View source for Gilbertese language

{{Short description|Micronesian language}}
{{Cleanup lang|date=December 2024|iso=gil}}{{Infobox language
| name             = Gilbertese
| altname          = Kiribati, Kiribatese, Tungaru
| nativename       = {{lang|gil|Taetae ni Kiribati}}
| states           = [[Kiribati]]
| ethnicity        = [[Kiribati people|I-Kiribati]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|118,618|2}}
| date             = 2002–2019
| ref              = e25
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]]<br />([[#Alphabet|Gilbertese alphabet]])
| familycolor      = Austronesian
| fam2             = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| fam3             = [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
| fam4             = [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian]]
| fam5             = [[Central–Eastern Oceanic languages|Central–Eastern Oceanic]]
| nation           = [[Kiribati]]
| agency           = [[Kiribati Language Board]]
| iso2             = gil
| iso3             = gil
| glotto           = gilb1244
| glottorefname    = Gilbertese
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Micronesian languages.en.svg
| mapcaption       = Map showing the pre-colonial distribution of the [[Micronesian languages]]; Gilbertese-speaking region is shaded blue and does not include the [[Line Islands]] and [[Rabi Island|Rabi]] in Fiji
}}

'''Gilbertese''' ({{lang|gil|taetae ni Kiribati}}), also known as '''Kiribati''' (sometimes ''Kiribatese'' or ''Tungaru''), is an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] spoken mainly in [[Kiribati]]. It belongs to the [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian branch]] of the [[Oceanic languages]].

The word ''Kiribati'', the current name of the islands, is the local adaptation of the European name "Gilberts" to Gilbertese [[phonology]]. Early European visitors, including Commodore [[John Byron]], whose ships happened on [[Nikunau]] in 1765, had named some of the islands the [[Gilbert Islands|Kingsmill or Kings Mill Islands]] or for the Northern group ''les îles Mulgrave'' in French<ref>[[Henry Evans Maude]] (1961). ''Post-Spanish discoveries in the central Pacific. Journal of the Polynesian Society'', 67-111. Very often, this name applied only to the southern islands of the archipelago. ''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary''. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam Webster, 1997. p. 594.</ref> but in 1820 they were renamed, in French, ''les îles Gilbert'' by Admiral [[Adam Johann von Krusenstern]], after Captain [[Thomas Gilbert (captain)|Thomas Gilbert]], who, along with Captain [[John Marshall (British captain)|John Marshall]], had passed through some of these islands in 1788.
Frequenting of the islands by Europeans, Americans and Chinese dates from whaling and oil trading from the 1820s, when no doubt Europeans learnt to speak it, as Gilbertese learnt to speak English and other languages foreign to them. 
The first ever vocabulary list of Gilbertese was published by the French ''Revue coloniale'' (1847) by an auxiliary surgeon on [[corvette]] ''Le Rhin'' in 1845. His warship took on board a drift Gilbertese of [[Kuria, Kiribati|Kuria]], that they found near [[Tabiteuea]]. However, it was not until [[Hiram Bingham II]] took up missionary work on [[Abaiang]] in the 1860s that the language began to take on the written form known now.

Bingham was the first to translate the Bible into Gilbertese, and wrote several hymn books, a dictionary (1908, posthumous) and commentaries in the language of the Gilbert Islands. Alphonse Colomb, a French priest in [[Tahiti]] wrote in 1888, ''Vocabulaire [[Arorae|arorai]] (îles Gilbert) précédé de notes grammaticales d'après un manuscrit du P. Latium Levêque et le travail de [[Horatio Hale|Hale]] sur la langue [[Tarawa]] / par le P. A. C.''. Father Levêque named the Gilbertese ''Arorai'' (from [[Arorae]]) when [[Horatio Hale]] called them ''Tarawa''. This work was also based on the first known description of Gilbertese in English, published in 1846, in the volume ''Ethnology and Philology'' of the [[United States Exploring Expedition|U.S. Exploring Expedition]], compiled by [[Horatio Hale]].

The official name of the language is ''te taetae ni Kiribati'', or 'the Gilbertese language', but the common name is ''te taetae n aomata'', or 'the language of the people'.

The first complete and comprehensive description of this language was published in ''Dictionnaire gilbertin–français'' of Father [[Ernest Sabatier]] (981 pp, 1952–1954), a Catholic priest. It was later partially translated into English by Sister Olivia, with the help of the [[South Pacific Commission]].

==Speakers==
Over 96% of the 119,000 people living in [[Kiribati]] declare themselves [[I-Kiribati]]<ref name=census>{{cite web |title=Kiribati Census Report 2010 Volume 1 |url=http://www.mfed.gov.ki/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Census-Report-2010-Volume-1.pdf |publisher=National Statistics Office, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Government of Kiribati |access-date=17 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930092440/http://www.mfed.gov.ki/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Census-Report-2010-Volume-1.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2013 }}</ref> and speak Gilbertese. Gilbertese is also spoken by most inhabitants of [[Nui (atoll)|Nui]] ([[Tuvalu]]), [[Rabi Island]] ([[Fiji]]), and some other islands where I-Kiribati have been relocated ([[Solomon Islands]], notably [[Choiseul Province]]; and [[Vanuatu]]), after the [[Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janeresture.com/kiribati_phoenix/|title=Kiribati - Phoenix Settlement|website=www.janeresture.com}}</ref> or emigrated (to [[New Zealand]] and [[Hawaii]] mainly).

97% of those living in Kiribati are able to read in Gilbertese, and 80% are able to read [[English language|English]].<ref name="census"/> It is one of the Oceanic languages. The largest individual Oceanic languages are [[Fijian language|Eastern Fijian]] with over 600,000 speakers, and [[Samoan language|Samoan]] with an estimated 400,000 speakers. The Gilbertese, [[Tongan language|Tongan]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Māori language|Māori]], [[Western Fijian language|Western Fijian]] and [[Tolai language|Tolai]] ([[Gazelle Peninsula]]) languages each have over 100,000 speakers.

In 2020 [[Manurewa|Finlayson Park School]] in [[Auckland]] became the first school in [[New Zealand]] to set up a Gilbertese language unit, where [[Erika Taeang]] was employed as the teacher.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-08|title=Auckland school establishes Kiribati language unit {{!}} RNZ|website=[[Radio New Zealand]]|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/2018736350/auckland-school-establishes-kiribati-language-unit|access-date=2021-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008144520/https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/2018736350/auckland-school-establishes-kiribati-language-unit|archive-date=2021-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-08|title=Kiribati / Pacific languages / Home - Pasifika|url=https://pasifika.tki.org.nz/Pacific-languages/Kiribati|access-date=2021-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008144858/https://pasifika.tki.org.nz/Pacific-languages/Kiribati|archive-date=2021-10-08}}</ref>

=== Countries by number of Gilbertese speakers ===
# [[Kiribati]], 103,000 (2010 census)<ref name=e25/>
# [[Fiji]], 6,600 (2019)<ref name=e25/>
# [[Solomon Islands]], 6,800 (2012)<ref name=e25/>
# [[New Zealand]], 2,196 (2018 New Zealand census)<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 April 2020 |title=2018 Census Totals by Topic – National Highlights (Updated) |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights-updated |access-date=23 November 2023 |publisher=[[Statistics New Zealand]]}}</ref>
# [[Nauru]], 1,500, then 500 cited 2011<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spc.int/nmdi/nmdi_documents/2011_NAURU_CENSUS_REPORT.pdf|title = PDH.stat: Development indicator database &#124; Statistics for Development Division}}</ref>
# [[Tuvalu]], 100 (2002)<ref name=e25/>
# [[Vanuatu]], 400{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
# United States of America ([[Hawaii]]), 141 (2010 US census)

==Dialects==
The Gilbertese language has two main [[dialect]]s, Northern and Southern. Their main differences are in the [[pronunciation]] of some sounds. The islands of [[Butaritari]] and [[Makin (atoll)|Makin]] also have their own dialect that differs from the standard Kiribati in some vocabulary and pronunciation.

=== Dialect listing ===
* [[Banaban dialect|Banaban]] ([[Banaba]] and [[Rabi Island]], [[Fiji]])
* [[Northern Kiribati dialect|Northern Kiribati]] ([[Makin (islands)|Makin]], [[Butaritari]], [[Marakei]], [[Abaiang]], [[Tarawa]], [[Maiana]], [[Kuria (islands)|Kuria]], [[Abemama]] and [[Aranuka]])
** [[Butaritari/Makin dialect|Butaritari/Makin]] ([[Butaritari]] and [[Makin (islands)|Makin]])
* [[Nuian dialect|Nuian]] ([[Tuvalu]])
* [[Southern Kiribati dialect|Southern Kiribati]] ([[Tabiteuea]], [[Onotoa]], [[Nonouti]], [[Beru (atoll)|Beru]], [[Nikunau]], [[Tamana, Kiribati|Tamana]] and [[Arorae]])

===Historical sound changes===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center 
|+ Gilbertese reflexes of [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]] [[consonant]]s<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bender|first1=Byron W.|title=Proto-Micronesian Reconstructions: 1|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|date=2003|volume=42|issue=1|pages=4, 5|doi=10.2307/3623449|jstor=3623449}}</ref> (in IPA)
|-
! [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]]
| {{IPA|*mp}} || {{IPA|*mp,ŋp}} || {{IPA|*p}} || {{IPA|*m}} || {{IPA|*m,ŋm}} || {{IPA|*k}} || {{IPA|*ŋk}} || {{IPA|*ŋ}} || {{IPA|*j}} || {{IPA|*w}} || {{IPA|*t}} || || {{IPA|*s,nj}} || {{IPA|*ns,j}} || {{IPA|*j}} || {{IPA|*nt,nd}} || {{IPA|*d,R}} || {{IPA|*l}} || {{IPA|*n}} || {{IPA|*ɲ}}
|-
! [[Proto-Micronesian]]
| {{IPA|*p}} || {{IPA|*pʷ}} || {{IPA|*f}} || {{IPA|*m}} || {{IPA|*mʷ}} || {{IPA|*k}} || {{IPA|*x}} || {{IPA|*ŋ}} || {{IPA|*j}} || {{IPA|*w}} || {{IPA|*t}} || {{IPA|*T}} || {{IPA|*s}} || {{IPA|*S}} || {{IPA|*Z}} || {{IPA|*c}} || {{IPA|*r}} || {{IPA|*l}} || {{IPA|*n}} || {{IPA|*ɲ}}
|-
! Gilbertese
| {{IPA|*p}} || {{IPA|*pˠ}} || {{IPA|*∅}} || {{IPA|*m}} || {{IPA|*mˠ}} || {{IPA|*k,∅}}<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|*∅}} || {{IPA|*ŋ}} || {{IPA|*∅}} || {{IPA|*βˠ}} || {{IPA|*t,∅}}<sup>2</sup> || {{IPA|*t}} || {{IPA|*t,s}}<sup>2</sup> || {{IPA|*r}} || {{IPA|*r}} || {{IPA|*r}} || {{IPA|*∅}} || {{IPA|*n}} || {{IPA|*n}} || {{IPA|*n}}
|-
|}

<sup>1</sup> Sometimes when reflecting Proto-Micronesian {{IPA|/t/}}.<br /><sup>2</sup> Sometimes when reflecting Proto-Micronesian {{IPA|/k/}}.

==Phonology==
Gilbertese contrasts 13 [[consonant]]s and 10 [[vowel]] sounds.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|pp=205–206}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+Consonants
!  rowspan=2|
! colspan=2|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! rowspan=2|[[Apical consonant|Apical]]
! rowspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>[[velarization|velarized]]</small>
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|mː}} {{angbr|mm}} 
| 
| {{IPA link|nː}} {{angbr|nn}} 
| {{IPA link|ŋː}} {{angbr|ngg}}
|- align=center
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}} 
| {{IPA link|mˠ}} {{angbr|mw}} 
| {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n}} 
| {{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angbr|ng}}
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}}{{efn|group=lower-roman|Usually voiced intervocalically but also sometimes word-initially.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lee|Timee|2019|pp=24}}</ref>}} {{angbr|b}} || {{IPA link|pˠ}} {{angbr|bw}} || {{IPA link|t}}{{efn|group=lower-roman|{{IPA|/t/}} is [[lenition|lenited]] and [[assibilation|assibilated]] to {{IPA|[s]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.}} {{angbr|t}} || {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|k}}
|- align=center
![[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
| {{IPA link|βˠ}}{{efn|group=lower-roman|The labiovelar fricative {{IPA|/βˠ/}} may be a flap or an approximant, depending on the context.<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|p=206">{{Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|p=206}}</ref>}} {{angbr|w}}
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}{{efn|group=lower-roman|{{IPA|/ɾ/}} does not occur in the syllable coda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|p=207}}</ref>}} {{angbr|r}} || 
|}
{{notelist|group=lower-roman}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+Vowels
! 
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-align="center"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]{{efn|group=lower-roman|Short {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} may become semivowels {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} when followed by more sonorous vowels. {{IPA|/ie/}} → {{IPA|[je]}} ('sail').<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|p=209}}</ref> Kiribati has syllabic nasals, although syllabic {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can be followed only by consonants that are homorganic.<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|p=206"/>}}
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}} || {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}
|-align="center"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}}{{efn|group=lower-roman|name=v2|Lee (2019) describes the additional [[monophthong]]s {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[æ]}}, for a total of 14 vowel sounds.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lee|Timee|2019|pp=25}}</ref>}} || {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-align="center"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || {{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|aː}}{{efn|group=lower-roman|name=v2}}
|}
{{notelist|group=lower-roman}}

The {{IPA|/a/}} pronunciation is closer to {{IPA|[ä]}} except after velarized {{IPA|/mˠ/}} and {{IPA|/pˠ/}}.

Quantity is distinctive for vowels and plain nasal consonants but not for the remaining sounds so that {{lang|gil|ana}} {{IPA|/ana/}} (third person singular article) contrasts with {{lang|gil|aana}} {{IPA|/aːna/}} ({{Translation|its underside}}) as well as {{lang|gil|anna}} {{IPA|/anːa/}} ({{Translation|dry land}}). Other minimal pairs include:<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Blevins|Harrison|1999|p=206" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Minimal pairs for vowel length
|-
! scope="col" rowspan=2 |
! scope="col" colspan=3 | Short
! scope="col" colspan=3 | Long
|-
! Example
! IPA
! Translation
! Example
! IPA
! Translation
|-align=center
! scope="row" | {{IPA|//e//}}
| {{lang|gil|te ben}}
| {{IPA|/tepen/}}
| ripe coconut
| {{lang|gil|te been}}
| {{IPA|/tepeːn/}}
| pen
|-align=center
! scope="row" | {{IPA|//i//}}
|  {{lang|gil|ti}}
| {{IPA|/ti/}}
| we
| {{lang|gil|tii}}
| {{IPA|/tiː/}}
| only
|-align=center
! scope="row" | {{IPA|//o//}}
| {{lang|gil|on}}
| {{IPA|/on/}}
| full
| {{lang|gil|oon}}
| {{IPA|/oːn/}}
| turtles
|-align=center
! scope="row" | {{IPA|//u//}}
| {{lang|gil|te atu}}
| {{IPA|/atu/}}
| bundle
| {{lang|gil|te atuu}}
| {{IPA|/atuː/}}
| head
|-align=center
! scope="row" | {{IPA|//a//}}
| {{lang|gil|tuanga}}
| {{IPA|/twaŋa/}}
| to tell
| {{lang|gil|tuangga}}
| {{IPA|/twaŋːa/}}
| to tell him/her
|}

== Alphabet ==
The Gilbertese language is written in the [[Latin script]], which was introduced in the 1860s when [[Hiram Bingham II|Hiram Bingham Jr]], a Protestant [[missionary]], first translated the [[Bible]] into Gilbertese. Until then, the language was unwritten. Since the independence of Kiribati in 1979, long vowels and consonants are represented by doubling the character, as in [[Dutch orthography|Dutch]] and [[Finnish orthography|Finnish]]. A few [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] are used for the [[Velar consonant|velar]] [[Nasal consonant|nasals]] ({{IPA|/ŋ ŋː/}}) and velarized bilabials ({{IPA|/pˠ mˠ/}}). Bingham and the first Roman Catholic missionaries (1888) did not indicate in their script the vowel length by doubling the character. The discrepancies between the Protestant and Roman Catholic spellings have been an issue since 1895.<ref>Alterations in spelling adopted by the Roman Catholic Mission. From: Swayne, British Resident C. R., at Suva, Fiji. WPHC 4/IV: Inwards correspondence, 1895., MSS & Archives.2003/1.WPHC 4/IV.1895. File 393/1895. Special Collections, The University of Auckland. https://archives.library.auckland.ac.nz/repositories/2/archival_objects/116412 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726222050/https://archives.library.auckland.ac.nz/repositories/2/archival_objects/116412|date=2020-07-26}} Accessed July 27, 2020.</ref> Neither clearly distinguished the pronunciation of the vowel /a/ after velarized bilabials, like {{IPA|/pˠ/}} (bw) and {{IPA|/mˠ/}} (mw), which result in discrepancies between old scripts and modern scripts. For example, the word [[maneaba]] should be written ''mwaneaba'' or even ''mwaaneaba'' and the atoll of [[Makin (atoll)|Makin]], ''Mwaakin''. The [[Kiribati Uniting Church|Kiribati Protestant Church]] has also recently used a different script for both velarized bilabials, “b’a” and “m’a”, which are found in Protestant publications.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+'''Gilbertese spelling system'''{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}
!Letter
|A
|AA
|B
!BW
|E
|EE
|I
|II
|K
|M
!MM
!MW
|N
!NN
|NG
!NGG
|O
|OO
|R
|T
|U
|UU
|W
|- align="center"
|[[Help:IPA|IPA]]
|{{IPA|/a/}}
|{{IPA|/aː/}}
|{{IPA|/p/}}
|{{IPA|/pˠ/}}
|{{IPA|/e/}}
|{{IPA|/eː/}}
|{{IPA|/i/}}
|{{IPA|/iː/}}
|{{IPA|/k/}}
|{{IPA|/m/}}
|{{IPA|/mː/}}
|{{IPA|/mˠ/}}
|{{IPA|/n/}}
|{{IPA|/nː/}}
|{{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|{{IPA|/ŋː/}}
|{{IPA|/o/}}
|{{IPA|/oː/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾ/}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|{{IPA|/u/}}
|{{IPA|/uː/}}
|{{IPA|/βˠ/}}
|-
|}

===Vocabulary===
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2021}}

One difficulty in translating the Bible was references to words such as "[[mountain]]", a geographical phenomenon unknown to the people of the islands of Kiribati at the time, heard only in the myths from [[Samoa]]. Bingham substituted "[[hill]]y", which would be more easily understood. Such adjustments are common to all languages as "modern" things require the creation of new words or the usage of loan words.

For example, the Gilbertese word for airplane is ''te wanikiba'', "the canoe that flies". Some words changed to translate Western words into Gilbertese. For example, ''te aro'' (species or colour) is now used in translating religion. ''Te kiri'' (the dog), found in 1888 vocabulary, is now less used than ''te kamea'' (from English, loan word).{{clarify|date=December 2021}}

Catholic missionaries arrived at the islands in 1888 and translated the Bible independently of Bingham, which led to differences (Bingham wrote [[Jesus]] as "Iesu", but the Catholics wrote "Ietu") that would be resolved only in the 20th century. In 1954, Father [[Ernest Sabatier]] published the larger and more accurate Kiribati to French dictionary (translated into English by Sister Olivia): ''Dictionnaire gilbertin–français'', 981 pages (edited by South Pacific Commission in 1971). It remains the only work of importance between the Kiribati language and a Western language. It was then reversed by Frédéric Giraldi in 1995 to creating the first French-Kiribati dictionary. In addition, a grammar section was added by Father Gratien Bermond (MSC). The dictionary is available at the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|French National Library]] Rare Language Department and at the headquarters of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (MSC), [[Issoudun]].

=== Loanwords ===
When arriving, the translation of the Bible (''te Baibara'') was the first duty of the missionaries. Protestants (1860) and Roman Catholics (1888) had to find or create some words that were not in use in the [[Gilbert Islands]], like mountain (''te maunga'', borrowing it from Hawaiian ''mauna'' or Samoan ''maunga''), and like [[Serpents in the Bible|serpents]], but also to find a good translation for God (''te Atua''). Many words were adapted from English, like ''te moko'' (smoke), ''te buun'' (spoon), ''te beeki'' (pig), ''te raiti'' (rice), ''te tai'' (time, a watch), ''te auti'' (house), ''te katamwa'' (cat, from expression ''cat-at-me''). Some words of the [[Swadesh list]] did not exist in Gilbertese like ''te aiti'' (ice) or ''te tinoo'' (snow). But things that did not exist previously also were interpreted to form new Gilbertese words: ''te rebwerebwe'' (motorbike), ''te wanikiba'' (plane, a flying canoe), ''te momi'' (pearl, from Hawaiian).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alekseev |first1=Fedor |year=2015 |title=Loanword adaptation strategies in Gilbertese |url=https://culturalanthropologyandethnosemiotics.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/loanword-adaptation-strategies-in-gilbertese3.pdf |journal=CAES |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=46–52 |access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref>

== Grammar ==
Gilbertese has a basic [[verb–object–subject word order]] (VOS).

=== Nouns===
Gilbertese lacks a morphological noun-marker system. This means that—by itself—a noun cannot be identified as such. However, singular nouns can be distinguished from other words, as they are preceded by the article "''{{Lang|gil|te}}''". However, not all singular nouns can take the article. These include names of people and places, words for cardinal directions, and other specific nouns.

Any noun can be formed from a verb or an adjective by preceding it with the article "''{{Lang|gil|te}}''".

*''{{Lang|gil|nako}}'' (to go)
*''{{Lang|gil|te nako}}'' (the going)
*''{{Lang|gil|uraura}}'' (red)
*''{{Lang|gil|te uraura}}'' (the redness)

Nouns can be marked for possession (by person and number). Plurality is only marked in some nouns by lengthening the first vowel.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=85–86 |chapter=Lesson 13 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson13.pdf}}</ref> Even then, the singular form might be used—despite plural referents—if no other indicators of their plurality are present.

*''{{Lang|gil|te boki}}'' (book)
*''{{Lang|gil|booki}}'' (books)

There is no obligatory marked gender. Sex or gender can be marked by adding ''{{Lang|gil|mmwaane}}'' (male) or ''{{Lang|gil|aiine}}'' (female) to the noun.

*''{{Lang|gil|te moa}}'' (chicken)
*''{{Lang|gil|te moa mmwaane}}'' (rooster) (writing ''{{Lang|gil|mwane}}'' is more usual)
*''{{Lang|gil|te moa aiine}}'' (hen) (writing ''{{Lang|gil|aine}}'' is more usual)
* ''{{Lang|gil|tariu}}''<ref>with possessive suffix -u, my.</ref> (my brother or my sister, if he or she has the same sex as the speaker)
* ''{{Lang|gil|maneu}}''<ref>with the same possessive suffix.</ref> (my brother or my sister, if he or she has a different sex from the speaker)

For human nouns, the linker 'n' may be used.

*''{{Lang|gil|ataei}}'' (child)
*''{{Lang|gil|ataeinimmwaane}}'' (boy)
*''{{Lang|gil|ataeinnaiine}}'' (girl)

[[Agent noun|Agent nouns]] can be created with the particle ''{{Lang|gil|tia}}'' (singular) or ''{{Lang|gil|taan(i)}}'' (plural).{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

In Gilbertese, nouns can be classified as either animate or inanimate. The category of animate nouns includes humans and most animals, whereas inanimate nouns refer to all other entities.

Possession, when the possessor is inanimate, is marked with the "n" clitic. In writing, it may be joined with the previous word, or written separately. In cases where the "n" marker would be otherwise incompatible with the language's phonotactics, one might use "in" or "ni" instead. In phrases where the possessor is animate, a special possessive pronoun needs to be employed (see [[#Pronouns|Pronouns]]).

Nouns can also be classified as alienable or inalienable. Inalienable nouns include, among others, parts of the body, family, and feelings. Words which are newly introduced into the language are never considered to be inalienable. The meanings of certain words may vary according to whether or not they are considered alienable.

Adjectives can also be formed from nouns by reduplication with the meaning of "abundant in", e.g., {{Lang|gil|karau}} ("rain"), {{Lang|gil|kakarau}} ("rainy").

=== Articles ===
There are two articles used in Gilbertese:
{| class="wikitable"
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|te
|taian
|}

Neither of them implies definiteness, therefore both can be translated as "a(n)" and "the".

When preceding collective nouns or names of substances, "''{{Lang|gil|te}}''" can be translated as "some." A limited set of nouns, typically referring to unique entities, dispense with ''{{Lang|gil|te}}''. This includes words like ''{{Lang|gil|taai}}'' ''“''sun”, ''{{Lang|gil|karawa}}'' “sky”, ''{{Lang|gil|taari/marawa}}'' “sea”, among others. Interestingly, ''{{Lang|gil|Te Atua}}'', “God”, is an exception. The article ''{{Lang|gil|te}}'' also acts as a [[Nominalization|nominalizer]], transforming adjectives into nouns. While ''{{Lang|gil|te}}'' marks singular nouns, the language possesses a plural article ''{{Lang|gil|taian}}''. However, its use is restricted to countable nouns inherently implying plurality. Collective nouns typically don't take ''{{Lang|gil|taian}}''. In certain situations, when plurality is evident from surrounding words, ''{{Lang|gil|taian}}'' can be omitted.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Personal articles
!
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Personal article
|te (tem, ten, teng) — Na Nan Nang form could be used in [[Butaritari]] and [[Makin (atoll)|Makin]]
|nei
|}

The personal articles are used before personal names. The masculine form is '<nowiki/>''{{Lang|gil|te}}''<nowiki/>' before names beginning with <i, u, w, b', ng>, '<nowiki/>''{{Lang|gil|tem}}''<nowiki/>' before <b, m>, '<nowiki/>''{{Lang|gil|ten}}''<nowiki/>' before <a, e, o, n, r, t> and '''{{Lang|gil|teng}}''<nowiki/>' before <k, (ng)>.

=== Pronouns ===
Pronouns have different forms according to case: nominative (subject), accusative (object), emphatic (vocatives, adjunct pronouns), genitive (possessives).

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Emphatic
! Genitive
! Possessive<br />suffixes
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! <small>singular</small>
| i, n
| -ai
| ngai
| au
| -u
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| ti
| -ira
| ngaira
| ara
| -ra
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd<br />person
! <small>singular</small>
| ko
| -ko
| ngkoe
| am
| -m
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| kam
| -ngkamii
| ngkamii
| amii
| -mii
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd<br />person
! <small>singular</small>
| e
| -a
| ngaia
| ana
| -na/n
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| a
| -ia/i
| ngaiia
| aia
| -ia
|}

=== Demonstratives ===
The Gilbertese language employs a system of demonstratives to indicate the spatial proximity of the referent to the speaker. These demonstratives are postnominal, meaning they follow the noun they modify.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=126–129 |chapter=Lesson 19 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson19.pdf}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Basic
! colspan="2" |Masculine
!Feminine
!Human
! colspan="2" |Neuter
! colspan="2" |Translation
|-
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
! <small>singular</small> || <small>plural</small>
!<small>singular</small>
!<small>plural</small>
|-
!Proximal
|''aei''
|''aikai''
|''teuaaei''
|''uaakai''
|''neiei''
|''naakai''
|''te baei''
|''baikai''
|“this” (this here, near me)
|“these”
|-
!Medial
|''anne''
|''akanne''
|''teuaanne''
|''uakanne''
|''neienne''
|''naakanne''
|''te baenne''
|''baikanne''
|“that” (near you but far from me)
|“those”
|-
!Distal
|''arei''
|''akekei''
|''teuaarei''
|''uaakekei''
|''neierei''
|''naakekei''
|''te baerei''
|''baikekei''
|“that” (far away from both of us)
|“those”
|}

The feminine demonstrative has no plural form, as opposed to the masculine, and the human plural encapsulates groups of mixed gender.

Adverbial pronouns<ref name=":0" /> also have a three-way distinction of distance: [[Demonstrative#Contrasts in demonstrative systems|proximal, medial and distal]].
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |Relative
! colspan="2" |Demonstrative
|-
!Time
!Place
|-
!Proximal
|''ngkai, ngkae'' (“now that”)
|''ngkai'' (“now”)
|''ikai'' (“here”)
|-
!Medial
|''ngkana'' (future “when/if”)
|''ngkanne'' (future “then”)
|''ikanne'' (“there,” near you)
|-
!Distal
|''ngke'' (past “when/if”)
|''ngkekei'' (past “then”)
|''ikekei'' (“there,” far from us)
|}
''{{Lang|gil|Ngke}}'' is used for hypothetical scenarios that would have an effect today, have they changed in the past. ''{{Lang|gil|Ngkana}}'' is used for situations whereof the outcome or truth is not yet known.

=== Adjectives ===
While they share many similarities with intransitive verbs, there are a few patterns that can be observed among adjectives. Many adjectives, such a''s'' {{Lang|gil|mainaina}} (“white”), contain a repeated element. While some non-reduplicated adjectives exist, reduplication appears to be dominant.

Nouns typically lengthen their first vowel to indicate plural. Conversely, adjectives tend to shorten their first vowel for pluralization (e.g., {{Lang|gil|anaanau}} (long - singular) becomes ''{{Lang|gil|ananau}}'' (long - plural)).

Gilbertese employs distinct strategies for forming comparative and superlative constructions. Comparatives are relatively straightforward, achieved by adding the adverb ''{{Lang|gil|riki}}'' (“more”) after the adjective (e.g., ''{{Lang|gil|ririeta}}'' (“high”) becomes ''{{Lang|gil|ririeta riki}}'' (“higher”)). Expressing “better than” requires the preposition ''{{Lang|gil|nakon}}'' (“than”) along with a construction that compares the noun-like qualities derived from the adjectives:

{{Interlinear|E aki bootau an aakoi tar im.||You are not as kind as your brother. (lit. ''Your kindness is not equal to that of your brother.'')
| indent = 3
}}Superlatives are formed with the intensifier ''{{Lang|gil|moan}}'' and the article ''{{Lang|gil|te}}'' preceding the adjective. For example, ''{{Lang|gil|raoiroi}}'' (“good”) becomes ''{{Lang|gil|moan te raoiroi}}'' (“the best”).

=== Verbs ===
Verbs do not conjugate according to person, number, tense, aspect or mood.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=203–208 |chapter=Lesson 31 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson31.pdf}}</ref> These verbal categories are indicated by [[Grammatical particle|particles]]. Nonetheless,  a passive suffix ''{{Lang|gil|-aki}}'' is used as in:

* ''{{Lang|gil|E kabooa te raiti}}'' 	He bought the rice.
* ''{{Lang|gil|E kabooaki te raiti}}'' 	The rice was bought (by him).

Any adjective can also be an intransitive verb. Transitive verbs can be formed by the circumfix ''{{Lang|gil|ka- (...) -a}}'' creating a causative verb, e.g. "''{{Lang|gil|uraura}}''" (to be red) becomes "''{{Lang|gil|kaurauraa}}''" (to redden). Tense is marked by adverbs. However, the default interpretation of the unmarked (by adverbs) verb is a past tense. Below is a list of verbal particles:<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=239–245 |chapter=Lesson 37 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson37.pdf}}</ref>

* ''{{Lang|gil|a}}'' (immediate, incompleted and indeterminate)
* ''{{Lang|gil|tabe n(i)}}'' (progressive)
* ''{{Lang|gil|nang(i)}}'' (prospective future)
* ''{{Lang|gil|na}}'' (general future)
* ''{{Lang|gil|a tib'a}}'' (immediate past)
* ''{{Lang|gil|a tia n(i)}}'' (past perfect)

==== Copula verbs ====
There are no verbs corresponding to English "to be", so a stative verb must be used or a zero copula strategy:

{{interlinear|indent=3
|Te tia mmwakuri teuaarei.|c1= (mwakuri or even makuri are usual forms)
|A workman that man.
|That man is a workman.}}

There is also a locative copula verb "mena":

{{interlinear|indent=3
|E mena iaon te taibora te booro.
|The ball is on the table}}

==== Existential verb ====
There is no corresponding verb to "to have", instead an existential verb meaning "there to be" is used - {{Lang|gil|iai}}.

==== Reduplication ====
In verbs, reduplication is used to mark aspect.

* Partial reduplication marks the habitual aspect for example "{{Lang|gil|nako}}" (to go) and "{{Lang|gil|naanako}}" (to usually go).
* Full reduplication shows the continuative aspect, e.g. "{{Lang|gil|koro}}" (to cut), "{{Lang|gil|korokoro}}" (to continually cut).
* Mixed: "{{Lang|gil|kiba}}" (to jump), "{{Lang|gil|kiikiba}}" (to usually jump), "{{Lang|gil|kibakiba}}" (to continually jump, to be excited), "{{Lang|gil|kikibakiba}}" (to jump on regular occasions).

==== Negation ====
The main negator is the particle "{{Lang|gil|aki}}" placed after the pronoun and before the verb. The negator "{{Lang|gil|aikoa}}" is for counterexpected situations.

''{{Lang|gil|Ko aki taetae}}'': You don't speak.

=== Numerals ===
Gilbertese uses [[classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]] for counting with numerals like Asian languages (Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.). These classifiers are suffixes to the numerals: {{Lang|gil|-ua}} (general, for objects), {{Lang|gil|-man}} (animate beings), {{Lang|gil|-kai}} (plants, land, fish hooks), {{Lang|gil|-ai}} (fish, elongated objects), {{Lang|gil|-waa}} (transportation), {{Lang|gil|-baa}} (leaves, flat objects) among many others. It is a decimal system with {{Lang|gil|-bwi}} as a "10-counting" suffix. Zero ("{{Lang|gil|akea}}") is just the word for 'nothing'.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kiribati (Gilbertese): Grammar Handbook |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |publisher=Vermont Peace Corps Language Handbook Series |year=1979 |location=The Experiment Press |pages=103–109 |chapter=Lesson 16 |chapter-url=https://www.trussel.com/kir/lessons/gramlesson16.pdf}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Root
!With -ua classifier
|-
|0
|{{lang|gil|akea|italic=no}}
| -
|-
|1
|{{lang|gil|te|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|teuana|italic=no}}
|-
|2
|{{lang|gil|uo/ua|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|uoua|italic=no}}
|-
|3
|{{lang|gil|ten(i)|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|tenua|italic=no}}<ref>The script teniua is also usual.</ref>
|-
|4
|{{lang|gil|a|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|aua|italic=no}}
|-
|5
|{{lang|gil|nima|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|nimaua|italic=no}}
|-
|6
|{{lang|gil|ono|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|onoua|italic=no}}
|-
|7
|{{lang|gil|it(i)|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|itiua|italic=no}}
|-
|8
|{{lang|gil|wan(i)|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|waniua|italic=no}}
|-
|9
|{{lang|gil|ruai|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|ruaiua|italic=no}}
|-
|10
|{{lang|gil|te|italic=no}}
|{{lang|gil|tebwina|italic=no}}
|}

=== Conjunctions ===
Multiple nouns may be joined with either {{Lang|gil|ao}} (“and”) or {{Lang|gil|ma}} (“and; with”). To join adjectives or verb, one may use {{Lang|gil|man}}. The conjunction {{Lang|gil|ke}} (“or”) can be used with any part of speech.

In [[Dependent clause|subordinate clauses]], the main clause usually comes first, with an appropriate conjunction in-between the two.

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite journal |last=Blevins |first=Juliette |last2=Harrison |first2=Sheldon P. |date=1999 |title=Trimoraic Feet in Gilbertese |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=203–230 |doi=10.1353/ol.1999.0012 |s2cid=143647044}}
*{{Cite book |last=Cowell |first=Reid |title=The Structure of Gilbertese |publisher=Rongorongo Press |year=1951}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Seunghun J. |last2=Timee |first2=Tekonnang |date=2019 |title=Aspects of the Kiribati grammar |url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/234721180 |journal=International Christian University Repository |pages=23–31}}
*{{Cite book |last=Trussel |first=Stephen |url=http://www.trussel.com/kir/dic/dic_a.htm |title=A Combined Kiribati-English Dictionary based on the works of Hiram Bingham, D.D. and Father Ernest Sabatier, M.S.C. (translated by Sr. M. Oliva) with additional scientific material from Luomala, Goo & Banner. |first2=Gordon W. |last2=Groves |date=1978 |publisher=University of Hawaii |access-date=2014-04-23}}
*{{Cite book |last=Groves |first=Terab'ata R. |title=Kiribatese: An Outline Description |last2=Groves |first2=Gordon W. |last3=Jacobs |first3=Roderick |publisher=Australian National University |year=1985 |isbn=0858833182}}

==External links==
{{Incubator|code= gil}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080331104219/http://www.y2kleader.com/kiribati/index.html English/Kiribati and Kiribati/English translator with over 50,000 words]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130901095153/http://www.banaban.net/supermemo/kiribatese.html Gilbertese words collection for SuperMemo]
*[[Kaipuleohone]] archive includes [https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/36142 recordings] and [[hdl:10125/32779|written materials]] on Kiribati
*Materials on Fijian are included in the open access [[Arthur Capell]] collections ([http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC1 AC1] and [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC2 AC2]) held by [[Paradisec]].
*Additional Kiribati materials in Paradisec from Bill Palmer ([http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/BP5 BP5]) and Jeff Siegel ([http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/JS2 JS2])
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060321140705/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Gilbertese/ Dictionary] with Gilbertese – English Translations from [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223164907/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ Webster's Online Dictionary] – [[Philip M. Parker|The Rosetta Edition]]
*[http://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-gilbertese/en/gil/ How to count in Gilbertese]

{{Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages}}
{{Oceania topic|Languages of}}
{{Languages of Fiji}}
{{Languages of the Solomon Islands}}
{{Micronesian languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gilbertese Language}}
[[Category:Gilbertese language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Fiji]]
[[Category:Languages of Kiribati]]
[[Category:Languages of Nauru]]
[[Category:Languages of the Marshall Islands]]
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[[Category:Verb–object–subject languages]]