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{{inline citations|date=June 2025}}
{{full citations|date=June 2025}}{{Short description|Roman short sword; Latin word meaning "sword"}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Italics title}}
{{Infobox weapon
| name = ''Gladius''
| image = Uncrossed gladius.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = Replica Pompeii ''gladius''
| origin = [[Carthaginian Spain]] as the [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] sword, adopted and modified by [[Ancient Rome|Rome]]
| type=[[Sword]]
<!-- Type selection -->
| is_bladed = yes
<!-- Service history -->
| service = 3rd century BC – 3rd century AD
| used_by = 
*[[Celtiberians]] in service to [[Carthage]] during the [[Punic Wars]]
*Roman foot soldiers during the wars of the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire]]
<!-- General specifications -->
| weight = {{convert|0.7|-|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}}
| length = {{convert|60|-|85|cm|in|abbr=on}}
| width = {{convert|5|-|7|cm|in|abbr=on}}
| part_length = {{convert|45|-|68|cm|in|abbr=on}}
<!-- Bladed weapon specifications -->
|blade_type= Iron of varying degrees of carbon content, pointed, double-edged
| hilt_type = Wood, bronze or ivory
}}
{{RomanMilitary}}

'''''Gladius''''' ({{IPA|la-x-classic|ˈɡɫadiʊs|lang}}) is a [[Latin]] word properly referring to the type of [[sword]] that was used by [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] foot soldiers starting from the 3rd century BC and until the 3rd century AD. Linguistically, within Latin, the word also came to mean "sword", regardless of the type used. 

Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those of the Greeks, called ''[[xiphos|xiphe]]'' ({{plural form}}, {{singular}}: ''xiphos''). From the 3rd century BC, however, the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] adopted a weapon based on the sword of the [[Celtiberians]] of [[Hispania]] in service to [[Carthage]] during the [[Punic Wars]], known in Latin as the ''gladius hispaniensis'', meaning "[[Hispania|Hispanic]]-type sword". The Romans improved the weapon and modified it depending on how their battle units waged war, and created over time new types of "''gladii''" such as the ''Mainz gladius'' and the ''Pompeii gladius''. Finally, in the third century AD the heavy Roman infantry replaced the ''gladius'' with the ''[[spatha]]'' (already common among Roman cavalrymen),<ref>{{cite book |first=Jane |last=Penrose |year=2008 |title=Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War |publisher=Osprey Publishing |pages=121–122 |isbn=978-1-84603-336-0}}</ref> relegating the ''gladius'' as a weapon for light Roman infantry.

A fully equipped Roman [[legionary]] after the consulships of [[Gaius Marius]] (the [[Marian reforms]]) was armed with a sword (''gladius''), a shield (''[[scutum]]''), one or two javelins (''[[Pilum|pila]]''), often a dagger (''[[pugio]]''), and perhaps, in the later empire period, darts (''[[plumbata]]e''). Conventionally, soldiers threw ''pila'' to disable the enemy's shields and disrupt enemy formations before engaging in close combat, for which they drew the {{lang|la|gladius}}. A soldier generally led with the shield and thrust with the sword.<ref>Vegetius ''De Re Militari'' 2.15</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Wiktionary}}
''Gladius'' is a [[Latin]] masculine noun. The [[nominative]] plural of it is {{lang|la|gladiī}}. However, {{lang|la|gladius}} in Latin refers to any sword, not only the sword described here. The word appears in literature as early as the plays of [[Plautus]] (''Casina'', ''Rudens'').

''Gladius'' is generally believed to be a [[Continental Celtic|Celtic]] loan in Latin (perhaps via an Etruscan intermediary), derived from ancient Celtic {{lang|cel|*kladi(b)os}} or {{lang|cel|*kladimos}} "sword" (whence modern Welsh {{lang|cy|cleddyf}} "sword", modern [[Bretons|Breton]] {{lang|br|klezeff}}, Old Irish {{lang|sga|claideb}}/Modern Irish {{lang|ga|claidheamh}} [itself perhaps a loan from Welsh]; the root  of the word may survive in the Old Irish verb ''claidid'' "digs, excavates" and anciently attested in the [[Gallo-Brittonic]] place name element ''cladia''/''clado'' "ditch, trench, valley hollow").<ref>McCone, Kim, "Greek Κελτός and Γαλάτης, Latin Gallus 'Gaul', in: Die Sprache 46, 2006, p. 106</ref><ref>Schrijver, Peter, The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Latin, Rodopi, 1991, p. 174.</ref><ref>Delamarre, Xavier, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Errance, 2003 (2nd ed.), p. 118.</ref><ref>Schmidt, Karl Horst, 'Keltisches Wortgut im Lateinischen', in: Glotta 44 (1967), p. 159.</ref><ref>Koch, Celtic Culture, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 215</ref>

Modern English words derived from {{lang|la|gladius}} include [[gladiator]] ("swordsman") and ''[[gladiolus]]'' ("little sword", from the [[diminutive]] form of ''gladius''), a [[flowering plant]] with sword-shaped leaves.

==Predecessors and origins==
{{further|Iron Age sword}}
[[File:Cogotas-II (dagas)-Segunda Edad del Hierro.jpg|thumb|upright|A sword of the Iron Age Cogotas II culture in Spain.]]

According to [[Polybius]], the sword used by the Roman army during the [[Battle of Telamon]] in 225 BC, though deemed superior to the cumbersome Gallic swords, was mainly useful to thrust.<ref name=GladQues2>{{cite web |url=https://www.uam.es/FyL/documento/1446794703868/hispaniensis.pdf|access-date=August 7, 2019|author=Quesada Sanz, F.|authorlink=Fernando Quesada Sanz|title=¿Qué hay en un nombre? La cuestión del gladius hispaniensis}}</ref> These thrusting swords used before the adoption of the Gladius were possibly based on the Greek ''[[xiphos]]''.<ref name=GladQues/> Later, during the [[Battle of Cannae]] in 216 BC, they found Hannibal's [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] [[Mercenaries of the ancient Iberian peninsula|mercenaries]] wielding swords that excelled at both slashing and thrusting.<ref name=GladQues>{{cite web|url=https://www.uam.es/proyectosinv/equus/warmas/online/Quesada%20gladius%20ROMEC%20rd.pdf|access-date=August 10, 2018|author=Quesada Sanz, F.|authorlink=Fernando Quesada Sanz|title=Gladius hispaniensis: an archaeological view from Iberia|archive-date=August 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810205249/https://www.uam.es/proyectosinv/equus/warmas/online/Quesada%20gladius%20ROMEC%20rd.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> A text attributed to Polybius describes the adoption of this design by the Romans even before the end of the [[Second Punic War|war]], which canonical Polybius reaffirms by calling the later Roman sword ''gladius hispaniensis'' in [[Latin]] and ''iberiké machaira'' in [[Ancient greek language|Greek]].<ref name=GladQues/> It is believed [[Scipio Africanus]] was the promoter of the change after the [[Battle of Cartagena (209 BC)|Battle of Cartagena]] in 209 BC, after which he set the inhabitants to produce weapons for the Roman army.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. C. Bishop|title=The Gladius: The Roman Short Sword|date=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-14-728158-6-6|language= es}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Flavius Vegetius Renatus|title=Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science|date=1996|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-08-532391-0-9|language= es|author-link=Flavius Vegetius Renatus}}</ref>

In 70 BC, both [[Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius|Claudius Quadrigarius]] and Livy relate the story of [[Titus Manlius Torquatus (347 BC)|Titus Manlius Torquatus]] using a "Hispanic sword" (''gladius Hispanus'') in a duel with a Gaul in 361 BC.<ref>Livy's term ([https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0027&layout=&loc=7.10.1 link]). Most authors use the term ''gladius Hispaniensis'' but a few use Livy's term, ''Hispanus''. Both are adjectives of the same meaning, that is, they refer to [[Hispania]], or the [[Iberian Peninsula]].</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=Liv2His.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=51&division=div2 |access-date=25 November 2010 |author=Livius, Titus |author-link=Livy |title=The History of Rome, Vol. II |at=7.10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020830133544/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?data=%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed&division=div2&id=Liv2His.sgm&images=images%2Fmodeng&part=51&tag=public |archive-date=August 30, 2002 }}</ref> However, the Gladius was not yet used by the Romans in the 4th century BC, and because of that this has been traditionally considered a terminological [[anachronism]] caused by the long established naming convention.<ref name=GladQues2/> It's possible that the Celtiberian sword was first adopted by Romans after encounters with Carthaginian mercenaries of that nationality during the [[First Punic War]] (264-241 BC), not the second.<ref name=GladQues2/> In any case, the ''gladius hispaniensis'' became particularly known in 200 BC during the [[Second Macedonian War]], in which Macedonian soldiers became horrified at what Roman swords could do after an early cavalry skirmish.<ref name=GladQues/><ref name=GladQues2/> It has been suggested that the sword used by Roman cavalrymen was different from the infantry model, but most academics have discarded this view.<ref name=GladQues2/>

Arguments for the Celtiberian source of the weapon have been reinforced in recent decades by discovery of early Roman ''gladii'' that seem to highlight that they were copies of Celtiberian models. The weapon developed in Iberia after La Tène I models, which were adapted to traditional Celtiberian techniques during the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC.<ref>[[Fernando Quesada Sanz]], [http://www.ffil.uam.es/equus/warmas/online/Quesada%20gladius%20ROMEC%20rd.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002143421/http://www.ffil.uam.es/equus/warmas/online/Quesada%20gladius%20ROMEC%20rd.pdf|date=October 2, 2010}}</ref> These weapons are quite original in their design, so that they cannot be confused with Gallic types. As for the origin of the word ''gladius'', one theory proposes the borrowing of the word from *''kladi''- during the Gallic wars, relying on the principle that ''K'' often became ''G'' in Latin. [[Ennius]] attests the word ''gladius'' may have replaced ''ensis'', which until then was used mainly by poets.<ref>This theory is stated in Note 80, Page 191, of faculty dissertation ''[http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/c9.pdf RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS IN OR FROM THE NETHERLANDS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060728221640/http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/c9.pdf |date=2006-07-28 }}'' by Tineke Looijenga, University of Groningen.</ref>

==Manufacturing==
===Technique===
[[File:Gladii type Mainz.jpg|thumb|''Gladius'' blades of the Mainz type]]
By the time of the [[Roman Republic]], which flourished during the [[Iron Age]], [[steel]] and the steel-making process was known to the classical world. Pure iron is relatively soft, but pure iron is never found in nature. Natural iron ore contains various impurities in [[solid solution]], which harden the reduced metal by producing irregular-shaped metallic crystals. The ''gladius'' was generally made out of steel.

In Roman times, workers [[Direct reduced iron|reduced ore]] in a [[bloomery]] furnace. The resulting pieces were called ''blooms'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://courses.washington.edu/overney/GEN_ST_Reading_Mat/Historical_Review.pdf|title=blooms}}</ref> which they further worked to remove slag inclusions from the porous surface.

A recent metallurgical study of two [[Etruria]]n swords, one in the form of a Greek ''[[kopis]]'' from 7th century BC [[Vetulonia]], the other in the form of a ''gladius Hispaniensis'' from 4th century BC [[Clusium]] ([[Chiusi]]), gives insight concerning the manufacture of Roman swords.<ref name=metall>{{cite journal |last1=Nicodemi |first1=Walter |last2=Mapelli |first2=Carlo |last3=Venturini |first3=Roberto |last4=Riva |first4=Riccardo |title=Metallurgical Investigations on Two Sword Blades of 7th and 3rd Century B.C. Found in Central Italy |journal=ISIJ International |date=2005 |volume=45 |issue=9 |pages=1358–1367 |doi=10.2355/isijinternational.45.1358|doi-access=free }}</ref> The Chiusi sword comes from Romanized ''etruria''; thus, regardless of the names of the forms (which the authors do not identify), the authors believe the process was continuous from the Etruscans to the Romans.

The Vetulonian sword was crafted by the [[pattern welding]] process from five blooms reduced at a temperature of {{convert|1163|C|abbr=on}}. Five strips of varying carbon content were created. A central core of the sword contained the highest: 0.15–0.25% carbon. On its edges were placed four strips of low-carbon steel, 0.05–0.07%, and the whole thing was welded together by forging on the pattern of hammer blows. A blow increased the temperature sufficiently to produce a friction weld at that spot. Forging continued until the steel was cold, producing some central [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]]. The sword was {{convert|58|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="metall" />

The Chiusian sword was created from a single bloom by forging from a temperature of {{convert|1237|C|abbr=on}}. The carbon content increased from 0.05–0.08% at the back side of the sword to 0.35–0.4% on the blade, from which the authors deduce that some form of [[carburization]] may have been used.<!--Bunk: This was necessary because the soft iron was not hard enough to have taken an edge before the carbon of the [[Coke (fuel)|coke powder]] was added to the exterior of the blade.--> The sword was {{convert|40|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and was characterized by a wasp-waist close to the hilt.

Romans continued to forge swords, both as composites and from single pieces. Inclusions of sand and rust weakened the two swords in the study, and no doubt limited the strength of swords during the Roman period.

===Production===

The craftsmen with the strategic task of making the ''gladii'' were called ''gladiarii''. They were part of the Roman legions as ''fabri'', enjoying the status of ''[[immunes]]''. There were also public workshops, ''fabricae'', dedicated to the making of the ''gladii''. Epigraphic attestations of the ''gladiarii'' have been found in Italy, especially in areas of ancient metallurgic tradition such as [[Capua]] and [[Aquileia]].<ref>The Road of Amber, Maurizio Buora, A.G.F., University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1996</ref>

==Description==
The word ''gladius'' acquired a general meaning as any type of sword. This use appears as early as the 1st century AD in the ''Biography of Alexander the Great'' by [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]].<ref>"Copidas vocabant gladios leviter curvatos, falcibus similes: "They called their lightly curved, sickle-like swords (gladius) 'copides'."</ref> The republican authors, however, appear to mean a specific type of sword, which is now known from archaeology to have had variants.

''Gladii'' were two-edged for cutting and had a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting. A solid grip was provided by a knobbed hilt added on, possibly with ridges for the fingers. Blade strength was achieved by welding together strips, in which case the sword had a channel down the centre, or by fashioning a single piece of high-carbon steel, rhomboidal in cross-section. The owner's name was often engraved or punched on the blade.

The [[hilt]] of a Roman sword was the ''capulus''. It was often ornate, especially the sword-hilts of officers and dignitaries.

Stabbing was a very efficient technique, as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly.<ref>Vegetius, ''De Re Militari, [http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/dere03.php Book I] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716222726/http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/dere03.php |date=July 16, 2012 }}'': "a stab, though it penetrates but two inches, is generally fatal."</ref> However, the ''gladius'' in some circumstances was used for cutting or slashing, as is indicated by [[Titus Livius|Livy]]'s account of the [[Macedonian Wars]], wherein the Macedonian soldiers were horrified to see dismembered bodies.<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12582/12582-h/12582-h.htm ''Histories'', Book 31, Chapter 34].</ref>

Though the primary infantry attack was thrusting at stomach height, they were trained to take any advantage, such as slashing at kneecaps beneath the shield wall.

The ''gladius'' was sheathed in a [[scabbard]] mounted on a belt or shoulder strap. Some say the soldier reached across his body to draw it, and others claim that the position of the shield made this method of drawing impossible. A [[centurion]] wore it on the opposite side as a mark of distinction.<ref>See under {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20061004213845/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/seyffert/0259.html gladius]}} in Seyffert, ''Dictionary of Classical Antiquities''.</ref>

Towards the end of the 2nd century AD and during the 3rd century the ''[[spatha]]'' gradually took the place of the ''gladius'' in the Roman legions.

==Types==
Several different designs were used; among collectors and [[Historical reenactment|historical reenactors]], the three primary kinds are known as the ''Mainz gladius'', the ''Fulham gladius'', and the ''Pompeii gladius'' (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the ''gladius Hispaniensis''.

The differences between these varieties are subtle. The original Hispanic sword, which was used during the republic, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature. The Mainz variety came into use on the frontier in the early empire. It kept the curvature, but shortened and widened the blade and made the point triangular. At home, the less battle-effective Pompeii version came into use. It eliminated the curvature, lengthened the blade, and diminished the point. The Fulham was a compromise, with straight edges and a long point.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.museodelarmablanca.com/gladius.htm |title=Museo del Arma Blanca |access-date=December 15, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025183906/http://www.museodelarmablanca.com/gladius.htm |archive-date=October 25, 2006 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

=== ''Gladius Hispaniensis'' ===
''The gladius Hispaniensis'' was a Roman sword used from around 216 BC until 20 BC. Its blade had a length of {{convert|60|–|68|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and the sword was {{convert|75|–|85|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. The width of the sword was {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. It was the largest and heaviest of the ''gladii'', weighing {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} or {{convert|900|g|lb|abbr=on}}. This gladius was also the earliest and longest blade. It had a pronounced leaf-shape.

=== ''Mainz Gladius'' ===

[[File:Mainz_sword.jpg|thumb|150px|The Mainz Gladius on display at the British Museum, London]]
''The [[Mainz Gladius]]''  is made of heavily corroded iron and a sheath made of tinned and gilded bronze. The blade was {{convert|50|–|55|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|7|cm|in|abbr=on}} in width. The sword was {{convert|65|–|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. The sword weighed {{convert|800|g|lb|abbr=on}}. The point of the sword was more triangular than the Gladius Hispaniensis. The Mainz Gladius still had wasp-waisted curves. The decoration on the scabbard illustrates the ceding of military victory to [[Augustus]] by Tiberius after a successful Alpine campaign. Augustus is semi-nude, and sits in the pose of Jupiter, flanked by the Roman gods of Victory and Mars Ultor, while [[Tiberius]], in military dress, presents Augustus with a statuette of Victory.

=== ''Fulham gladius'' ===
The ''Fulham gladius'' or ''Mainz-Fulham gladius'' was a Roman sword that  was used after [[Aulus Plautius|Aulus Plautius']] invasion of Britain in 43 AD.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Luis|first=Salva|title=Viriathus and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC|publisher=Pen & Sword|year=2013|isbn=978-1-78159-128-4|location=Great Britain}}</ref> The Romans used it until the end of the 1st century. The ''Fulham gladius'' has a triangular tip. The length of the blade is {{convert|50|–|55|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The length of the sword is {{convert|65|–|70|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The width of the blade is {{convert|6|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The swords weighs {{convert|700|g|lb|abbr=on}} (wooden hilt).<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Roman Legions}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ramsay|first=Syed|title=Tools of War: History of Weapons in Ancient Times|publisher=Vij Books|year=2016|isbn=978-938-601-980-6|location=India}}</ref> A full size replica can be seen at [[Fulham Palace]], [[Fulham]].

=== ''Pompeii gladius'' ===
[[File:Gladius 2.jpg|thumb|150px|Re-enactor with Pompeii-type ''gladius'']]
The ''Pompeii gladius'' was named by modern historians after the Roman town of [[Pompeii]]. This type of ''gladius'' was by far the most popular one. Four examples of the sword type were found in Pompeii, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. This is the shortest of the ''gladii''. It is often confused with the ''[[spatha]]'', which was a longer, slashing weapon used initially by mounted ''auxilians''. Over the years, the Pompeii got longer, and these later versions are called semi-''spathes''. The length of the blade was {{convert|45|–|50|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The length of the sword is {{convert|60|–|65|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The width of the blade is {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The sword weighs {{convert|700|g|lb|abbr=on}} (wooden hilt).

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Rome}}
* [[Iron Age sword]]
* [[Model 1816 French artillery short sword]]
* [[Model 1832 foot artillery sword]]
* [[Qama]]
* [[Roman military personal equipment]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{note|latin}}This is only true for the [[nominative case]]; For more information, see the [[Latin declension]] page.

==References==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185751/http://www.armsandarmor.org/id19.html Significant Contributions in the Study of European Arms and Armor], bibliography by the Arms and Armor Society of America.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090105204048/http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/arma/welc/subjects/subbibc.htm Armamentarium: subject bibliographies: swords]
* John William Humphrey, [[John Peter Oleson]], Andrew Neil Sherwood, [https://books.google.com/books?id=S5q4d4mMNQUC&dq=roman+(carburization%7Ccarburisation)&pg=PA579 Greek and Roman Technology: a sourcebook]
* {{Cite book |author= Livius, Titus (known as [[Livy]]) | year=1982 | title=Rome and Italy: Books VI-X of the History of Rome from its Foundation, translated by Betty Radice | publisher=Penguin Books| isbn=978-0-14-044388-2| title-link=Betty Radice }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Gladii}}
The articles in the links below often differ both in theory and in detail. They should not necessarily be understood as fully professional articles but should be appreciated for their presentational value.

===Pictures of ancient swords===
* [http://www.romancoins.info/MilitaryEquipment-Attack.html Roman Military Equipment] at the Roman Numismatic Gallery (romancoins.info)

===Reenactments, reconstructions, experimental archaeology===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070723164128/http://www.legio-ix-hispana.org/gladdraw.html Legio IX Hispana]: photos of historical reconstructionists drawing and holding gladii.
* {{cite web |url=http://www.larp.com/legioxx/gladius.html |title=Legio XX Gladius}} <!-- |date=30 April 2009 |accessdate=25 November 2010 -->
* {{cite web |url=http://www.legionxxiv.org/gladiatorarena/ |title=Legio XXIV Gladiator page}}<!-- |date=18 December 2004 |accessdate=25 November 2010 -->
* {{cite web |url=http://www.erminestreetguard.co.uk/legionary%20equipment.htm |title=The Roman Legionary and His Equipment in The First Century AD: An Assessment of the findings of The Ermine Street Guard. |access-date=2007-08-24 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001840/http://www.erminestreetguard.co.uk/legionary%20equipment.htm |url-status=dead }}

===Articles on the history or manufacture of the sword===
* Ross Cowan, [https://www.academia.edu/45149189/Gladius_Gallicus_Celtic_Swords_for_Italic_Warriors_proof_ Gladius Gallicus]{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, an introduction to the Gallic-type swords used by the Romans prior to the adoption of the ''gladius Hispaniensis''
* [http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_ironempire.html Iron of the Empire: The History and Development of the Roman Gladius] (myArmoury.com article)
* Janet Lang, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/526199 Study of the Metallography of Some Roman Swords]
* Niko Silvester, [http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/articles/rapier_to_longsax/from_rapier_to_langsax.html From Rapier to Langsax: Sword Structure in the British Isles in the Bronze and Iron Ages]
* Richard F. Burton, [http://www.jrbooksonline.com/HTML-docs/Book_of_the_Sword.htm The Sword Amongst the Barbarians (Early Roman Empire).]
*Taylor, Michael J. "Panoply and Identity during the Roman Republic." ''Papers of the British School at Rome'' 88 (2020), 31-65. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/papers-of-the-british-school-at-rome/article/panoply-and-identity-during-the-roman-republic/86039DD53481F5ADDD19FE28ECEBF941 PANOPLY AND IDENTITY DURING THE ROMAN REPUBLIC]

{{Swords by region}}

[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic]]
[[Category:3rd-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Ancient European swords]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman legionary equipment]]
[[Category:Edged and bladed weapons]]
[[Category:Iberian weapons]]
[[Category:Roman swords]]