View source for Ghazal

{{Short description|Poetic form in many languages, originating in Arabic poetry and developed in Persian tradition}}
{{Italic title}}
{{About|the poetic form|other uses|Ghazal (disambiguation)}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2011}}

[[File:Ljs44.jpg|thumb|An illustrated headpiece from a mid-18th century collection of ghazals and [[Rubaʿi|rubāʻīyāt]] ]]

'''''Ghazal'''''{{efn|({{langx|ar|غَزَل}}, {{langx|bn|গজল}}, [[Hindi-Urdu]]: {{lang|hi|ग़ज़ल}}/{{Nastaliq|غَزَل}}, {{langx|fa|غزل}}, {{langx|az|qəzəl}}, {{langx|tr|gazel}}, {{langx|tk|gazal}}, {{langx|uz|gʻazal}}, {{langx|gu|ગઝલ}}, {{langx|pa|ਗ਼ਜ਼ਲ}})}} is a form of amatory poem or ode,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/fallon/|title=A new Hindustani-English dictionary|website=dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu|year=1879 |access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> originating in [[Arabic poetry]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Meaning of ghazal in English |url=https://www.rekhtadictionary.com/meaning-of-gazal |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Rekhta Dictionary |language=en}}</ref> that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and the beauty of love in spite of that pain.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossary-terms/ghazal|title=Ghazal|date=9 September 2018|website=Poetry Foundation|access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref>

The ghazal form is ancient, tracing its origins to 7th-century Arabic poetry. It spread into the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the 12th century due to the influence of [[Sufi]] mystics and the courts of the new [[Ghurid Sultanate|Islamic Sultanate]], and is now most prominently a form of poetry of many [[languages of South Asia]] and [[Languages of Turkey|Turkey]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ghazalpage.net/prose/notes/short_history_of_the_ghazal.html|title=A Short History of the Ghazal|last=Jalajel|first=David|website=The Ghazal Page Journal|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517040244/http://ghazalpage.net/prose/notes/short_history_of_the_ghazal.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A poem of ghazal commonly consists of five to fifteen couplets, which are independent, but are linked – abstractly, in their theme; and more strictly in their poetic form. The structural requirements of ghazal are similar in stringency to those of the [[Petrarchan sonnet]].<ref>[https://www.urdumark.com/ "Types of Urdu mark: Ghazal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102061226/https://www.urdumark.com/ |date=2020-11-02 }}, "Urdu Mark", August 8, 2012</ref> In style and content, due to its highly allusive nature, ghazal has proved capable of an extraordinary variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation.

== Etymology and pronunciation ==

The word ''ghazal'' originates from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word {{lang|ar|غزل}} (''ġazal''). This genre of Arabic poetry is derived from {{lang|ar|غَزَل}} (ḡazal) or {{lang|ar|غَزِلَ}} (ḡazila) - To sweet-talk, to flirt, to display amorous gestures.<ref name="Wiktionary Arabic">{{Cite web|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%84&oldid=71756741|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216090800/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%84|url-status=dead|title=غزل|date=March 17, 2023|archivedate=December 16, 2020|via=Wiktionary}}</ref>

The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word {{lang|ar|غزل}} ''ġazal'' is pronounced {{IPA|ar|ˈɣazal|}}. In English, the word is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|z|əl}}<ref>Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation</ref> or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|æ|z|æ|l}}.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary</ref>

== Poetic form ==
The ghazal is a short poem consisting of rhyming couplets, called ''bayt'' or ''sher''. Most ghazals have between seven and twelve ''bayts''. For a poem to be considered a true ghazal, it must have no fewer than five couplets. Almost all ghazals confine themselves to less than fifteen couplets (poems that exceed this length are more accurately considered as ''[[qasida]]s''). Ghazal couplets end with the same rhyming pattern and are expected to have the same meter. The ghazal's uniqueness arises from its rhyme and refrain rules, referred to as the {{'}}''[[qafiya]]''{{'}} and {{'}}''[[radif]]''{{'}} respectively. A ghazal's [[rhyming pattern]] may be described as AA BA CA DA, and so on.<ref name="Kanda">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUKKvNDYyUEC&pg=PA2|title=Masterpieces of Urdu Ghazal from the 17th to the 20th Century|last=Kanda|first=K.C.|publisher=Sterling Publishing|year=1992|isbn=978-81-207-1195-2|pages=2}}</ref>
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Gazal1.jpg|thumb|urdu ghazal]] -->
In its strictest form, a ghazal must follow a number of rules:

# '''''[[Matla']]''''': The first ''sher'' in a ghazal is called the {{'}}''matla{{'}}''{{'}}. Both lines of the ''matla{{'}}'' must contain the ''qafiya'' and ''radif''. The ''matla{{'}}'' sets the tone of the ghazal, as well as its rhyming and refrain pattern. 
# '''''[[Radif]]''''': The refrain word or phrase. Both lines of the ''matla{{'}}'' and the second lines of all subsequent ''shers'' must end in the same refrain word called the ''radif''. 
# '''''[[Qafiya]]''''': The rhyming pattern. The ''radif'' is immediately preceded by words or phrases with the same end rhyme pattern, called the ''qafiya''. 
# '''''[[Maqta']]''''': The last couplet of the ghazal is called the ''maqta{{'}}''. It is common in ghazals for the poet's ''nom de plume'', known as ''[[takhallus]]'' to be featured in the ''maqta{{'}}''. The ''maqta{{'}}'' is typically more personal than the other couplets in a ghazal. The creativity with which a poet incorporates homonymous meanings of their ''takhallus'' to offer additional layers of meaning to the couplet is an indicator of their skill.
# '''''[[Bahr (poetry)|Bahr]]''''': Each line of a ghazal must follow the same metrical pattern and syllabic (or [[Mora (linguistics)|morae]]) count.

Other optional rules include:

# [https://www.rekhtadictionary.com/meaning-of-misra-e-uulaa '''''Misra-e-uulaa''''']: The first line of each verse must be a statement.
# [https://www.rekhtadictionary.com/meaning-of-misra-e-saanii '''''Misra-e-sani''''']: The second line of each verse must be the proof of statement given in the first line.

Unlike in a ''[[nazm]]'', a ghazal's couplets do not need a common theme or continuity. Each sher is self-contained and independent from the others, containing the complete expression of an idea. However, the ''shers'' all contain a thematic or tonal connection to each other, which may be highly allusive.<ref name="Kanda" /> A common conceit that traces its history to the origins of the ghazal form is that the poem is addressed to a beloved by the narrator.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sells |first1=Michael |title=Early Islamic Mysticism |date=1996 |publisher=Paulist Press |location=New York |isbn=9780809136193 |pages=56–61}}</ref>
[[Abdolhamid Ziaei]] considers the content of old Persian ghazal to include four elements: love, mysticism, education or excellence, and Qalandari.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Neoclassical ghazal|date=17 November 2021 |url=https://www.mehrnews.com/news/5353920/جرأت-نگریستن-در-آیینه-نگاهی-به-کتاب-غزل-در-سایه-نیما/}}</ref>

== Interpreting a ghazal ==
The Ghazal tradition is marked by the poetry's ambiguity and simultaneity of meaning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahmed|first=Safdar|date=June 2012|title=Literary Romanticism and Islamic Modernity: The Case of Urdu Poetry|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|language=en|volume=35|issue=2|pages=434–455|doi=10.1080/00856401.2011.633300|s2cid=144687955|issn=0085-6401}}</ref> Learning the common tropes is key to understanding the ghazal.

There are several locations an Urdu ''sher'' might take place in:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pritchett |first= Frances W.|title=Nets of awareness : Urdu poetry and its critics|date=2004|publisher=Katha Books|isbn=81-87649-65-8|oclc=419075128}}</ref>

* The Garden, where the poet often takes on the personage of the [[bulbul]], a [[songbird]]. The poet is singing to the beloved, who is often embodied as a [[rose]].

<blockquote>hoon garmi-i-nishat-i-tasavvur se naghma sanj

Main andalib-i-gulshan-i-na afridah hoon

- [[Ghalib]]

''I sing from the warmth of the passionate joy of thought''

''I am the bulbul of a garden not yet created''</blockquote>

* The Tavern, or the ''maikhana'', where the poet drinks wine in search of enlightenment, union with [[God in Islam|God]], and desolation of self.

<blockquote>mir un neem-baaz ankhon men saari masti sharab ki si hai

- [[Mir Taqi Mir]]

'' 'Mir' is in those half-closed eyes'' ''all flirtation is a bit like wine''
</blockquote>

== History ==
=== Origins in Arabia ===
The ghazal originated in Arabia in the 7th century,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ghazal|title=Ghazal – Islamic literature|access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> evolving from the ''[[qasida]]'', a much older pre-Islamic Arabic poetic form.<ref name="Kanda" /> ''Qaṣīdas'' were typically much longer poems, with up to 100 couplets. Thematically, ''qaṣīdas'' did not include love, and were usually [[panegyric]]s for a tribe or ruler, lampoons, or moral maxims. However, the ''qaṣīda's'' opening prelude, called the ''[[Nasīb (poetry)|nasīb]],'' was typically nostalgic and/or romantic in theme, and highly ornamented and stylized in form. In time, the ''nasīb'' began to be written as standalone, shorter poems, which became the ghazal.<ref name=":1" />

The ghazal came into its own as a poetic genre during the Umayyad era (661–750) and continued to flower and develop in the early Abbasid era. The Arabic ghazal inherited the formal verse structure of the ''qaṣīda'', specifically, a strict adherence to meter and the use of the [[qafiya]], a common end rhyme on each couplet (called a ''bayt'' in Arabic and a ''sher'' in Persian).<ref name=":1" />

The nature of the ghazals also changed to meet the demands of musical presentation, becoming briefer in length. Lighter poetic meters, such as ''khafîf'', ''ramal'', and ''muqtarab'' were preferred, instead of longer, more ponderous meters favored for ''[[Qasida|qaṣīdas]]'' (such as ''kâmil'', ''basît'', and ''rajaz''). Topically, the ghazal focus also changed from nostalgic reminiscences of the homeland and loved ones, towards [https://www.quotencaptions.com/sunset-quotes-instagram-best-romantic-sunrise-and-sunset-captions/ romantic] or erotic themes. These included sub-genres with themes of courtly love (''udharî''), eroticism (''hissî''), homoeroticism (''mudhakkar''), and as a highly stylized introduction to a larger poem (''tamhîdî'').<ref name=":1" /><ref>Dayf, Shawqî. ''Târîkh al-Adab al-Islâmî: 2 – al-`Asr al-Islâmî'' (A History of Arab Literature: 2- The Islamic Era). Cairo: Dâr al-Ma`ârif. 1963. (pp. 347–348)</ref>

During the Umayyad and early Abbasid eras, the ghazal blossomed. It inherited the structure of the qaṣīda, focusing on meter and end rhymes. With time, it adapted for musical presentation, becoming shorter. Lighter meters were preferred, and themes shifted towards romance and eroticism.

==== Spread of the Arabian ghazal ====
With the spread of [[Islam]], the [[Arabia]]n ghazal spread both westwards, into [[Africa]] and [[Al-Andalus|Spain]], as well as eastwards, into [[Persia]]. The popularity of ghazals in a particular region was usually preceded by a spread of the [[Arabic language]] in that country. In medieval Spain, ghazals written in [[Hebrew]] as well as [[Arabic]] have been found as far back as the [[11th century]]. It is possible that ghazals were also written in the [[Mozarabic language]]. Ghazals in the Arabic form have also been written in a number of major West African literary languages like [[Hausa language|Hausa]] and [[Fula language|Fulfulde]].<ref name=":1" />

=== Dispersion into Persia ===

==== Early Arabo-Persian ghazals (10th to 11th century) ====
However, the most significant changes to the ghazal occurred in its introduction into Iran in the 10th century.<ref name="Kanda" /> The early Persian ghazals largely imitated the themes and form of the Arabian ghazal. These "Arabo-Persian" ghazals introduced two differences compared to their Arabian poetic roots. Firstly, the Persian ghazals did not employ radical enjambment between the two halves of the couplet, and secondly, the Persian ghazals formalized the use of the common rhyme in both lines of the opening couplet (''[[matla']]'').<ref name=":1" /> The imitation of Arabian forms in Persia extended to the ''qaṣīda'', which was also popular in Persia.

Because of its comparative brevity, thematic variety and suggestive richness, the ghazal soon eclipsed the ''qaṣīda'', and became the most popular poetry form in Persia.<ref name="Kanda" /> Much like Arabian ghazals, early Persian ghazals typically employed more musical meters compared to other Persian poetry forms.<ref name=":1" /> [[Rudaki]] (858–941 CE) is considered the most important Persian ghazal poet of this period, and the founder of classical Persian literature.

==== Early Persian ghazal poetry (12th to early 13th century) ====
The Persian ghazal evolved into its own distinctive form between the 12th and 13th centuries. Many of those innovations created what we now recognize as the archetypical ghazal form. These changes occurred in two periods, separated by the Mongol Invasion of Persia from 1219 to 1221 AD.

The 'Early Persian poetry' period spanned approximately one century, from the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid era]] (which lasted until 1187) till a little after the Mongol Invasion. Apart from the movement towards brevity, this period also saw two significant and lasting changes to the ghazal form.

The first change was the adoption of the ''[[Takhallus]]'', the practice of mentioning the poet's penname in the final couplet (called the {{'}}''maqta{{'}}''{{'}}). The adoption of the ''takhallus'' became a gradually accepted part of the ghazal form, and by the time of [[Saadi Shirazi]] (1210–1291 AD), the most important ghazal poet of this period, it had become ''de rigueur.''<ref name=":1" /> The second marked change from Arabian ghazal form in Persian ghazals was a movement towards far greater autonomy between the couplets.

==== Late Persian poetry in the Early Mongol Period (1221–) ====
The ghazal later spread throughout the Middle East and South Asia. It was famous all around the Indian subcontinent in the 18th and 19th centuries {{Unreliable source?|date=February 2018}}

=== Introduction into Indian subcontinent ===
{{Further|Urdu ghazal}}
[[File:Amir Khusro.jpg|thumb|Amir Khusrow teaching his disciples in a miniature from a manuscript of ''Majlis al-Ushshaq'' by [[Husayn Bayqarah]]. Amir Khusrow is considered the first Urdu poet]]
{{Quote box
| title = Excerpt from [[The Divān of Hafez|Divan-e-Hafez]]
| quote = <poem>Vin bahs bā salāse-ye ghassāle miravad
''And with the three washers (cups of wine), this dispute goeth.''
Shekkar-shekan shavand hame tutiān-e [[India|Hind]]
''Sugar-shattering (excited), have become all the parrots (poets) of [[Al-Hind|Hind]],''
Zin qand-e Pārsi ke be Bangāle miravad.
''That this [[Farsi|Persian]] candy [ode], that to [[Bengal]] goeth.''</poem>
| source = {{snds}}Jointly penned by [[Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah|Azam Shah]] and [[Hafez]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Persian |title=Persian - Banglapedia |publisher=En.banglapedia.org |date=2015-02-15 |access-date=2017-09-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911055911/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Persian |archive-date=11 September 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
| align = right
| qalign = 
| salign = left
}}

The ghazal was spread from [[Persia]] into [[Indian subcontinent]] in the 12th century{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2018}} by the influence of [[Sufi]] mystics and the courts of the new Islamic sultanates{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2018}}.   This period coincided with the early Islamic Sultanates in India, through the wave of Islamic invasions into the region in that period.

The 13th century [[Chishti]] Sufi poet [[Hasan Sijzi]] is regarded as the originator of the [[Indo-Persian culture|Indo-Persian]] ghazal.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Rebecca Ruth |title=Hasan Sijzi of Dehli and the Persian Ghazal |journal=The Sufi Journal |date=April 19, 2016 |issue=90 (Winter 2016) |pages=46–51 |url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=2767030 |access-date=9 September 2023}}</ref> Sijzi's contemporary, the poet and musician [[Amir Khusrow|Ameer Khusrow]] is not only credited as the first Urdu poet but also created [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] as we know today by merging [[Braj Bhasha|braj]], [[Khadi boli|khadhi boli]], [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and other local dialects.

During the reign of the [[Sultan of Bengal]] [[Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah]], the city of [[Sonargaon]] became an important centre of [[Persian literature]], with many publications of prose and poetry. The period is described as the "[[golden age]] of [[Persian literature]] in Bengal". Its stature is illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence with the Persian poet [[Hafez]]. When the Sultan invited Hafez to complete an incomplete ghazal by the ruler, the renowned poet responded by acknowledging the grandeur of the king's court and the literary quality of Bengali-Persian poetry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Persian|title=Persian – Banglapedia|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170102112117/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Persian|archive-date=2 January 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

It is said that [[Atul Prasad Sen]] pioneered the introduction of Bengali ghazals.<ref name="garland">{{cite book|first=Alison|last=Arnold|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2000|isbn=0-8240-4946-2|page=851}}</ref> Residing in [[Lucknow]], he was inspired by Persian ghazals and experimented with a stream of Bengali music which was later enriched profusely by the contribution of [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]] and [[Moniruddin Yusuf]].<ref name="som">{{cite book|first=Shovan|last=Som|title=Atul Prasad Sen'er Shreshtha Kabita|publisher=Bharbi|year=2002|page=142}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bf9nvzmIVvY| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211110/bf9nvzmIVvY| archive-date=2021-11-10 | url-status=live|title=Rereading Kazi Nazrul Islam|last1=Hussain|first1=Azfar| website=[[YouTube]]| date=3 April 2012|format=Video lecture|access-date=15 July 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tns.thenews.com.pk/firoza-begum-a-taste-of-bengal/|title=A taste of Bengal|last=Ali|first=Sarwat|date=21 September 2014|website=The News International|publisher=The News on Sunday|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628184010/http://tns.thenews.com.pk/firoza-begum-a-taste-of-bengal/|archive-date=28 June 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=28 June 2018|quote=Firoza Begum too sang these Bengali ghazals of Nazrul Islam}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2007/05/25/d70525140299.htm|title=Nazrul: An ardent lover of humanity|last=Islam|first=Mohammad Shafiqul|date=25 May 2007|work=The Daily Star|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204123949/http://archive.thedailystar.net/2007/05/25/d70525140299.htm|archive-date=4 February 2018|url-status=live|access-date=28 June 2018|quote=He is best known for his songs, in which he pioneered new forms such as Bengali ghazals}}</ref><ref name="MOF2">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/feature/fe0899/f1608991.html|title=Nazrul Islam: The unparalleled lyricist and composer of Bengal|last=Chaudhuri|first=Dilip|date=22 September 2006|publisher=Press Information Bureau, [[Government of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021105092034/http://pib.nic.in/feature/fe0899/f1608991.html|archive-date=5 November 2002|access-date=22 September 2006}} [http://nazrul.com.bd/nazrul/works_on_nazrul/articles/chaudhuri_lyricist.htm Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628183857/http://nazrul.com.bd/nazrul/works_on_nazrul/articles/chaudhuri_lyricist.htm |date=2018-06-28 }}</ref>

== Themes ==

=== Unconditional, superior love ===
[[File:Bodleian MS. Ouseley Add. 166 fol 13b.jpg|thumbnail|right|Layla visits Majnun in the wilderness; the story of [[Layla and Majnun]] is one of the most famous Arabic tales of unrequited, unconditional love]]
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2025}}
A common theme is unconditional love for a higher being or for a mortal beloved which may lift the poet into the ranks of the wise or will bring satisfaction to the soul of the poet. Traditional ghazal law may or may not have an explicit element of sexual desire in it, and the love may be spiritual. The love may be directed to either a man or a woman.

The ghazal is always written from the point of view of the unrequited lover whose beloved is portrayed as unattainable. Most often, either the beloved has not returned the poet's love or returns it without sincerity or else the societal circumstances do not allow it. The lover is aware and resigned to this fate but continues loving nonetheless; the lyrical impetus of the poem derives from this tension. Representations of the lover's powerlessness to resist his feelings often include lyrically exaggerated violence. The beloved's power to captivate the speaker may be represented in extended metaphors about the "arrows of his eyes", or by referring to the beloved as an assassin or a killer. Take, for example, the following couplets from [[Amir Khusro]]'s Persian ghazal ''Nemidanam che manzel būd shab'':
{{Verse translation|
{{lang|fa-Latn|namidanam chi manzil būd shab jayi ke man būdam;
be har sū raqs eh besmel būd shab jayi ke man būdam.
pari paikar negar eh sarv qaad e lalhaa rokhsar;
sarapa afat-e del būd shab jayi ke man būdam.}}
|
I wonder what was the place where I was last night,
All around me were half-slaughtered victims of love, tossing about in agony.
There was a nymph-like beloved with cypress-like form and tulip-like face,
Ruthlessly playing havoc with the hearts of the lovers.}}

=== [[Sufism]] ===
Many of the major historical ghazal poets were either avowed Sufis themselves (like [[Rumi]] or [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]]), or were sympathizers with Sufi ideas.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} Somewhat like [[America]]n [[soul music]], but with [[Depression (mood)|melancholy]] instead of [[funk]], most ghazals can be viewed in a [[Spirituality|spiritual]] context, with the Beloved being a [[metaphor]] for [[God in Islam|God]] or the poet's spiritual master. It is the intense Divine Love of Sufism that serves as a model for all the forms of love found in ghazal poetry.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Most ghazal scholars today recognize that some ghazal couplets are exclusively about [[Ishq|Divine Love]] ({{lang|fa-Latn|ishq-e-haqiqi}}). Others are about [[Love|earthly love]] ({{lang|fa-Latn|ishq-e-majazi}}), but many can be interpreted in either context.

Traditionally invoking melancholy, love, longing, and [[Metaphysics|metaphysical questions]], ghazals are often sung by Afghan, Pakistani, and Indian musicians. The form has roots in seventh-century Arabia{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2018}},{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} and gained prominence in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, thanks to such Persian poets as Rumi and Hafiz, and later to Indian poets such as [[Mirza Ghalib]]. In the eighteenth century, the ghazal was used by poets writing in Urdu. Among these poets, [[Ghalib]] is the recognized master{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2018}}.

== Important ghazal poets ==
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Ghazals were written by [[Rumi]], [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]] and [[Saadi Shirazi]] of [[Persia]]; the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] poets [[Yunus Emre]], [[Fuzuli (poet)|Fuzuli]] and [[Nasimi]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]]; [[Mirza Ghalib]] and [[Muhammad Iqbal]] of [[North India]]; and [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]] of [[Bengal]]. Through the influence of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (1749–1832), the ghazal became very popular in [[Germany]] during the 19th century; the form was used extensively by [[Friedrich Rückert]] (1788–1866) and [[August von Platen]] (1796–1835). The [[Kashmir]]i poet [[Agha Shahid Ali]] was a proponent of the form, both in English and in other languages; he edited a volume of "real Ghazals in English". Ghazals were also written by [[Motiram Bhatta|Moti Ram Bhatta]] (1866–1896), the pioneer of Nepali ghazal writing in [[Nepali language|Nepali]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.weallnepali.com/sahitya-sumana/motiram-bhatta|title=Hamza Sinwari Bhatta – We All Nepali|website=www.weallnepali.com|access-date=2016-06-21|archive-date=2020-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918110221/http://www.weallnepali.com/sahitya-sumana/motiram-bhatta|url-status=usurped}}</ref> Ghazals were also written by [[Hamza Shinwari]], He is known as the father of [[Pashto]] Ghazals.
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== Translations and performance of classical ghazal ==
Enormous collections of ghazal have been created by hundreds of well-known poets over the past thousand years in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu as well as in the Central Asian Turkic languages. Ghazal poems are performed in Uzbek-Tajik [[Shashmakom]], Turkish [[Turkish makam|Makam]], Persian [[Dastgah]] and Uyghur [[Muqam]]. There are many published translations from Persian and Turkish by [[Annemarie Schimmel]], [[Arthur John Arberry]] and many others.

Ghazal "Gayaki", the art of singing or performing the ghazal in the Indian classical tradition, is very old. Singers like Ustad Barkat Ali and many other singers in the past used to practice it, but the lack of historical records make many names anonymous. It was with [[Begum Akhtar]] and later on Ustad [[Mehdi Hassan]] that classical rendering of ghazals became popular in the masses. The categorization of ghazal singing as a form of "light classical" music is a misconception.{{Why|date=December 2020}}

Classical ghazals are difficult to render because of the varying moods of the "shers" or couplets in the ghazal. [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]], [[Amanat Ali Khan]], Begum Akhtar, [[Talat Mahmood]], [[Mehdi Hassan]], [[Abida Parveen]], [[Jagjit Singh]], [[Farida Khanum]] and Ustad [[Ghulam Ali (Ghazal singer)|Ghulam Ali]], Moinuddin Ahamed, are popular classical ghazal singers.

== Popularity ==
The ghazal has historically been one of the most popular poetic forms across the Middle East and South Asia. Even into the modern era the ghazal has retained its extreme popularity among South Asian royalty and nobility, among whom its education and patronisation has traditionally found shelter, especially with several Indian rulers including several [[Mughal emperors|Indian Emperors]] being profound composers of ghazals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anandi |first1=Sita Ram |title=Women in India: A Social and Cultural History |page=215}}</ref> In the 19th century ghazals gained popularity in [[Germany]] with [[Goethe]]'s translations, as well as with Spanish ghazal writers such as [[Federico García Lorca]]. Despite often being written in strong Urdu and rendered with classical Indian Ragas along with complex terminology most usually accessible to the upper classes, in South Asia ghazals are nonetheless popular among all ages.<ref>{{cite web |author=Karsh |title=Evolution of "Ghazal" — The Most popular form of Poetry in 21st Century |url=https://medium.com/arz-kia-hai-guru/evolution-of-ghazal-the-most-popular-form-of-poetry-in-21st-century-fd8d6a236fce |website=Medium |language=en |date=4 June 2018}}</ref> They are most popular in Turkey and South Asia, and readings or musical renditions of ghazals—such as at ''[[mehfil]]s'' and ''[[mushaira]]s''—are well attended in these countries, even by the laity. Ghazals are popular in [[Music of Bollywood|South Asian film music]]. The ragas to which ghazals are sung are usually chosen to be in consonance with their lyrical content.

The ghazal's beauty goes beyond rich or poor, or where you come from. Whether it's spoken in fancy places or sung in everyday life, its powerful words touch deep inside, staying with us for a long time.

Understanding the complex lyrics of traditional ghazals required education typically available only to the upper classes. The traditional classical ''[[raga|rāgas]]'' in which the lyrics were rendered were also difficult to understand. The ghazal has undergone some simplification in recent years, in terms of words and phrasings, which helps it to reach a larger audience around the world. Modern [[Shayar (poet)|shayar]]s (poets) are also moving towards a less strict adherence to form and rules, using simpler language and words (sometimes even incorporating words from other languages, such as English - see [[Parveen Shakir]]), and moving away from a strictly male narrator.

Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited to ''[[khyal|khayāl]], [[thumri]], [[raga|rāga]], [[Tala (music)|tāla]]'' and other classical and light classical genres. However, those forms of the ghazal are looked down on by purists of the Indian classical tradition.

In Pakistan, [[Saleem Raza (singer)|Saleem Raza]], 
[[Mehdi Hassan]], [[Noor Jehan]], [[Iqbal Bano]], [[Abida Parveen]], [[Farida Khanum]], [[Ghulam Ali (singer)|Ghulam Ali]], [[Ahmed Rushdi]], [[Ustad Amanat Ali Khan]], and [[Parvez Mehdi]] are known for ghazal renditions. Indian Singers like [[Jagjit Singh (singer)|Jagjit Singh]] (who first used a [[guitar]] in ghazals), [[Ahmed and Mohammed Hussain]], [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Adithya Srinivasan (Singer)|Adithya Srinivasan]], [[Pankaj Udhas]], [[Umbayee]] and many others have been able to give a new shape to the ghazal by incorporating elements of Western music.

=== Ghazals in other South Asian languages ===
In addition to [[Urdu language|Urdu]], ghazals have been very popular in the [[Gujarati language]]. For around a century, starting with [[Balashankar Kantharia]], there have been many notable Gujarati ghazal writers including [[Kalapi]], [[Barkat Virani]] 'Befaam', [[Asim Randeri]], Shunya Palanpuri, [[Amrut Ghayal]], [[Khalil Dhantejvi]] and many more. Some notable ghazals of those prominent writers have been sung by Bollywood playback singer [[Manhar Udhas]].

Renowned ghazal singer, and pioneer of Telugu ghazals, [[Ghazal Srinivas]] popularized the ghazal in [[Telugu language|Telugu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghazal Charitable Trust |url=http://www.ghazalcharitabletrust.com/telugu_ghazal.php |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=www.ghazalcharitabletrust.com}}</ref> Ghazals in the [[Kannada]] language were pioneered in the 1960s by poet Shantarasam, though recordings of their poetry only began to be made in the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |agency=TNN|date=Jan 26, 2013 |title=Kannada ghazals to take centre stage {{!}} Bengaluru News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/kannada-ghazals-to-take-centre-stage/articleshow/18191184.cms |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Legendary musician [[Umbayee]] composed ghazals in [[Malayalam]] and popularized this form of music across [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nair |first=Malini |title=How Kerala came to embrace the unfamiliar musical genre of ghazals |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/890155/how-kerala-came-to-embrace-the-alien-form-of-ghazals |access-date=2020-08-28 |website=Scroll.in |date=28 August 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Suresh Bhat]] popularized ghazals in the [[Marathi language]]. Some of his amazing ghazals were sung by famous artists like [[Lata Mangeshkar]] and [[Asha Bhosale]]. He was known as ''Ghazal Samrat'' (the [[Emperor]] of ghazals) for his exposition of the ghazal form of poetry and its adaptation to the [[Marathi language]]. His disciple [[Ilahi Jamadar]] continued the tradition, blending Urdu and Marathi verses in his work.

[[Kazi Nazrul Islam]] brought ghazals to the [[Bengali language]], composing numerous poems which are still famous in both [[Bangladesh]] and [[India]]. [[Teg Ali Teg]] introduced ghazals in [[Bhojpuri Language|Bhojpuri]], his ghazals collection [[Badmash Darpan]] was published in 1895.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pañcadaś Lokbhāṣā Nibandhāvalī|publisher=Bihar rashtrabhasha parishad|year=1960}}</ref>

[[Motiram Bhatta]] was the pioneer & the one who introduced the ghazal in the world of [[Nepali literature]] due to which he is called [[Ghazal Samrat]] of [[Nepali Literature]]. They have become an important part of it.

== In English ==
After nearly a century of "false starts," the early experiments of [[James Clarence Mangan]], [[James Elroy Flecker]], [[Adrienne Rich]], [[Phyllis Webb]], etc., many of whom did not adhere wholly or in part to the traditional principles of the form, experiments dubbed as "the bastard Ghazal,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wordsters.net/poetics/poetics01/01weaverprint.html |title=wordsters.net |access-date=18 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112215734/http://wordsters.net/poetics/poetics01/01weaverprint.html |archive-date=12 January 2015}}</ref> the ghazal finally began to be recognized as a viable closed form in poetry of the [[English language]] some time in the early to mid-1990s. It came about largely as a result of serious, true-to-form examples being published by noted American poets [[John Hollander]], [[W. S. Merwin]] and [[Elise Paschen]] as well as by Kashmiri-American poet [[Agha Shahid Ali]], who had been teaching and spreading word of the Ghazal at American universities over the previous two decades. [[Jim Harrison]] created his own free-form Ghazal true to his poetic vision in ''Outlyer and Ghazals'' (1971).<ref>{{Cite book|isbn = 0671208527|title = Outlyer and Ghazals|last1 = Harrison|first1 = Jim|year = 1971| publisher=Simon and Schuster }}</ref>

In 1996, Ali compiled and edited the world's first anthology of English-language ghazals, published by [[Wesleyan University Press]] in 2000, as ''Ravishing DisUnities: Real Ghazals in English''. (Fewer than one in ten of the ghazals collected in ''Real Ghazals in English'' observe the constraints of the form.)

A ghazal is composed of couplets, five or more. The couplets may have nothing to do with one another except for the formal unity derived from a strict rhyme and rhythm pattern.

A ghazal in English observes the traditional restrictions of the form:
<blockquote>
Where are you now? Who lies beneath your spell tonight?<br />
Whom else from rapture's road will you expel tonight?<br />
<br />
Those "Fabrics of Cashmere—" "to make Me beautiful—"<br />
"Trinket"— to gem– "Me to adorn– How– tell"— tonight?<br />
<br />
I beg for haven: Prisons, let open your gates–<br />
A refugee from Belief seeks a cell tonight.<br />
<br />
God's vintage loneliness has turned to vinegar–<br />
All the archangels– their wings frozen– fell tonight.<br />
<br />
Lord, cried out the idols, Don't let us be broken<br />
Only we can convert the infidel tonight.<br />
<br />
Mughal ceilings, let your mirrored convexities<br />
multiply me at once under your spell tonight.<br />
<br />
He's freed some fire from ice in pity for Heaven.<br />
He's left open– for God– the doors of Hell tonight.<br />
<br />
In the heart's veined temple, all statues have been smashed<br />
No priest in saffron's left to toll its knell tonight.<br />
<br />
God, limit these punishments, there's still Judgment Day–<br />
I'm a mere sinner, I'm no infidel tonight.<br />
<br />
Executioners near the woman at the window.<br />
Damn you, Elijah, I'll bless Jezebel tonight.<br />
<br />
The hunt is over, and I hear the Call to Prayer<br />
fade into that of the wounded gazelle tonight.<br />
<br />
My rivals for your love– you've invited them all?<br />
This is mere insult, this is no farewell tonight.<br />
<br />
And I, Shahid, only am escaped to tell thee–<br />
God sobs in my arms. [[Call me Ishmael]] tonight.

— [[Agha Shahid Ali]]
</blockquote>

===Notable poets who composed ghazals in English===<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
* [[Agha Shahid Ali]], "Ghazal ('...exiles')"
* [[Robert Bly]], ''The Night Abraham Called to the Stars'' and ''My Sentence Was a Thousand Years of Joy''
* [[Francis Brabazon]], ''In Dust I Sing'' (Beguine Library, 1974).
* [[Fern G. Z. Carr]],  "Ghazal for M."<ref>https://www.setumag.com/2016/10/celebrating-inability-canadas-bizarre.html. Retrieved on March 14, 2023.</ref>
* [[G.S. Sharat Chandra]], "The Anonymous Lover"
* [[Andrew D. Chumbley]], "Qutub" (Xoanon), 1995.
* [[Maryann Corbett]], "Storybook Ghazal" <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ballastjournal.com/maryann-corbett | title=Maryann Corbett }}</ref>
* [[Lorna Crozier]], "Bones in Their Wings"
* [[Sukhdarshan Dhaliwal]], "Ghazals at Twilight" (SD Publications), 2009
* [[Judith Fitzgerald]], ''Twenty-Six Ways Out of This World'' (Oberon), 1999.
*[[Marilyn Hacker]], ''A Stranger's Mirror: New and Selected Poems 1994 - 2014 (2015) ISBN 978-0-393-24464-9''
* [[Jim Harrison]], ''Outlyer and Ghazals'' (Touchstone), 1971
* [[John Hollander]], "Ghazal On Ghazals"
* [[Galway Kinnell]], "Sheffield Ghazal 4: Driving West", "Sheffield Ghazal 5: Passing the Cemetery" (Mariner Books), 2001
* [[Marilyn Krysl]], "Ghazals for the Turn of the Century"
* [[Maxine Kumin]], "On the Table"
* [[Edward Lowbury]], "A Ghazel (for Pauline)" (1968); "Prometheus: a ghazel" (1976); "Remembering Nine (a ghazel for Peter Russell)" (1981)
* [[William Matthews (poet)|William Matthews]], "Guzzle", "Drizzle"
* [[W. S. Merwin]], "The Causeway"
* [[Elise Paschen]], "Sam's Ghazal"
* [[Robert Pinsky]], "The Hall"
* [[Spencer Reece]], ''Florida Ghazals''
* [[Adrienne Rich]], ''Ghazals: Homage to Ghalib''
* [[John Thompson (Canadian poet)|John Thompson]], "Stilt Jack" (Anansi), 1978.
* [[Natasha Trethewey]], "Miscegenation", 2006.
* [[Phyllis Webb]], ''Water and Light: Ghazals and Anti Ghazals'' (Coach House), 1984.
* [[John Edgar Wideman]], "Lost Letter"
* [[Eleanor Wilner]], "Ghazal on What's to Lose, or Not"
* [[Rob Winger]], "The Chimney Stone" (Nightwood Editions), 2010

==Ghazal in Music==

Ghazals have been used in music throughout South Asia and has become a genre of its own, simply called "Ghazal" which refers to the music genre. The Ghazal music genre is most popular in Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.<ref>{{cite book | isbn=978-1512363326 | title=Anthology of the Ghazal in the Sufi Poetry of Afghanistan | last1=Smith | first1=Paul | date=28 May 2015 | publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref>

Some notable Afghan ghazal singers are (Persian/Pashtu):
* [[Sarahang]]
* [[Ulfat]]

Some notable Pakistani and Indian ghazal singers are (Urdu/Hindi):
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Ahmed Rushdi]]
* [[Abida Parveen]]
* [[Ali Sethi]]
* [[Amjad Parvez]]
* [[Anuradha Paudwal]]
* [[Anup Jalota]]
* [[Ataullah Khan]]
* [[Ateeq Hussain Khan]]
* [[Salma Agha]]
* [[Kiran Ahluwalia]]
* [[Begum Akhtar]]
* [[Ghulam Ali (Ghazal singer)|Ghulam Ali]]
* [[Talat Aziz]]
* [[Gulbahar Bano]]
* [[Iqbal Bano]]
* [[Beauty Sharma Barua]]
* [[Munni Begum]]
* [[Asha Bhosle]]
* [[Rahmatullah Dard]]
* [[Chandan Dass]]
* [[Pankaj Udhas]]
* [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
* [[Mehdi Hassan]]
* [[Ahmed and Mohammed Hussain]]
* [[Cassius Khan]]
* [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]
* [[Ustad Amanat Ali Khan]]
* [[Asad Amanat Ali Khan]]
* [[Shafqat Amanat Ali Khan]]
* [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
* [[Bade Fateh Ali Khan]]
* [[Hamid Ali Khan]]
* [[Shahabaz Aman]]
* [[Khalil Haider]]
* [[Farida Khanum]]
* [[Runa Laila]]
* [[Master Madan]]
* [[Talat Mahmood]]
* [[Mahwash]]
* [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
* [[Penaz Masani]]
* [[Aziz Mian]]
* [[Habib Wali Mohammad]]
* [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]
* [[Sonu Nigam]]
* [[Nayyara Noor]]
* [[Noorjehan]]
* [[Bhimrao Panchale]]
* [[Shishir Parkhie]]
* [[Malika Pukhraj]]
* [[Mohammed Rafi]]
* [[Roop Kumar Rathod]]
* [[Sunali Rathod]]
* [[Reshma (Pakistani singer)|Reshma]]
* [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan]]
* [[Sabri Brothers]]
* [[Jagjit Singh]]
* [[Sajjad Ali]]
* [[Mohammad Hussain Sarahang]]
* [[Mohammad Reza Shajarian]]
* [[Bhupinder Singh (musician)|Bhupinder and Mitali Singh]]
* [[Jasvinder Singh]]
* [[Ghazal Srinivas]]
* [[Adithya Srinivasan]]
* [[Tahira Syed]]
* [[Manhar Udhas]]
* [[Nirmal Udhas]]
* [[Pankaj Udhas]]
* [[Suresh Wadkar]]
* [[Ahmad Wali]]
* [[Alka Yagnik]]
* [[Umbayee]]
{{div col end}}

Many [[:Category:Indian playback singers|Indian]] and [[:Category:Pakistani film singers|Pakistani film singers]] are famous for singing ghazals, such as these:
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
* [[Ahmed Rushdi]]
* [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
* [[Mehdi Hassan]]
* [[Jagjit Singh]]
* [[Noor Jehan]]
* [[Talat Mahmood]]
* [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
* [[Srilekha Parthasarathy]]
* [[Mohammad Rafi]]
* [[Shiv Dayal Batish]]
* [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
* [[Ghulam Ali (Ghazal singer)|Ghulam Ali]]
* [[Kundan Lal Saigal|K. L. Saigal]]
* [[Saleem Raza (singer)|Saleem Raza]]
* [[Chitra Singh]]
* [[Asha Bhosle]]
* [[Tina Sani]]
{{div col end}}

Some [[Music of Malaysia|Malay singers]] are famous for singing Ghazal, such as these:<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Jamal Abdillah]]
* [[Sharifah Aini]]
* [[Rosiah Chik]]
* [[Noraniza Idris]]
* [[Rhoma Irama]]
* [[M. Nasir]]
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Poetry}}
* [[Filmi-ghazal]], Indian filmi music based on ghazal poetry
* [[Qawwali]], a music genre from South Asia

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* Agha Shahid Ali (ed.). ''Ravishing Disunities: Real Ghazals in English''. {{ISBN|0-8195-6437-0}}
* Agha Shahid Ali. ''Call Me Ishmael Tonight: A Book of Ghazals''. {{ISBN|0-393-05195-1}}
* Bailey, J. O. ''The Poetry of Thomas Hardy: A handbook and Commentary''. {{ISBN|0-8078-1135-1}}
* de Brujn, “ḠAZAL i. HISTORY”, [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]. 2012.[https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gazal-1-history]
* Doty, Gene (ed. 1999–2014) and Jensen, Holly (ed. 2015-today). [http://www.ghazalpage.com/ ''The Ghazal Page''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228103343/http://www.ghazalpage.com/ |date=2020-02-28 }}; various postings, 1999—today
* Kanda, K.C., editor. Masterpieces of the Urdu Ghazal: From the 17th to the 20th Century. Sterling Pub Private Ltd., 1991
* Mufti, Aamir. "Towards a Lyric History of India." boundary 2, 31: 2, 2004
* Reichhold, Jane (ed.). ''Lynx''; various issues, 1996–2000
* Sells, Michael A. ''Early Islamic Mysticism''. {{ISBN|9780809136193}}
* Watkins, R. W. (ed.). ''Contemporary Ghazals''; Nos. 1 and 2, 2003–2004
* Lall, Inder jit. "Ghazal Movements", Century, May 23, 1964
* Lall, Inder jit. "Heightened sensibility" The Economic Times, December 31, 1978
* Lall, Inder jit. "The Ghazal – Evolution & Prospects", The Times of India, November 8, 1970
* Lall, Inder Jit. "The New Ghazal", The Times of India, July 3, 1971
* Lall, Inder jit. "Ghazal: A Sustainer of Spasms", Thought, May 20, 1967
* Lall, Inder jit. "Tuning into modern ghazals", Sunday Herald, January 29, 1989
* Lall, Inder Jit. "Ghazal: Melodies and minstrels", Sunday Patriot, June 29, 1986
* Lall, Inder jit. "Charm of ghazal lies in lyricism", Hindustan Times, August 8, 1985

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ghazals}}
* {{EI2|last1=Blachère|first1=R.|last2=Bausani|first2=A.|volume=2|title=G̲h̲azal|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ghazal-COM_0232?s.num=9&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=cawgan}}
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ghalib/ghazal_index.html A Desertful of Roses] The Divan-e Ghalib – in Urdu, with Devanagari and Roman transliterations.
* [http://www.ghazalradio.com/ Ghazal Radio] dedicated ghazal radio.
* [http://www.ranjish.com/poets Ghazal poets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428132043/https://www.ranjish.com/poets |date=2021-04-28 }} A list of ghazal writers.
* [http://gaana.com/song/mere-rashke-qamar Mere Rashke Qamar]{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} One of the Best ghazal of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.
* [https://www.urdupoint.com/poetry/user-poet/naqi-naqvi-29474.html One of the Best ghazal of  Naqi Naqvi].
* Ghazals Manuscript, [http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/medren/pageturn.html?q=ljs%2044&fq=collection_facet%3A%22Lawrence%20J.%20Schoenberg%20Collection%22&id=MEDREN_5404714& Rare Book & Manuscript Library University of Pennsylvania LJS 44] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404203201/http://dla.library.upenn.edu/dla/medren/pageturn.html?q=ljs%2044&fq=collection_facet%3A%22Lawrence%20J.%20Schoenberg%20Collection%22&id=MEDREN_5404714& |date=2017-04-04 }}

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