the provinces of Germania Inferior (headquartered at Colonia) and Germania Superior (headquartered at [[Roman Mogontiacum|Mogontiacum]]) were created out of Roman Germania and other eastern parts of [[Roman Gaul]]. They hosted a large military force and carried out lucrative trade with Magna Germania, which greatly contributed to the wealth of Roman Gaul.{{sfn|Drinkwater|2012|p=612}}{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}} ''Germania'' (98 AD) by Tacitus provided vivid descriptions of the peoples of Magna Germania.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}}

In the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, the Romans reoccupied areas lying between the Rhine, Main, and Danube rivers. This area became known as the [[Agri Decumates]].{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}} Additional numbers of Germani were settled by the Romans within this area.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} The Roman fortifications on the border with Magna Germania were known as the ''[[Limes Germanicus]]''. The 3rd century AD saw the emergence of several powerful Germanic confederations in Magna Germania, such as the [[Alemanni]] and [[Franks]].{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} The [[Crisis of the Third Century]] included raids on Roman Germania by Alemanni and Franks, and the area briefly became part of the [[Gallic Empire]] established by the usurper [[Postumus]].{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} Around 280 AD, the Agri Decumates were evacuated by the Romans and occupied by Alemanni.{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}}

Under [[Diocletian]] (3rd century AD), Germania Superior was renamed ''Germania Secunda'', while Germania Inferior was renamed ''Maxima Sequanorum''. Both provinces were under the [[Diocese of Gaul]]. The provinces of Roman Germania continued to be subjected to repeated Alemannic and Frankish attacks.{{sfn|Drinkwater|2012|p=612}} In the late 4th century AD and early 5th century AD, [[Gothic Wars]] in the [[Balkans]] forced the Romans to withdraw troops from Roman Germania. In 406, a large number of people fleeing the [[Huns]] [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossed]] the Rhine from Magna Germania into Roman Germania and Gaul, leading to the eventual collapse of Roman rule there, and the emigration of large numbers of Romans, particularly Roman elites. Roman Germania was subsequently occupied by Alemanni and Franks.{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}} During subsequent centuries, peoples of Germania played a major role in dismembering what was left of the [[Western Roman Empire]].{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XII}} Large parts of Germania, including all of Roman Germania, were eventually incorporated into the [[Frankish Empire]].{{sfn|Scardigli|1998|pp=245–257}}
[[File:Germania (SM 1116).png|thumb|[[Germania (St. Paul's Church, Frankfurt am Main)|Painting]] of [[Germania (personification)|Germania]], the personification of [[Germany]] and the [[Germans]], by [[Philipp Veit]], 1836]]

==Archaeology==
{{Further|Roman Iron Age}}
From the 1st to the 4th century AD, Magna Germania corresponds archaeologically to the [[Roman Iron Age]].{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XI}} In recent years, progress in archaeology has contributed greatly to the understanding of Germania. Areas of Magna Germania were largely [[Agriculture|agrarian]], and display archaeological commonalities with each other, while being strongly differentiated from that of Roman Germania, largely due to the absence of cities and independent [[coin]]age.{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|pp=XVII-XIX}} Archaeological discoveries testify to flourishing trade between Magna Germania and the Roman Empire. [[Amber]] was a primary export out of Magna Germania, while Roman luxury goods were imported on a large scale. Such goods have been found as far as Scandinavia and [[Western Russia]].{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|pp=64–65}}

==Legacy==
{{Further|Name of Germany|Pan-Germanism|Germania (personification)}}
The name Germania is attested in [[Old English]] translations of [[Bede]] and [[Orosius]]. Since the 17th century, the most common [[name of Germany]] in [[English language|English]] has been derived from the name ''Germania''.{{sfn|James|Krmnicek|2020|p=XVI}}

==See also==
*[[Scythia]]
*[[Illyria]]
*[[Thrace]]
*[[Dacia]]
*[[Scandza]]
*[[Hibernia]]
*[[Thule]]
*[[Germania (city)]]
*[[Rhine]]

==Citations and sources==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Ancient sources===
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=Caesar |author-link=Julius Caesar |translator-last1=McDevitte |translator-first1=William Alexander |translator-last2=Bohn |translator-first2=W. S. |year=1869 |title=Commentaries on the Gallic War |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War}}
* {{cite book |last=Ptolemy |author-link=Ptolemy |year=1932 |title=Geography |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/home.html |publisher=[[New York Public Library]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Tacitus |author-link=Tacitus |translator-last1=Church |translator-first1=Alfred John |translator-link1=Alfred John Church |translator-last2=Brodribb |translator-first2=William Jackson |year=1876a |title=Germania |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Germania_(Church_%26_Brodribb)}}
* {{cite book |last=Tacitus |author-link=Tacitus |translator-last1=Church |translator-first1=Alfred John |translator-link1=Alfred John Church |translator-last2=Brodribb |translator-first2=William Jackson |year=1876b |title=The Annals |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)}}
* {{cite book |last=Tacitus |author-link=Tacitus |translator-last1=Church |translator-first1=Alfred John |translator-link1=Alfred John Church |translator-last2=Brodribb |translator-first2=William Jackson |year=1876c |title=The Histories |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Histories_(Tacitus)}}
{{Refend}}

===Modern sources===
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Clay |first1=Cheryl Louise |year=2008 |title=Developing the 'Germani' in Roman Studies |journal=[[Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal]] |publisher=[[Open Library of Humanities]] |volume=1 |issue=2007 |pages=131–150 |doi=10.16995/TRAC2007_131_150 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Hilda Ellis |author-link1=Hilda Ellis Davidson |date=1988 |title=Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpI2MuTZTIEC |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |isbn=0-8156-2441-7 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Drinkwater |first1=John Frederick |author-link1=John Frederick Drinkwater |date=2012 |chapter=Germania |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-2828? |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Hornblower |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link=Esther Eidinow |title=[[The Oxford Classical Dictionary]] |edition=4 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=612 |isbn=9780191735257 |access-date=January 26, 2020 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Heather |year=2007 |chapter=Germania and the Limits of the Empire |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iy9pAgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=49–100 |isbn=9780199978618 }}
* {{cite book |year=2012 |editor1-last=Kleineberg |editor1-first=Andreas |editor2-last=Lelgemann |editor2-first=Dieter |editor3-last=Knobloch |editor3-first=Eberhard |editor4-last=Marx |editor4-first=Christian |title=Germania und die Insel Thule: Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios' "Atlas der Oikumene" |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3yO2zzdfOUC |language=de |edition=2 |publisher=[[Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft]] |isbn=978-3534721795 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Murdoch |first1=Adrian |year=2004 |chapter=Germania Romana |editor1-last=Murdoch |editor1-first=Brian |editor1-link=Brian O. Murdoch |editor2-last=Read |editor2-first=Malcolm |title=[[Early Germanic Literature and Culture]] |url= |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]] |pages=55–73 |isbn=157113199X}}
* {{cite book |last1=Scardigli |first1=Barbara |year=1998 |chapter=I. Geschichte. B. Germania (Provinzname) - Germania Magna |trans-chapter=I. History. B. Germania (Provincial Name) - Germania Magna |pages=245–257 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlBOJPI5YosC&pg=PA245 |editor1-last=Beck |editor1-first=Heinrich |editor1-link=Heinrich Beck (philologist) |editor2-last=Geuenich |editor2-first=Dieter |editor2-link=Dieter Geuenich |editor3-last=Steuer |editor3-first=Heiko |editor3-link=Heiko Steuer |title=Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde |trans-title=Germani, Germania, Germanic Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3yO2zzdfOUC |series=[[Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde]] |language=de |volume=11 |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=3110158329 }}
* {{cite book |year=2020 |editor1-last=James |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon James (archaeologist) |editor2-last=Krmnicek |editor2-first=Stefan |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Roman Germany |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcjXDwAAQBAJ|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0199665730}}
* {{cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Malcolm |author-link1=Malcolm Todd (archaeologist) |year=2004 |title=The Early Germans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxXltwAACAAJ |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |isbn=1-4051-1714-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wolfram |first1=Herwig |author-link1=Herwig Wolfram |year=1999 |chapter=Germanic Tribes |editor1-last=Bowersock |editor1-first=G. W. |editor1-link=Glen Bowersock |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Peter |editor2-link=Peter Brown (historian) |editor3-last=Grabar |editor3-first=Oleg |editor3-link=Oleg Grabar |title=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World |pages=466–468 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c788wWR_bLwC |publisher=[[Belknap Press]] |isbn=0-674-51173-5 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wolfram |first1=Herwig |author-link1=Herwig Wolfram |year=2005 |title=The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_7EwDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=9780520244900 }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|ref=none |year=1998 |editor1-last=Beck |editor1-first=Heinrich |editor1-link=Heinrich Beck (philologist) |editor2-last=Geuenich |editor2-first=Dieter |editor2-link=Dieter Geuenich |editor3-last=Steuer |editor3-first=Heiko |editor3-link=Heiko Steuer |title=Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde |trans-title=Germani, Germania, Germanic Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3yO2zzdfOUC |series=[[Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde]] |language=de |volume=11 |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=3110158329 }}
*{{cite book|ref=none |date=2011 |chapter=Germany |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199548545.001.0001/acref-9780199548545-e-1367? |editor1-last=Howatson |editor1-first=M. C. |title=[[The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature]] |edition=3 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191739422 |access-date=January 26, 2020 }}
* {{cite book|ref=none |last1=Todd |first1=Malcolm |author-link1=Malcolm Todd (archaeologist) |year=2004 |chapter=Germania |title=The Early Germans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxXltwAACAAJ |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |pages=15–135 |isbn=1-4051-1714-1}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
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* [http://www.unrv.com/provinces/germania.php Germania] at UNRV.com
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{{Germanic peoples}}
{{Ancient Roman sites in Germany}}
{{Classical antiquity}}
{{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}}
{{History of the Roman Empire by European Territory}}

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[[Category:Germania| ]]
[[Category:Germany in the Roman era]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Germany]]
[[Category:Netherlands in the Roman era]]
[[Category:Prehistoric Poland]]