View source for Globalization

{{short description|Spread of world views, products, ideas, capital and labor}}
{{redirect|Globalize|the JavaScript library|Globalize (JavaScript library)|other uses|Globalization (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Globalism}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2016}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 350
| image1 = Early migrations mercator.svg
| image2 = NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg
| image4 = 67º Período de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg
| image5 = SocialDistancingWalmartCanada.jpg
| image6 = African undersea cables v44.jpg
| footer = '''Top-left''': showing early migration patterns of humans across the globe as part of the [[history of globalization]]. '''Top-right''': the Namban ship carrying [[Europe]]ans to trade with [[Japan]]. '''Middle-left''': the [[headquarters]] of the [[headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations]] in [[international territory]] within [[Midtown Manhattan]], [[New York City]]. '''Middle-right''': a branch of the American superstore [[Walmart]], the [[List of largest companies by revenue|largest company in the world by revenue]] as of 2021, in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. '''Bottom''': a map of [[Submarine communications cable|undersea cable]] connections around the [[Africa]]n continent to and from [[Europe]], [[Asia]], and across the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
}}

'''Globalization''' is the process of increasing [[Interdependence theory|interdependence]] and integration among the economies, markets, societies, and cultures of different countries worldwide. This is made possible by the reduction of barriers to [[international trade]], the liberalization of capital movements, the development of [[transportation]], and the advancement of [[information and communication technologies]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scholte |first1=Jan Aart |title=Defining Globalisation |journal=[[The World Economy (journal)|The World Economy]] |date=2008 |volume=31 |issue=11 |pages=1471–1502 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9701.2007.01019.x|url=http://elartu.tntu.edu.ua/handle/lib/46943 }}</ref> The term ''globalization'' first appeared in the early 20th century (supplanting an earlier French term {{lang|fr|mondialisation}}). It developed its current meaning sometime in the second half of the 20th century, and came into popular use in the 1990s to describe the unprecedented international connectivity of the [[post–Cold War world]].<ref name="tandfonline.com">{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=Paul |author-link1=Paul James (academic) |last2=Steger |first2=Manfred B. |author-link2=Manfred Steger |year=2014 |title=A Genealogy of globalization: The career of a concept |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14747731.2014.951186 |journal=Globalizations |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=417–434 |doi=10.1080/14747731.2014.951186|bibcode=2014Glob...11..417J |s2cid=18739651 |issn = 1474-7731 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The origins of globalization can be traced back to the 18th and 19th centuries, driven by advances in transportation and communication technologies. These developments increased global interactions, fostering the growth of international trade and the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and cultures. While globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration, it is also closely linked to social and cultural dynamics. Additionally, [[disputes]] and [[international diplomacy]] have played significant roles in the history and evolution of globalization, continuing to shape its modern form. Though many scholars place the [[History of globalization|origins of globalization]] in [[modernity|modern times]], others trace its history to long before the European [[Age of Discovery]] and voyages to the [[New World]], and some even to the third millennium BCE.<ref name="GL-H-09" /> Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s, and in the late 19th century and early 20th century drove a rapid expansion in the connectivity of the world's economies and cultures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=H.|first1=O'Rourke, Kevin|last2=G.|first2=Williamson, Jeffrey|s2cid=15767303|date=1 April 2002|title=When did globalisation begin?|journal=European Review of Economic History|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|doi=10.1017/S1361491602000023|issn=1361-4916|pages=23–50}}</ref> The term ''[[global city]]'' was subsequently popularized by [[sociologist]] [[Saskia Sassen]] in her work ''The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo'' (1991).<ref>Sassen, Saskia - ''[http://pup.princeton.edu/titles/6943.html The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316103717/http://pup.princeton.edu/titles/6943.html |date=16 March 2015 }}'' (1991) – [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-691-07063-6}}</ref>

Globalization describes the growing interdependence of the world's economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Countries have built economic partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries.

Economically, globalization involves goods, [[Service (economics)|services]], data, technology, and the economic resources of [[Capital (economics)|capital]].<ref name="Albrow">{{Cite book|url={{google books|id=lfe1AAAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=Globalization, Knowledge and Society|last1=Albrow|first1=Martin|last2=King|first2=Elizabeth|publisher=Sage|year=1990|isbn=0-8039-8323-9|location=London|oclc=22593547}}</ref> The expansion of global markets liberalizes the economic activities of the exchange of goods and funds. Removal of cross-border trade barriers has made the formation of global markets more feasible.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/2134/chapter/3|title=Read "Following the Money: U.S. Finance in the World Economy" at NAP.edu|year=1995|publisher=National Academies Press |doi=10.17226/2134|isbn=978-0-309-04883-5|language=en}}</ref> Advances in transportation, like the [[steam locomotive]], [[steamship]], [[jet engine]], and [[container ships]], and developments in telecommunication infrastructure such as the [[telegraph]], the [[Internet]], [[mobile phones]], and [[smartphones]], have been major factors in globalization and have generated further interdependence of economic and cultural activities around the globe.<ref name="Imagining">{{cite web | url=http://www.elon.edu/e-web/predictions/150/1830.xhtml | title=Imagining the Internet | publisher=Elon University School of Communications | work=History of Information Technologies | access-date=17 August 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323040248/http://www.elon.edu/e-web/predictions/150/1830.xhtml | archive-date=23 March 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Stever_1972">{{cite journal | last1 = Stever | first1 = H. Guyford | year = 1972 | title = Science, Systems, and Society | journal = Journal of Cybernetics | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 1–3 | doi = 10.1080/01969727208542909 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wolf|first=Martin|date=September 2014|title=Shaping Globalization|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2014/09/pdf/wolf.pdf|journal=Finance & Development|publisher=International Monetary Fund|volume=51|issue=3|pages=22–25|access-date=10 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922062300/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2014/09/pdf/wolf.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Between 1990 and 2010, globalization progressed rapidly, driven by the information and communication technology revolution that lowered communication costs, along with trade liberalization and the shift of manufacturing operations to emerging economies (particularly China).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20240179-navigating-supply-chain-disruptions |title=Navigating supply chain disruptions: New insights into the resilience and transformation of EU firms |date=2024-10-03 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5807-0 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Globalisation, automation and the history of work: Looking back to understand the future |url=https://unctad.org/news/globalisation-automation-and-history-work-looking-back-understand-future |website=UNCTAD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Trade Liberalization and the Developing Countries -- An IMF Issues Brief |url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2001/110801.htm |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=www.imf.org}}</ref> In 2000, the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and [[Financial transaction|transactions]], [[capital (economics)|capital]] and [[investment]] movements, [[Human migration|migration]] and movement of people, and the dissemination of [[knowledge]].<ref name="12th April 2000: IMF Publications">{{Cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2000/041200to.htm|title=Globalization: Threat or Opportunity?|date=12 April 2000|publisher=International Monetary Fund|url-status=live|access-date=28 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818185451/http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2000/041200to.htm|archive-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> Globalizing processes affect and are affected by [[business]] and [[Employment|work]] organization, economics, sociocultural resources, and the natural environment. Academic literature commonly divides globalization into three major areas: [[economic globalization]], [[cultural globalization]], and [[political globalization]].<ref name="Ritzer2008-146">{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|last=Babones|first=Salvatore|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|editor-last=Ritzer|editor-first=George|location=Malden|page=146|chapter=Studying Globalization: Methodological Issues|oclc=232611725|chapter-url={{google books|id=XKnmvRATtfAC|page=146|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>

Proponents of globalization point to [[economic growth]] and broader societal development as benefits, while opponents claim globalizing processes are detrimental to social well-being due to [[ethnocentrism]], environmental consequences, and other potential drawbacks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-01 |title=6 Pros and Cons of Globalization in Business to Consider |url=https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/pros-and-cons-of-globalization |access-date=2024-09-04 |website=Business Insights Blog |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Weighing the Pros and Cons of Globalization |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/weighing-the-pros-and-cons-globalization |access-date=2024-09-04 |website=www.wilsoncenter.org |date=5 March 2003 |language=en}}</ref>

Globalization, characterized by the increased flow of goods, services, capital, people, and ideas across borders, leads to greater global interdependence by integrating national economies, societies, and cultures. This process, intensified since the 1980s by technological advancements and reduced trade barriers, has profound effects on businesses, cultures, politics, and living standards worldwide.{{Sociology}}

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Etymology and usage==
The word ''globalization'' was used in the English language as early as the 1930s, but only ever in the context of education, and the term failed to gain traction. Over the next few decades, the term was occasionally used by other scholars and media, but it was not clearly defined.<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> One of the first uses of a term resembling the more common meaning and usage of the modern word was by French economist [[François Perroux]] in his essays from the early 1960s (in his French works he used the similar yet distinct term {{lang|fr|mondialisation}}, translated as [[mundialization]]).<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> [[Theodore Levitt]] is sometimes inaccurately cited as having invented the term in the mid-1980s, although he can more confidently be credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience during that time.<ref name="tandfonline.com" />

Though often treated as synonyms, in French, globalization is seen as a stage following {{lang|fr|mondialisation}}, a stage that implies the dissolution of national identities and the abolishment of borders inside the world network of economic exchanges.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Sorinel
|first=Cosma
|title=Globalization and Mondialisation – A Conceptual Analysis
|journal=Ovidius University Annals
|series=Economic Sciences Series
|issue=2
|pages=27–30
|department=Ovidius University of Constantza, Faculty of Economic Sciences, Decembre
|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/ovi/oviste/vxiiy2012i2p27-30.html
|year=2012
}}</ref>

Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and interpretations. Its antecedents date back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onward.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Globalization in World History|publisher=Norton|year=2002|isbn=0-393-97942-3|editor-last=Hopkins|editor-first=Antony G.|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalizationinw00agho/page/4 4–8]|oclc=50028410|url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationinw00agho/page/4}}</ref><ref name="Bakari13">{{cite journal|last=Bakari|first=Mohamed El-Kamel|title=Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?|journal=New Global Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=23–56|issn=1940-0004|doi=10.1515/ngs-2013-021|year=2013|s2cid=154786395}}</ref>

In 1848, [[Karl Marx]] noticed the increasing level of national interdependence brought on by [[capitalism]], and predicted the universal character of the modern world society. He states:
{{blockquote|text= The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. . . . In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations.<ref>{{cite book |author=Karl Marx |author2=Friedrich Engels |title=The Communist Manifesto|pages=47–103|publisher=Pluto Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1k85dmc.4 |jstor=j.ctt1k85dmc |isbn=978-1-78680-025-1 |chapter=Manifesto of the Communist Party|year=2017|s2cid=53056560 |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/context/prism/article/1079/viewcontent/Manifesto_of_the_Communist_Party.pdf }}</ref>}}

Sociologists [[Martin Albrow]] and Elizabeth King define globalization as "all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society."<ref name="Albrow" /> In ''The Consequences of Modernity'', [[Anthony Giddens]] writes: "Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide [[social relation]]s which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Consequences of Modernity|last=Giddens|first=Anthony|publisher=Polity Press|year=1990|isbn=0-7456-0793-4|location=Cambridge|page=64|oclc=22305142}}</ref> In 1992, [[Roland Robertson]], professor of sociology at the [[University of Aberdeen]] and an early writer in the field, described globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationsoc0000robe|title=Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture|last=Robertson|first=Roland|publisher=Sage|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8039-8187-4|edition=Reprint.|location=London|oclc=28634687|url-access=registration}}</ref>

In ''Global Transformations'', [[David Held]] and his co-writers state:
{{blockquote|text=Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.<ref>Held, David; Goldblatt, David; McGrew, Anthony; Perraton, Jonathan (1999). ''Global Transformations'' Cambridge: Polity Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7456-1498-4}}</ref>|sign=|source=|}}

Held and his co-writers' definition of globalization in that same book as "transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact—generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows" was called "probably the most widely-cited definition" in the 2014 [[Pankaj Ghemawat|DHL Global Connectiveness Index]].<ref name="DHL">{{cite web|url=http://www.dhl.com/content/dam/Campaigns/gci2014/downloads/dhl_gci_2014_study_high.pdf|title=DHL Global Connectedness Index 2014|date=11 March 2014|publisher=[[DHL]]|access-date=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202020111/http://www.dhl.com/content/dam/Campaigns/gci2014/downloads/dhl_gci_2014_study_high.pdf|archive-date=2 February 2015}}</ref>

Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book ''The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization'', states that globalization:

{{blockquote|...is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.<ref>Larsson, Thomas. (2001). ''The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization'' Washington, DC: Cato Institute. p. 9. {{ISBN|978-1-930865-15-0}}</ref>}}

[[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] defines globalization with a more direct and historically contextualized emphasis:

<blockquote>Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining that world-space in terms of the historically variable ways that it has been practiced and socially understood through changing world-time.<ref name=James2005>{{Cite journal | year=2005 | last=James |first=Paul | title= Arguing Globalizations: Propositions Towards an Investigation of Global Formation | url= https://www.academia.edu/5246805 | journal= Globalizations | volume= 2 | issue= 2 | pages=193–209 | doi=10.1080/14747730500202206| bibcode=2005Glob....2..193J | s2cid=146553776 }}</ref></blockquote>

[[Manfred Steger]], professor of [[global studies]] and research leader in the [[Global Cities Institute]] at [[RMIT University]], identifies four main empirical [[dimensions of globalization]]: economic, political, cultural, and [[ecological]]. A fifth dimension—the ideological—cutting across the other four. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of [[Norm (social)|norms]], claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself.<ref>{{cite book|title=Globalization: A Very Short Introduction|last=Steger|first=Manfred|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-955226-9|location=New York|page=11}}</ref>

James and Steger stated that the concept of globalization "emerged from the intersection of four interrelated sets of '[[communities of practice]]' ([[Étienne Wenger|Wenger]], 1998): academics, journalists, publishers/editors, and librarians."<ref name="tandfonline.com" />{{Rp|424}} They note the term was used "in education to describe the global life of the mind"; in [[international relations]] to describe the extension of the [[European Common Market]], and in journalism to describe how the "American Negro and his problem are taking on a global significance".<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> They have also argued that four forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions.<ref name=James2005/><ref>{{Cite journal|year=2013|title=Levels of Subjective Globalization: Ideologies, Imaginaries, Ontologies|url=https://www.academia.edu/4311113|journal=Perspectives on Global Development and Technology|volume=12|issue=1–2|author1=Manfred B. Steger|author2=Paul James}}</ref> According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and [[polities]], including [[Imperialism|imperial]] agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the movement of [[commodities]] and other objects of exchange. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is currently the dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an understanding of how, today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement of [[refugee]]s and [[Immigration|migrants]] are increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such as the circulation of financial instruments and codes are the most [[deregulated]].<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2014|title=Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens|url=https://www.academia.edu/7773440|journal=Citizenship Studies|volume=18|issue=2|pages=208–23|doi=10.1080/13621025.2014.886440|last1=James|first1=Paul|s2cid=144816686}}</ref>

The journalist [[Thomas L. Friedman]] popularized the term [[The World Is Flat|"flat world"]], arguing that [[Global trade|globalized trade]], [[outsourcing]], [[supply chain|supply-chaining]], and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow.<ref>Friedman, Thomas L. "The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention". ''Emerging: A Reader.'' Ed. Barclay Barrios. Boston: Bedford, St. Martins, 2008. 49</ref>

Economist [[Takis Fotopoulos]] defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of [[Commodity market|commodity]], [[Capital market|capital]], and [[labor markets]] that led toward present [[neoliberal]] globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational [[élite]] and a phasing out of the [[nation-state]]. Meanwhile, he used "cultural globalization" to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "[[ideological]] globalization", "[[technological]] globalization", and "social globalization".<ref>Fotopoulos, Takis. (2001). "Globalization, the reformist Left and the Anti-Globalization 'Movement.'" [http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/dn/vol7/takis_globalisation.htm ''Democracy & Nature: The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy'', 7:(2) (July 2001).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426000403/http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/dn/vol7/takis_globalisation.htm |date=26 April 2009 }}</ref>

Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances becoming connected in more and different ways.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Globalization Reader|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0-470-65563-4|editor-last=Lechner|editor-first=Frank J.|edition=4th|location=Chichester|oclc=723530747|editor-last2=Boli|editor-first2=John}}</ref>

"Globophobia" is used to refer to the fear of globalization, though it can also mean the [[balloon phobia|fear of balloons]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/beyond-globophobia|title=Beyond Globophobia|last1=Henwood|first1=Doug|date=13 November 2003|work=[[The Nation]]|issn=0027-8378|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029140242/http://www.thenation.com/article/beyond-globophobia|archive-date=29 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Clark|first1=Ross|title=Globophobia|url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/columnists/12049/globophobia-17/|work=[[The Spectator]]|date=20 March 2004|access-date=29 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222124856/http://www.spectator.co.uk/columnists/12049/globophobia-17/|archive-date=22 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Ritzer2008">{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XKnmvRATtfAC|page=16}}|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|editor=Ritzer|editor-first=George|editor-link=George Ritzer|location=Malden|pages=16–|oclc=232611725}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of globalization}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of international trade}}

There are both [[Proximate and ultimate causation|distal and proximate causes]] which can be traced in the historical factors affecting globalization. Large-scale globalization began in the 19th century.<ref name="When Did Globalization Begin">{{cite journal |last1=O'Rourke |first1=Kevin H. |first2=Jeffrey G. |last2=Williamson |s2cid=15767303 |year=2002 |title=When Did Globalization Begin? |journal=European Review of Economic History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=23–50 |doi=10.1017/S1361491602000023 }}</ref>

===Archaic===
{{Main|Archaic globalization}}
[[File:Archaic globalization.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.8|The 13th century world-system, as described by [[Janet Abu-Lughod]]]]

The phrase "Archaic globalization" conventionally refers to a phase in the history of globalization including globalizing events and developments from the time of the earliest [[civilization]]s until roughly the 1600s CE. This term covers the relationships between communities and [[State (polity)|states]] and how they developed through the geographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional levels.<ref name="M 45">{{cite book |last=Martell |first=Luke |title=The Sociology of Globalization|year=2010 | edition = reprint |publisher=Policy Press | isbn = 9780745636740 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zGfy7s_CfPsC}}</ref>{{qn|date=June 2025}}

In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for globalization to occur:
# The first is the idea of Eastern Origins, which shows how [[Western states]] have adapted and implemented learned principles from the [[Eastern world|East]].<ref name=" M 45"/> Without the spread of traditional ideas from the East, Western globalization would not have emerged in the way that it did.
# The interactions of early states were not on a global scale and most often were confined to local regions: Asia, [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]], and certain parts of Europe.<ref name=" M 45"/> With early globalization, it was difficult for states to interact with others that were not close. Eventually, technological advances allowed states to learn of others' existence and thus another phase of globalization could occur.
# The third prerequisite has to do with inter-dependency, stability, and regularity. If a state is not dependent on another, then there is no way for either state to be mutually affected by the other. This is one of the driving forces behind global connections and trade; without either, globalization would not have emerged the way it did and states would still be dependent on their own [[Production (economics)|production]] and resources to work. This is one of the arguments surrounding the idea of early globalization. It is argued that archaic globalization did not function in a similar manner to modern globalization because states were not as interdependent on other states (as they are today).<ref name="M 45"/>

Also posited is a "multi-polar" nature to archaic globalization, which involved the active participation of non-Europeans. Because it predated the [[Great Divergence]] in the nineteenth century, where [[Western Europe]] pulled ahead of the rest of the world in terms of [[industrial production]] and [[economic output]], archaic globalization was a phenomenon that was driven not only by Europe but also by other economically developed [[Old World]] centers such as [[Gujarat]], [[Bengal]], coastal [[China]], and [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=[[Hans Köchler|Kochler]] |first=Hans |title=Globality versus Democracy: The Changing Nature of International Relations in the Era of Globalization |year=2000 |publisher=International Progress Organization|location=Vienna|page=35}}</ref>
[[File:NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg|thumb|right|Portuguese [[carrack]] in [[Nagasaki]], 17th-century Japanese [[Nanban trade|Nanban art]]]]

The German [[Economic history|historical economist]] and sociologist [[Andre Gunder Frank]] argues that a form of globalization began with the rise of trade links between [[Sumer]] and the [[Indus Valley civilization]] in the third millennium [[BCE]]. This archaic globalization continued during the [[Hellenistic Age]], when commercialized urban centers enveloped the axis of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture that reached from India to Spain, including [[Alexandria]] and the other [[Alexander the Great|Alexandrine]] cities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece, Greek demographics and the necessity of importing wheat encouraged Greek city-states to found [[Greek colonisation | outpost colonies]]<ref>
For example:
{{cite book
 |last1                = Fine
 |first1               = John Van Antwerp
 |year                 = 1983
 |chapter              = Colonization
 |title                = The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=NjeM0kcp8swC
 |edition              = revised
 |publication-place    = Cambridge, Massachusetts
 |publisher            = Harvard University Press
 |page                 = 81
 |isbn                 = 9780674033146
 |access-date          = 16 June 2025
 |quote                = Greek colonization of the Black Sea region was of great importance for subsequent Greek history. A huge area, rich in metals, timber, grain, fish and many other products, was thus opened to a Greek world whose resources in raw materials and food products were inadequate for a constantly growing population.
}}
</ref>
and to engage in maritime trade.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Reed
 |first1               = C. M.
 |page                 = 19
 |chapter              = Classical modes and patterns of exchange
 |date                 = 11 December 2025
 |title                = Maritime Traders in the Ancient Greek World
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=-gwO68JZ9jkC
 |publisher            = Cambridge University Press
 |isbn                 = 9781139439060
 |access-date          = 16 June 2025
 |quote                = [...] in the classical period the grain trade offered work for large numbers of maritime traders, and the need for grain at Athens, and probably elsewhere too, became acute enough to make these traders indispensable.
}}
</ref>
Trade in ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain.<ref name="GL-H-09">Frank, Andre Gunder. (1998). ''ReOrient: Global economy in the Asian age.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-21474-3}}</ref> Greek style, culture and art spread in a "form of Mediterranean globalization".<ref>
For example:
{{cite book
 |last1                = Zuchtriegel
 |first1               = Gabriel
 |year                 = 2018
 |chapter              = Mountains: the Limits of Greekness and Citizenship
 |title                = Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece: Experience of the Nonelite Population
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Whs3DwAAQBAJ
 |publication-place    = New York
 |publisher            = Cambridge University Press
 |page                 = 175
 |isbn                 = 9781108419031
 |access-date          = 16 June 2025
 |quote                = The process of Lucanization ultimately turned the use of Greek visual language from being a privilege of the elite into a ubiquitous mass phenomenon that supplanted traditional forms of expression. In this light, the history of Italiote red-figure vases in Lucania also represents the history of a transformation of traditional versions of cultural diversity that were partly homogenized and integrated within new hybrid forms {{--}} a form of Mediterranean globalization that some individuals and groups may have perceived as a cultural loss, while others gained socially and economically.
}}
</ref>

[[File:Transasia trade routes 1stC CE gr2 macrobia label corrected.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Silk Road]] in the 1st century]]
[[File:New World Domesticated plants.JPG|thumb|Native [[New World]] crops [[Columbian exchange|exchanged globally]] ([[clockwise]]): Maize, tomato, potato, [[vanilla]], rubber, [[Cacao bean|cacao]], tobacco]]
Trade on the [[Silk Road]] became a significant factor in the development of civilizations from China to the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Persia]], Europe, and [[Arabia]], opening long-distance political and economic interactions between them.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 32.</ref> Though silk was certainly the major trade-item from China, common goods such as salt and sugar were traded as well; and [[religion]]s, [[syncretic]] philosophies, and various technologies, as well as diseases, also traveled along the [[Silk Routes]]. In addition to economic trade, the Silk Road served as a means of carrying out cultural trade among the civilizations along its network.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 33.</ref> The movement of people, such as refugees, artists, craftsmen, [[missionaries]], robbers, and envoys, resulted in the exchange of religions, art, languages, and new technologies.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/legacy-silk-road | title = The Legacy of the Silk Road | publisher = Yale Global | date = 25 January 2013 | access-date = 31 March 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402075517/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/legacy-silk-road | archive-date = 2 April 2015 }}</ref> From around 3000 BCE to 1000 CE, connectivity within [[Afro-Eurasia]] was centered upon the [[Indo-Mediterranean]] region, with the Silk Road later rising in importance with the [[Mongol Empire]]'s consolidation of Asia in the 13th century CE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last =Burke |first =Edmund |date =2009 |title =Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity |url =https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542756 |journal =Journal of World History |volume =20 |issue =2 |pages =186 |issn =1045-6007 |jstor =40542756}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last =Ghosh |first =Paramita |date =2024-03-12 |title =Building a new road |url =https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2024/Mar/12/building-a-new-road-3 |access-date =2024-08-29 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

===Early modern===
{{Main|Proto-globalization}}

"[[Early modern]]" or "proto-globalization" covers a period of the history of globalization roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of "proto-globalization" was first introduced by historians [[A. G. Hopkins]] and [[Christopher Bayly]]. The term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of high "modern globalization" in the late 19th century.<ref>Hopkins, A.G., ed., 2003. Globalization in World History. New York City: Norton. {{ISBN|0-393-97942-3}} pp. 4–5, 7</ref> This phase of globalization was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 15th and 17th centuries, first the [[Portuguese Empire]] (1415) followed by the [[Spanish Empire]] (1492), and later the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[British Empire]]s. In the 17th century, world trade developed further when [[chartered companies]] like the [[British East India Company]] (founded in 1600) and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (founded in 1602, often described as the first [[multinational corporation]] in which [[stock]] was offered) were established.<ref>Chaudhuri, K.N. (1965\1999). ''The English East India Company: The Study of an Early Joint-stock Company 1600–1640 (Vol. 4).'' London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press.</ref>
[[File:Chafariz d'el Rei (Flemish School).jpg|left|thumb|Lisbon in the 1570s had many Africans due to the [[Atlantic slave trade]].]]

An alternative view from historians Dennis Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, postulated that: globalization began with the first circumnavigation of the globe under the [[Magellan-Elcano expedition]] which preluded the rise of [[Global silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries|global silver trade]].<ref>China and the Birth of Globalization in the 16th Century, by Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pFDQEACAAJ|title=The Silver Way: China, Spanish America and the Birth of Globalisation, 1565-1815|first1=Peter|last1=Gordon|first2=Juan José|last2=Morales|date=12 October 2017|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-7343-9943-4 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization on the basis of [[expansionism]], the method of managing global trade, and the level of information exchange. The period is marked by the shift of [[hegemony]] to Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the [[Thirty Years' War]], and demand for commodities, most particularly [[slaves]]. The [[triangular trade]] made it possible for Europe to take advantage of resources within the [[Western Hemisphere]]. The transfer of animal stocks, plant crops, and epidemic diseases associated with [[Alfred W. Crosby]]'s concept of the [[Columbian exchange]] also played a central role in this process. European, Middle Eastern, Indian, [[Southeast Asia]]n, and Chinese merchants were all involved in early modern trade and communications, particularly in the Indian Ocean region.

[[File:Launch-of-the-SS-GB.jpg|thumb|The 1843 launch of the ''[[SS Great Britain|Great Britain]]'', the revolutionary ship of [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]]]
[[File:Arthur Mees Flags of A Free Empire 1910 Cornell CUL PJM 1167 01 (Reddit source).jpg|thumb|During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] was a global [[superpower]].]]

===Modern===
According to economic historians [[Kevin H. O'Rourke]], Leandro Prados de la Escosura, and Guillaume Daudin, several factors promoted globalization in the period 1815–1870:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-economic-history-of-modern-europe/trade-and-empire/BE789F27408634F4749D61F013897C04|title=Trade and empire (Chapter 4) – The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe|chapter=Trade and empire |website=Cambridge Core|date=2010 |volume=1 |pages=100–01|publisher=Cambridge University Press |language=en|access-date=2 March 2018|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511794834.006|isbn=978-0-521-88202-6|s2cid=155275323 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303050324/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-economic-history-of-modern-europe/trade-and-empire/BE789F27408634F4749D61F013897C04|archive-date=3 March 2018|url-status=live |last1=h. o'Rourke |first1=Kevin |last2=Prados de la Escosura |first2=Leandro |last3=Daudin |first3=Guillaume }}</ref>

* The conclusion of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] brought in an era of relative peace in Europe.
* Innovations in transportation technology reduced trade costs substantially.
* New industrial military technologies increased the power of European states and the United States, and allowed these powers to forcibly open up markets across the world and extend their empires.
* A gradual move towards greater liberalization in European countries.

During the 19th century, globalization approached its form as a direct result of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. [[Industrialization]] allowed standardized production of household items using [[economies of scale]] while rapid [[population growth]] created sustained demand for commodities. In the 19th century, steamships reduced the cost of international transportation significantly and railroads made inland transportation cheaper. The [[History of transport|transportation revolution]] occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.<ref name="When Did Globalization Begin" /> More nations embraced [[international trade]].<ref name="When Did Globalization Begin" /> Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century [[imperialism]] such as in [[Scramble for Africa|Africa]] and [[Western imperialism in Asia|Asia]].<ref name="Levinson" /><ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=Gittins |first=Ross |date=12 June 2006 |title=How the invention of a box changed our world – Business – smh.com.au |url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/business/how-the-invention-of-a-box-changed-our-world/2006/06/11/1149964409162.html%0A |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114190140/http://www.smh.com.au/news/business/how-the-invention-of-a-box-changed-our-world/2006/06/11/1149964409162.html%0A |archive-date=14 November 2015 |access-date=17 February 2013 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]}}</ref>

=== Contemporary ===
After World War II, work by politicians led to the agreements of the [[Bretton Woods Conference]], in which major governments laid down the framework for [[International monetary systems|international monetary policy]], commerce, and finance, and the founding of several [[international institution]]s intended to facilitate economic growth by lowering [[trade barrier]]s. Initially, the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) led to a series of agreements to remove trade restrictions. GATT's successor was the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), which provided a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a dispute resolution process. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm | title = World Exports as Percentage of Gross World Product | publisher=[[Global Policy Forum]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080712023541/http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm | archive-date = 12 July 2008 | access-date =11 November 2009}}</ref> The approach of using global agreements to advance trade stumbled with the failure of the [[Doha Development Round]] of trade negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011 [[United States–Korea Free Trade Agreement]].

The invention of shipping containers in 1956 helped advance the globalization of commerce.<ref name="Levinson" /><ref name=":3" /> Since the 1970s, [[aviation]] has become increasingly affordable to [[middle class]]es in [[developed countries]]. [[Open skies]] policies and [[low-cost carrier]]s have helped to bring [[Competition (economics)|competition]] to the [[Market (economics)|market]]. In the 1990s, the growth of low-cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating between countries. More work can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design.

[[Student exchange program]]s became popular after [[World War II]], and are intended to increase the participants' understanding and tolerance of other cultures, as well as improving their language skills and broadening their social horizons. Between 1963 and 2006, the number of students studying in a foreign country increased 9 times.<ref name=varghese/>

[[File:Comet 4.jpg|thumb|[[de Havilland Comet|D.H. Comet]], the world's first commercial [[jet airliner]], entered service in 1949.]]
Since the 1980s, modern globalization has spread rapidly through the expansion of capitalism and neoliberal ideologies.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Gender, Development, and Globalization: Economics as if all people mattered.|last1=Lourdes|first1=Benería|last2=Gunseli|first2=Berik|last3=Maria S.|first3=Floro|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|location=New York|page=95}}</ref> The implementation of neoliberal policies has allowed for the privatization of public industry, deregulation of laws or policies that interfered with the free flow of the market, as well as cut-backs to governmental social services.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Shock Doctrine|title-link= The Shock Doctrine|last=Klein|first=Naomi|publisher=Vintage|year=2008|location=Canada|page=68}}</ref> These neoliberal policies were introduced to many developing countries in the form of structural adjustment programs (SAPs) that were implemented by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).<ref name=":0" /> These programs required that the country receiving monetary aid would open its markets to capitalism, privatize public industry, allow free trade, cut social services like healthcare and education and allow the free movement of giant multinational corporations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lourdes|first1=Benería|last2=Deere|first2=Carmen Diana |author-link3=Carmen Diana Deere|last3=Kabeer|first3=Naila|date=8 August 2012|title=Gender and International Migration: Globalization, Development and Governance|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=1–33|doi=10.1080/13545701.2012.688998|s2cid=144565818}}</ref> These programs allowed the World Bank and the IMF to become global financial market regulators that would promote neoliberalism and the creation of free markets for multinational corporations on a global scale.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rai|title=The History of International Development: Concepts and Contexts|journal=Women, Gender and Development Reader|page=15}}</ref>
[[File:Crowded Bund on summer evening.jpg|thumb|With a population of 1.4 billion, [[China]] is the world's second-largest economy.]]
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onward due to the World Wars and the [[Cold War]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wolf|first=Martin|year=2001|title=Will the nation-state survive globalization?|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=80|issue=1|pages=178–190|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2001-01-01/will-nation-state-survive-globalization|doi=10.2307/20050051|jstor=20050051|access-date=12 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162328/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2001-01-01/will-nation-state-survive-globalization|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> but picked up again in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>Ritzer, George (2011). ''Globalization: The Essentials.'' NY: John Wiley & Sons.</ref> The [[revolutions of 1989]] and subsequent [[liberalization]] in many parts of the world resulted in a significant expansion of global interconnectedness. The migration and movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization process. In the period between 1965 and 1990, the proportion of the labor force migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between the [[developing countries]] and [[least developed countries]] (LDCs).<ref name =Saggi2002>{{cite journal | last1 = Saggi | first1 = Kamal | year = 2002 | title = Trade, Foreign Direct Investment, and International Technology Transfer: A Survey | journal = World Bank Research Observer | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 191–235 | doi = 10.1093/wbro/17.2.191 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.17.7732 | s2cid = 16620922 }}</ref> As economic integration intensified workers moved to areas with higher wages and most of the developing world oriented toward the international market economy. The collapse of the Soviet Union not only ended the Cold War's division of the world – it also left the United States its sole policeman and an unfettered advocate of free market.{{According to whom|date=February 2019}} It also resulted in the growing prominence of attention focused on the movement of diseases, the proliferation of popular culture and consumer values, the growing prominence of international institutions like the UN, and concerted international action on such issues as the environment and human rights.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World Transformed 1945 to present|last=Hunt|first=Michael H.|year=2004|page=399}}</ref> Other developments as dramatic were the Internet's becoming influential in connecting people across the world; {{As of|2012|6}}, more than 2.4 billion people—over a third of the world's human population—have used the services of the Internet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.treese.org/intindex/95-11.htm |title=The Open Market Internet Index |publisher=Treese.org |date=11 November 1995 |access-date=15 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601045949/http://www.treese.org/intindex/95-11.htm |archive-date=1 June 2013  }}</ref><ref name="stats">{{cite web|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm|title=World Stats|date=30 June 2012|work=Internet World Stats|publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group|access-date=4 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623200007/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm|archive-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> Growth of globalization has never been smooth. One influential event was the [[late 2000s recession]], which was associated with lower growth (in areas such as [[International call|cross-border phone calls]] and [[Skype]] usage) or even temporarily negative growth (in areas such as trade) of global interconnectedness.<ref name="Signs of life">{{cite news | url = https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21632514-despite-some-recent-reversals-there-evidence-globalisation-march | title = Signs of life | newspaper = The Economist | date = 15 November 2014 | access-date = 29 August 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170902092234/https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21632514-despite-some-recent-reversals-there-evidence-globalisation-march | archive-date = 2 September 2017 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>Faiola, Anthony. (2009). "A Global Retreat As Economies Dry Up." [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/04/AR2009030404221.html ''The Washington Post'', 5 March 2009.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204175739/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/04/AR2009030404221.html |date=4 December 2010 }}</ref>

The [[China–United States trade war]], starting in 2018, negatively affected trade between the two largest national economies. The [[economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic]] included a massive decline in tourism and international business travel as many countries temporarily closed borders. The [[2021–2022 global supply chain crisis]] resulted from temporary shutdowns of manufacturing and transportation facilities, and labor shortages. Supply problems incentivized some switches to domestic production.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/24/investing/premarket-stocks-trading/index.html |title=Globalization is coming undone, and that's a huge red flag |author=Allison Morrow |date=May 24, 2022 |publisher=[[CNN]]}}</ref> The [[economic impact of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] included a blockade of Ukrainian ports and [[International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|international sanctions on Russia]], resulting in some de-coupling of the Russian economy with global trade, especially with the European Union and other Western countries.

Modern consensus for the last 15 years regards globalization as having run its course and gone into decline.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Walker |first1=Marcus |last2=Hayashi |first2=Yuka |date=2023-08-09 |title=Sputtering Trade Fuels Fears of a Fractured Global Economy |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/sputtering-trade-fuels-fears-for-a-connected-world-81c99922 |access-date=2023-11-03 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref> A common argument for this is that trade has dropped since its peak in 2008, and never recovered since the [[Great Recession]]. New opposing views from some economists have argued such trends are a result of price drops and in actuality, trade volume is increasing, especially with agricultural products, natural resources and refined petroleum.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zumbrun |first=Josh |title=Is Globalization in Decline? A New Number Contradicts the Consensus |url=https://www.wsj.com/economy/global/is-globalization-in-decline-a-new-number-contradicts-the-consensus-60df8ecf |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=WSJ |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ganapati |first1=Sharat |last2=Wong |first2=Woan Foong |date=August 2023 |title=How Far Goods Travel: Global Transport and Supply Chains from 1965–2020 |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=3–30 |doi=10.1257/jep.37.3.3 |issn=0895-3309|doi-access=free |hdl=10419/272042 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The 21st century melting of the Arctic will also affect global trade, as it is paving the way for [[Arctic shipping routes|shorter trade routes]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-25 |title=Melting Arctic ice could transform international shipping routes, study finds {{!}} Brown University |url=https://www.brown.edu/news/2022-06-22/arctic |access-date=2024-12-10 |website=www.brown.edu |language=en}}</ref>

==Economic globalization==
{{Main|Economic globalization}}
[[File:Globalization over 5 centuries, OWID.svg|thumb|The ''trade openness index'' over 5 centuries. This index is defined as the sum of world exports and imports, divided by world GDP. Each series corresponds to a different source.]]
[[File:Brno, Nákupní centrum Královo Pole (7239).jpg|thumb|Dividends worth CZK 289 billion were paid to the [[Foreign ownership|foreign owners]] of [[Czech Republic|Czech]] companies in 2016.<ref>"[http://www.radio.cz/en/section/business/czech-foreign-owned-companies-take-second-biggest-dividend-yield-in-2017report Czech foreign owned companies take second biggest dividend yield in 2017:report]". ''[[Radio Prague]].'' 7 March 2018.</ref>]]

Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-[[border]] movement of goods, services, technology, and capital.<ref name="Joshi, Rakesh Mohan 2009">Joshi, Rakesh Mohan, (2009) International Business, Oxford University Press, New Delhi and New York {{ISBN|0-19-568909-7}}.</ref> Whereas the globalization of business is centered around the diminution of international trade regulations as well as [[tariff]]s, taxes, and other impediments that suppresses global trade, economic globalization is the process of increasing [[economic integration]] between countries, leading to the emergence of a global marketplace or a single world market.<ref>Riley, T: "Year 12 Economics", p. 9. Tim Riley Publications, 2005</ref> Depending on the paradigm, economic globalization can be viewed as either a positive or a negative phenomenon. Economic globalization comprises: globalization of production; which refers to the obtainment of goods and services from a particular source from locations around the globe to benefit from difference in cost and quality. Likewise, it also comprises globalization of markets; which is defined as the union of different and separate markets into a massive global marketplace. Economic globalization also includes<ref>{{Cite book|title=International business: competing in the global marketplace|last=Hill|first=Charles W.L.|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2014|isbn=978-0-07-811277-5|edition= 10th|location=New York|oclc=864808614}}</ref> competition, technology, and corporations and industries.<ref name="Joshi, Rakesh Mohan 2009"/>

Current globalization trends can be largely accounted for by developed economies integrating with less developed economies by means of [[foreign direct investment]], the reduction of trade barriers as well as other economic reforms, and, in many cases, immigration.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is Globalization?|url=https://www.piie.com/microsites/globalization/what-is-globalization|date=29 October 2018|website=PIIE|language=en|access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>

[[File:1 singapore city skyline dusk panorama 2011.jpg|thumb|left|[[Singapore]] is the top country in the [[Global Enabling Trade Report|Enabling Trade Index]] {{as of|2016|lc=y}}.]]
[[International standard]]s have made trade in goods and services more efficient. An example of such standard is the [[intermodal container]]. [[Containerization]] dramatically reduced the costs of transportation, supported the post-war boom in [[international trade]], and was a major element in globalization.<ref name="Levinson">{{cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html|title=Sample Chapter for Levinson, M.: The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger.|last=Levinson|first=Marc|work=[[The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger]]|publisher=Princeton University Press|access-date=17 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122131825/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html|archive-date=22 January 2013}}</ref> International standards are set by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], which is composed of representatives from various national [[standards organizations]].

A [[multinational corporation]], or worldwide enterprise,<ref name="pitelis">{{cite book|url={{google books|id=mXjeiQYR088C|plainurl=yes}}|title=The nature of the transnational firm|last=Pitelis|first=Christos|author2=Roger Sugden|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=978-0-415-16787-1|page=H72}}</ref> is an organization that owns or controls the production of goods or services in one or more countries other than their home country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ355/choi/mul.htm|title=Multinational Corporations|access-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414082055/http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ355/choi/mul.htm|archive-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> It can also be referred to as an international corporation, a transnational corporation, or a stateless corporation.<ref>Roy D. Voorhees, Emerson L. Seim, and John I. Coppett, "Global Logistics and Stateless Corporations", ''Transportation Practitioners Journal'' 59, 2 (Winter 1992): 144–51.</ref>

A [[free-trade area]] is the region encompassing a [[trade bloc]] whose member countries have signed a [[free-trade]] agreement (FTA). Such agreements involve cooperation between at least two countries to reduce trade barriers{{snd}} [[import quota]]s and [[tariff]]s{{snd}} and to increase trade of [[goods]] and services with each other.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = O'Sullivan| first1 = Arthur| author-link = Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)| first2 = Steven M. | last2 = Sheffrin| title = Economics: Principles in Action| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall| year = 2003| location = Upper Saddle River, NJ| page = 453| isbn = 978-0-13-063085-8}}</ref>

If people are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free-trade agreement, it would also be considered an [[open border]]. Arguably, the most significant free-trade area in the world is the [[European Union]], a [[Political union|politico]]-[[economic union]] of [[Member state of the European Union|{{EUnum}} member states]] that are primarily located in [[Europe]]. The [[EU]] has developed [[European Single Market]] through a standardized system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the [[Single market|free movement of people, goods, services, and capital]] within the internal market,<ref name="Europa Internal Market">{{cite web |title=The EU Single Market: Fewer barriers, more opportunities |publisher=Europa web portal |author=European Commission |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |access-date=27 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001122551/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |archive-date=1 October 2007 }}<br />{{cite web |title=Activities of the European Union: Internal Market |publisher=Europa web portal |url=http://europa.eu/pol/singl/index_en.htm |access-date=29 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625121825/http://europa.eu/pol/singl/index_en.htm |archive-date=25 June 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Trade facilitation]] looks at how procedures and controls governing the movement of goods across national borders can be improved to reduce associated cost burdens and maximize efficiency while safeguarding legitimate regulatory objectives.

Global trade in services is also significant. For example, in India, [[business process outsourcing]] has been described as the "primary engine of the country's development over the next few decades, contributing broadly to [[GDP]] growth, employment growth, and poverty alleviation".<ref name="Kuruvilla 2008 39–72">{{cite journal|last1=Kuruvilla |first1=Sarosh |last2=Ranganathan |first2=Aruna |title=Economic Development Strategies And Macro- And Micro-Level Human Resource Policies: The Case Of India's "Outsourcing" Industry|journal=Industrial & Labor Relations Review|date=October 2008|volume=62|issue=1|pages=39–72|doi=10.1177/001979390806200103|citeseerx=10.1.1.662.425 |s2cid=12104735 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/business/2010/03/25/the-world-economy-calls|access-date=16 April 2011|title=Outsourcing to Africa: The world economy calls &#124; The Economist|date=16 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114732/http://www.economist.com/node/15777592?story_id=E1_TVSSSVJN|archive-date=11 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[William I. Robinson]]'s theoretical approach to globalization is a critique of Wallerstein's World Systems Theory. He believes that the global capital experienced today is due to a new and distinct form of globalization which began in the 1980s. Robinson argues not only are economic activities expanded across national boundaries but also there is a transnational fragmentation of these activities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=William I.|title=Globalization and the sociology of Immanuel Wallerstein: A critical appraisal|journal=International Sociology|volume=1–23}}</ref> One important aspect of Robinson's globalization theory is that production of goods are increasingly global. This means that one pair of shoes can be produced by six countries, each contributing to a part of the production process.
{{Clear}}

==Cultural globalization==
{{Main|Cultural globalization}}
[[File:Shakira Rio 03.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Shakira]], a Colombian multilingual singer-songwriter, playing outside her home country]]

Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations.<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Paul|title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism|year=2006|publisher=Sage Publications|location=London|url=https://www.academia.edu/1642214|access-date=20 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429234210/https://www.academia.edu/1642214/Globalism_Nationalism_Tribalism_Bringing_Theory_Back_In_2006_|archive-date=29 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, [[popular culture]] media, and international travel. This has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization which have a longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the globe. The circulation of cultures enables individuals to partake in extended social relations that cross national and regional borders. The creation and expansion of such social relations is not merely observed on a material level. Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It brings increasing interconnectedness among different populations and cultures.<ref>Manfred B. Steger and Paul James, 'Ideologies of Globalism', in Paul James and Manfred B. Steger, eds, [https://uws.academia.edu/PaulJames Globalization and Culture: Vol. 4, Ideologies of Globalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108143250/http://uws.academia.edu/PaulJames |date=8 November 2017 }}, Sage Publications, London, 2010. {{Cite book|title=The Anthropology of Globalization|last1=Inda|first1=Jonathan|last2=Rosaldo|first2=Renato|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2002|chapter=Introduction: A World in Motion}}</ref>

[[Cross-cultural communication]] is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures. [[Intercultural communication]] is a related field of study.

[[Cultural diffusion]] is the spread of [[cultural]] items—such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages etc.
Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts, but may be accompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once-isolated communities. For example, [[sushi]] is available in Germany as well as Japan, but [[Euro-Disney]] outdraws the city of Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French pastry.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v25n3/globalization.pdf |title=Globalization and Culture |last1=Cowen |first1=Tyler |last2=Barber |first2=Benjamin |journal=Cato Policy Report |date=May–June 2003 |access-date=15 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119144402/http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v25n3/globalization.pdf |archive-date=19 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>Nadeem, S (2009) [http://nadeem.commons.gc.cuny.edu/files/2010/04/CS_Nadeem.pdf Macaulay's (Cyber) Children: The Cultural Politics of Outsourcing in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620105537/http://nadeem.commons.gc.cuny.edu/files/2010/04/CS_Nadeem.pdf |date=20 June 2010 }}. Cultural Sociology</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hacker |first1=Violaine |title=Budovanie mediálneho priemyslu a podpora hodnotovo orientovanej spoločnosti v globalizácii: od chichotského výberu k pragmatickým výhodám EU občanov |trans-title=Building Medias Industry while Promoting a Community of Values in the Globalization: From Quixotic Choices to Pragmatic Boon for EU Citizens |journal=Politické vedy |date=2011 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=64–74 |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=22943 |language=English |issn=1335-2741}}</ref> Globalization's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their traditions may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged by [[existentialists]] such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Albert Camus]]. Globalization has expanded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via the Internet and satellite television. The cultural diffusion can create a homogenizing force, where globalization is seen as synonymous with homogenizing force via connectedness of markets, cultures, politics and the desire for modernizations through imperial countries sphere of influence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fangjun|first=Cao|date=1 September 2009|title=Modernization Theory and China's Road to Modernization|journal=Chinese Studies in History|volume=43|issue=1|pages=7–16|doi=10.2753/CSH0009-4633430101|s2cid=145504998|issn=0009-4633}}</ref>

Religions were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize, being spread by force, migration, [[evangelism|evangelists]], imperialists, and traders. [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], and more recently sects such as [[Mormonism]] are among those religions which have taken root and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McAlister |first1=Elizabeth |title=Globalization and the Religious Production of Space |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |date=September 2005 |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=249–255 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00283.x |url=https://digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu/object/relifp-21}}</ref>

[[File:McDonalds in St Petersburg 2004.JPG|left|thumb|McDonald's is commonly seen as a symbol of globalization, often called [[McDonaldization]] of global society.]]
Globalization has [[Globalization of sports|strongly influenced sports]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/sport.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223201908/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/sport.jsp|title=Globalization and Sport: A Review by Susan Froetschel|archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref> For example, the modern [[Olympic Games]] has [[athletes]] from more than 200 nations participating in a variety of competitions.<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Overview of Olympic Games | url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/428005/Olympic-Games | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=4 June 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430005519/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/428005/Olympic-Games | archive-date=30 April 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> The [[FIFA World Cup]] is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; a ninth of the entire population of the planet watched the [[2006 FIFA World Cup Final]].<ref name="2006coverage">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/marketing/news/newsid=111247/index.html |title=2006 FIFA World Cup broadcast wider, longer and farther than ever before |work=FIFA.com |publisher=[[Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] |date=6 February 2007 |access-date=11 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120073325/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/marketing/news/newsid=111247/index.html |archive-date=20 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Dunmore2011">{{cite book|first=Tom |last=Dunmore|title=Historical Dictionary of Soccer|url={{google books|id=9j1wbp2t1usC|page=235|plainurl=yes}}|date=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7188-5|page=235|quote=The World Cup is now the most-watched sporting event in the world on television, above even the Olympic Games.}}</ref><ref name="Wong2012">{{cite book|first=Glenn M. |last=Wong|title=The Comprehensive Guide to Careers in Sports|url={{google books|id=qEELS7T_Tm0C|page=144|plainurl=yes}}|date=8 March 2012|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=978-1-4496-0203-1|pages=144–|quote=The World Cup is the most-watched sporting event in the world. In 2006, more than 30 billion viewers in 214 countries watched the World Cup on television, and more than 3.3 million spectators attended the 64 matches of the tournament.}}</ref>

The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices including traditional music can be lost or turned into a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists may attempt to collect, record, or transcribe repertoires before melodies are assimilated or modified, while local musicians may struggle for [[authenticity in art|authenticity]] and to preserve local musical traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Thomas |title="Competing Conceptions of Globalization" Revisited: Relocating the Tension between World-Systems Analysis and Globalization Analysis |journal=Comparative Education Review |date=August 2004 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=274–294 |doi=10.1086/421180 |s2cid=56099753 |issn=0010-4086|url=https://uknowledge.uky.edu/lin_facpub/74 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Music has an important role in economic and cultural development during globalization. Music genres such as jazz and reggae began locally and later became international phenomena. Globalization gave support to the [[world music]] phenomenon by allowing music from developing countries to reach broader audiences.<ref>Throsby, David (2002). "The music industry in the new millennium: Global and Local Perspectives." [https://web.archive.org/web/20110812233223/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/25428/11066604353The_Music_Industry_in_the_new_Millenium.pdf/The+Music+Industry+in+the+new+Millenium.pdf Paper prepared for The Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity Division of Arts and Cultural Enterprise UNESCO, Paris.]</ref> Though the term "World Music" was originally intended for ethnic-specific music, globalization is now expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid subgenres such as "world fusion", "global fusion", "ethnic fusion",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/ethnic-fusion-d224 |title=Ethnic fusion Music |website=Allmusic |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429235433/http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/ethnic-fusion-d224 |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[worldbeat]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/worldbeat-d248 |title=Worldbeat |website=Allmusic |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503101554/http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/worldbeat-d248 |archive-date=3 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/world_fusion_800/en_US#contents_top |title=World Fusion Music |publisher=worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314022819/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/world_fusion_800/en_US#contents_top |archive-date=14 March 2012  }}</ref>
[[File:Thai_curry_paste_at_the_market_so_good_I_brought_some_home_(3195324838).jpg|thumb|Use of [[chili pepper]] has spread from the Americas to cuisines around the world, including [[Thailand]], [[Korea]], [[China]], and [[Italy]].<ref>[http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/chili.jsp "Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231072755/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/chili.jsp|date=31 December 2016}}, History of Globalization, YaleGlobal Online.</ref>]]

[[Bourdieu]] claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as self-identification and the formation of identity. Musically, this translates into each individual having their own musical identity based on likes and tastes. These likes and tastes are greatly influenced by culture, as this is the most basic cause for a person's wants and behavior. The concept of one's own culture is now in a period of change due to globalization. Also, globalization has increased the interdependency of political, personal, cultural, and economic factors.<ref>Beard, David and Keneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. London and New York: Routledge.</ref>

A 2005 [[UNESCO]] report<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/cscl/IntlFlows_EN.pdf |title=International Flows of Selected Goods and Services |access-date=31 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705155924/http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/cscl/IntlFlows_EN.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent from Eastern Asia, but that Western countries are still the main exporters of cultural goods. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the [[European Union]]'s shares of cultural exports declined while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of North America. Americanization is related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and objects being brought into other countries.

Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As a dominating country's culture is introduced into a receiving country through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to [[Westernization]] or Americanization of culture, where the dominating cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and cause harm to local cultures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://aleteia.org/2018/04/11/why-do-we-need-religion-in-a-globalized-world/|title=Why do we need religion in a globalized world?|date=11 April 2018|work=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture|access-date=12 April 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412211940/https://aleteia.org/2018/04/11/why-do-we-need-religion-in-a-globalized-world/|archive-date=12 April 2018}}</ref>

Globalization is a diverse phenomenon that relates to a multilateral political world and to the increase of cultural objects and markets between countries. The Indian experience particularly reveals the [[Cultural pluralism|plurality]] of the impact of cultural globalization.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghosh |first1=Biswajit |title=Cultural Changes and Challenges in the Era of Globalization: The Case of India |journal=Journal of Developing Societies |date=June 2011 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=153–175 |doi=10.1177/0169796X1102700203 |s2cid=145494090 |issn=0169-796X}}</ref>

[[Transculturalism]] is defined as "seeing oneself in the other".<ref name="CS">Cuccioletta, Donald. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160417212459/http://www.canadian-studies.net/lccs/LJCS/Vol_17/Cuccioletta.pdf Multiculturalism or Transculturalism: Towards a Cosmopolitan Citizenship.], London Journal of Canadian Studies 2001/2002 Vol. 17, Plattsburgh State University of New York, Interdisciplinary Research Group on the Americas</ref> Transcultural<ref name=FD/> is in turn described as "extending through all [[human culture]]s"<ref name="FD">[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/transcultural transcultural] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805221419/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/transcultural |date=5 August 2018 }}, thefreedictionary.com</ref> or "involving, encompassing, or combining elements of more than one [[culture]]".<ref name="YD">[http://www.yourdictionary.com/transcultural transcultural] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102032434/http://www.yourdictionary.com/transcultural |date=2 January 2018 }}, yourdictionary.com</ref> Children brought up in transcultural backgrounds are sometimes called [[third-culture kid]]s.

==Political globalization==
{{Main|Political globalization}}
{{See also|Military globalization}}
[[File:67º Período de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|The [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]] in [[New York City]]]]

Political globalization refers to the growth of the worldwide [[political system]], both in size and complexity. That system includes national governments, their [[governmental organizations|governmental]] and [[intergovernmental organizations]] as well as government-independent elements of [[global civil society]] such as [[international non-governmental organizations]] and [[social movement organization]]s. One of the key aspects of the political globalization is the declining importance of the [[nation-state]] and the rise of other actors on the political scene.
[[William R. Thompson]] has defined it as "the expansion of a global political system, and its institutions, in which inter-regional transactions (including, but certainly not limited to trade) are managed".<ref name="ModelskiDevezas2007">{{cite book|author1=George Modelski|author2=Tessaleno Devezas|author3=William R. Thompson|title=Globalization as Evolutionary Process: Modeling Global Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHKTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|date=20 December 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-97764-1|page=59}}</ref> 
Political globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two other being [[economic globalization]] and [[cultural globalization]].<ref name="Ritzer2008-146"/>

[[Intergovernmentalism]] is a term in [[political science]] with two meanings. The first refers to a theory of regional integration originally proposed by [[Stanley Hoffmann]]; the second treats states and the national government as the primary factors for integration. [[Multi-level governance]] is an approach in [[political science]] and [[public administration theory]] that originated from studies on [[European integration]]. Multi-level governance gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emergent global political economy. It illuminates the intimate entanglement between the domestic and international levels of authority.

Some people are citizens of multiple nation-states. [[Multiple citizenship]], also called dual citizenship or multiple nationality or dual nationality, is a person's citizenship status, in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen of more than one [[Sovereign state|state]] under the laws of those states.
[[File:US military bases in the world 2007.svg|thumb|U.S. military presence around the world in 2007. {{as of|2015}}, the U.S. still had many [[List of United States military bases|bases and troops stationed globally]].<ref>{{cite news |title=These are all the countries where the US has a military presence |url=https://qz.com/374138/these-are-all-the-countries-where-the-us-has-a-military-presence/ |work=Quartz |date=2 April 2015 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802123437/https://qz.com/374138/these-are-all-the-countries-where-the-us-has-a-military-presence/ |archive-date=2 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Increasingly, [[non-governmental organization]]s influence public policy across national boundaries, including [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian aid]] and [[International development|developmental efforts]].<ref name="globall">Pawel Zaleski ''Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector'', [in:] Gawin, Dariusz & Glinski, Piotr [ed.]: "Civil Society in the Making", IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006</ref> Philanthropic organizations with global missions are also coming to the forefront of humanitarian efforts; charities such as the [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]], [[Accion International]], the Acumen Fund (now [[Acumen Fund|Acumen]]) and the Echoing Green have combined the [[business model]] with [[philanthropy]], giving rise to business organizations such as the [[Global Philanthropy Group]] and new associations of philanthropists such as the [[Global Philanthropy Forum]]. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation projects include a current multibillion-dollar commitment to funding immunizations in some of the world's more impoverished but rapidly growing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Development/Vaccine-Delivery|title=Vaccine Delivery|work=Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation|access-date=6 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531050637/http://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Development/Vaccine-Delivery|archive-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> The [[Hudson Institute]] estimates total private philanthropic flows to developing countries at [[US$]]59 billion in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hudson.org/files/publications/2012IndexofGlobalPhilanthropyandRemittances.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730155329/http://www.hudson.org/files/publications/2012IndexofGlobalPhilanthropyandRemittances.pdf|title=''The Index of Global Philanthropy and Remittances 2012''. Hudson Institute Center for Global Prosperity.|archive-date=30 July 2012}}</ref>

As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced [[isolationist]] policies. For example, the [[North Korea]]n government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do. Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions the government does not wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.<ref name=nkr>{{cite web |url=http://www.northkoreanrefugees.com/2008-exodus.htm |title=North Korean Refugees NGO |publisher=Northkoreanrefugees.com |date=20 October 2008 |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618135156/http://www.northkoreanrefugees.com/2008-exodus.htm |archive-date=18 June 2010 }}</ref><ref name=unhcr>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,PRK,4562d8cf2,487ca236c0,0.html |title=UNHCR Freedom in the World 2008 – North Korea |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=2 July 2008 |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018022844/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CPRK%2C4562d8cf2%2C487ca236c0%2C0.html |archive-date=18 October 2012  }}</ref>

=== Globalization and gender ===
[[File:FEMEN Ukraine is not a brothel.jpg|thumb|From the documentary ''[[Ukraine Is Not a Brothel]]''. Radical group [[Femen]] protest against the increase in [[Sex tourism in Ukraine|sex tourism]] into Ukraine.]]

Globalization has been a gendered process where giant multinational corporations have outsourced jobs to low-wage, low skilled, quota free economies like the ready made [[garment industry in Bangladesh]] where poor women make up the majority of labor force. Despite a large proportion of women workers in the garment industry, women are still heavily underemployed compared to men. Most women that are employed in the garment industry come from the countryside of Bangladesh triggering migration of women in search of garment work. It is still unclear as to whether or not access to paid work for women where it did not exist before has empowered them. The answers varied depending on whether it is the employers perspective or the workers and how they view their choices. Women workers did not see the garment industry as economically sustainable for them in the long run due to long hours standing and poor working conditions. Although women workers did show significant autonomy over their personal lives including their ability to negotiate with family, more choice in marriage, and being valued as a wage earner in the family. This did not translate into workers being able to collectively organize themselves in order to negotiate a better deal for themselves at work.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Kabeer |first1=Nalia |title="Rags, Riches and Women Workers: Export-Oriented Garment Manufacturing in Bangladesh," from Linking Women Producers and Workers with Global Markets |last2=Simeen |last3=Mahmud |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-85092-798-6 |location=London |pages=137, 147, 148, 150, 152}}</ref>

Another example of outsourcing in manufacturing includes the [[maquiladora]] industry in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico where poor women make up the majority of the labor force. Women in the maquiladora industry have produced high levels of turnover not staying long enough to be trained compared to men. A gendered two tiered system within the maquiladora industry has been created that focuses on training and worker loyalty. Women are seen as being untrainable, placed in un-skilled, low wage jobs, while men are seen as more trainable with less turnover rates, and placed in more high skilled technical jobs. The idea of training has become a tool used against women to blame them for their high turnover rates which also benefit the industry keeping women as temporary workers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Wright W. |first=Melissa |title="The Dialectics of Still Life: Murder, Women, and Disposability," from Disposable Women and Other Myths of Global Capitalism. |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |location=New York |pages=73, 82, 83}}</ref>

==Other dimensions==
Scholars also occasionally discuss other, less common dimensions of globalization, such as [[environmental globalization]] (the internationally coordinated practices and regulations, often in the form of international treaties, regarding environmental protection)<ref name="Zimmerer2006-1">{{cite book|first=Karl S. |last=Zimmerer|title=Globalization & New Geographies of Conservation|url={{google books|id=UdLK-UGj7YkC|page=1|plainurl=yes}}|year=2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-98344-8|page=1}}</ref> or [[military globalization]] (growth in global extent and scope of security relationships).<ref name="Krishnan2016">{{cite book|first=Armin |last=Krishnan|title=War as Business: Technological Change and Military Service Contracting|url={{google books|id=1ymrCwAAQBAJ|page=PA157|plainurl=yes}}|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-00049-5|page=157}}</ref> Those dimensions, however, receive much less attention the three described above, as academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization and political globalization.<ref name="Ritzer2008-146"/>

===Movement of people===
[[File:World-airline-routemap-2024.png|thumb|Scheduled [[airline]] traffic in 2024]]

An essential aspect of globalization is movement of people, and state-boundary limits on that movement have changed across history.<ref>{{Cite journal | year= 2014 | last1= James| first1= Paul | author-link1= Paul James (academic) | title= Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens | url= https://www.academia.edu/7773440 | journal= Citizenship Studies | volume= 18 | issue= 2 | pages= 208–23| doi= 10.1080/13621025.2014.886440| s2cid= 144816686}}</ref> The movement of tourists and business people opened up over the last century. As transportation technology improved, travel time and costs decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th century. For example, travel across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] used to take up to 5 weeks in the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days.<ref name="autogenerated2">Boustan, Adain May. "Fertility and Immigration." UCLA. 15 January 2009.</ref> Today, modern aviation has made long-distance transportation quick and affordable.

Tourism is travel for pleasure. The developments in technology and transportation infrastructure, such as [[jumbo jets]], low-cost airlines, and more [[accessible tourism|accessible]] airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. At any given moment half a million people are in the air.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Siebeck|first=Florian|title=Flugzeugparkplatz im Outback: Schlaf in der Wüste|language=de|work=FAZ.NET|url=https://www.faz.net/1.6771502|access-date=16 May 2020|issn=0174-4909}}</ref> International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012.<ref name="Barom2012">{{cite journal|url=http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom13_01_jan_excerpt_0.pdf |title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer |journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer |date=January 2013 |volume=11 |issue=1 |access-date=9 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228162347/http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom13_01_jan_excerpt_0.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2013 }}</ref>
A [[Travel visa|visa]] is a conditional authorization granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter and temporarily remain within, or to leave that country. Some countries – such as those in the [[Schengen Area]] – have agreements with other countries allowing each other's citizens to travel between them without visas (for example, Switzerland is part of a Schengen Agreement allowing easy travel for people from countries within the European Union). The [[World Tourism Organization]] announced that the number of tourists who require a visa before traveling was at its lowest level ever in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/2015visaopennessreportonline.pdf |title=Visa Openness Report 2015 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123123959/http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/2015visaopennessreportonline.pdf |archive-date=23 January 2016  }}</ref>

[[Immigration]] is the international movement of people into a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess [[citizenship]] in order to settle or reside there, especially as [[permanent residents]] or [[naturalized]] citizens, or to take-up employment as a [[migrant worker]] or temporarily as a [[foreign worker]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/immigration|title=immigration|publisher=Oxford University Press|website=Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=11 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518081143/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/immigration|archive-date=18 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/immigration|title=immigrate|publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=27 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328072752/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/immigration|archive-date=28 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RCUK">{{cite web|title=Who's who: Definitions|url=http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy_research/the_truth_about_asylum/the_facts_about_asylum|publisher=Refugee Council|location=London, England|year=2016|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916064012/http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy_research/the_truth_about_asylum/the_facts_about_asylum|archive-date=16 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[International Labour Organization]], {{as of|2014|lc=y}} there were an estimated 232 million international migrants in the world (defined as persons outside their country of origin for 12 months or more) and approximately half of them were estimated to be economically active (i.e. being employed or seeking employment).<ref>{{cite web|title=Mainstreaming of Migration in Development Policy and Integrating Migration in the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---migrant/documents/genericdocument/wcms_220084.pdf|website=www.ilo.org|access-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525162824/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---migrant/documents/genericdocument/wcms_220084.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> International movement of labor is often seen as important to economic development. For example, [[freedom of movement for workers in the European Union]] means that people can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country.
[[File:BorisOC2010.jpg|thumb|right|2010 [[London Youth Games]] opening ceremony. About 69% of children born in [[London]] in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad.<ref>"[https://www.ft.com/content/41b5b302-b7e5-11e6-ba85-95d1533d9a62 Most London babies have foreign-born parent] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625161100/https://www.ft.com/content/41b5b302-b7e5-11e6-ba85-95d1533d9a62 |date=25 June 2018 }}". ''[[Financial Times]]''. 1 December 2016.</ref>]]

Globalization is associated with a dramatic rise in [[international education]]. The development of global [[cross-cultural competence]] in the workforce through ad-hoc training has deserved increasing attention in recent times.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Landis|first1=Dan|title=The Cambridge handbook of intercultural training|last2=Bhawuk|first2=Dharm P. S.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press & Assessment]]|year=2020|isbn=978-1-108-85418-4|edition=4th|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|oclc=1135909636}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Caligiuri|first=Paula|title=Build Your Cultural Agility The Nine Competencies of Successful Global Professionals.|date=2021|publisher=Kogan Page, Limited|isbn=978-1-78966-660-1|location=London|oclc=1239982517}}</ref> More and more students are seeking higher education in foreign countries and many [[international student]]s now consider overseas study a stepping-stone to permanent residency within a country.<ref name="gribble">{{cite journal | last1 = Gribble | first1 = C | year = 2008 | title = Policy options for managing international student migration: the sending country's perspective | journal = Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 25–39 | doi=10.1080/13600800701457830| s2cid = 155059201 }}</ref> The contributions that [[foreign student]]s make to host nation economies, both culturally and financially has encouraged major players to implement further initiatives to facilitate the arrival and integration of overseas students, including substantial amendments to [[immigration]] and visa policies and procedures.<ref name="varghese">Varghese, N.V. 2008, 'Globalization of higher education and cross-border student mobility', International Institute for Educational Planning, UNESCO</ref>

A [[transnational marriage]] is a [[marriage]] between two people from different countries. A variety of special issues arise in marriages between people from different countries, including those related to citizenship and culture, which add complexity and challenges to these kinds of relationships. In an age of increasing globalization, where a growing number of people have ties to networks of people and places across the globe, rather than to a current geographic location, people are increasingly marrying across national boundaries. Transnational marriage is a by-product of the movement and migration of people.

===Movement of information===
{{See also|Internet}}
{{Internet users by region}}
[[File:Global Digital Divide1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[global digital divide]]: Computers per 100 people per 2006]]

Before electronic communications, long-distance communications relied on mail. Speed of global communications was limited by the maximum speed of courier services (especially horses and ships) until the mid-19th century. The [[electric telegraph]] was the first method of instant long-distance communication. For example, before the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe and the Americas took weeks because ships had to carry mail across the ocean. The first [[transatlantic telegraph cable|transatlantic cable]] reduced communication time considerably, allowing a message and a response in the same day. Lasting transatlantic telegraph connections were achieved in the 1865–1866. The first wireless telegraphy transmitters were developed in 1895.

The Internet has been instrumental in connecting people across geographical boundaries. For example, [[Facebook]] is a [[social networking service]] which has more than 1.65 billion monthly active users {{as of|2016|3|31|lc=y}}.<ref name="Facebook-Newsroom">{{cite web|title=Company Info – Facebook Newsroom|url=https://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/|publisher=Facebook|access-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115110456/https://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/|archive-date=15 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Globalization can be spread by Global journalism which provides massive information and relies on the internet to interact, "makes it into an everyday routine to investigate how people and their actions, practices, problems, life conditions, etc. in different parts of the world are interrelated. possible to assume that [[global threats]] such as climate change precipitate the further establishment of global journalism."<ref>{{cite journal |first=Peter |last=Berglez |date=2008 |journal=Journalism Studies |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=845–58 <!--was originally "5" but that's confusing--> |doi=10.1080/14616700802337727|title=What is Global Journalism? |s2cid=142859567 }}</ref>

===Globalization and disease===
{{Main|Globalization and disease}}
{{See also|Virgin soil epidemic|Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses|Emerging infectious disease|Pandemic}}

In the current era of globalization, the world is more interdependent than at any other time. Efficient and inexpensive transportation has left few places inaccessible, and increased global trade has brought more and more people into contact with animal diseases that have subsequently jumped species barriers (see [[zoonosis]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=The Coronavirus Could Finally Kill the Wild Animal Trade |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/02/25/virus-bats-pangolins-wild-animals-coronavirus-zoonotic-diseases/ |work=Foreign Policy |date=25 February 2020 |access-date=6 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317014208/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/02/25/virus-bats-pangolins-wild-animals-coronavirus-zoonotic-diseases/ |archive-date=17 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Coronavirus disease 2019]], abbreviated COVID-19, first appeared in [[Wuhan]], China in November 2019. More than 180 countries have reported cases since then.<ref>{{cite news |title=Coronavirus: Which countries have confirmed cases? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/countries-confirmed-cases-coronavirus-200125070959786.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=6 April 2020 |access-date=6 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331073742/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/countries-confirmed-cases-coronavirus-200125070959786.html |archive-date=31 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2020|04|06|df=US}}, the U.S. has the most confirmed active cases in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|title=Coronavirus COVID-19 Global Cases by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins|access-date=25 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905173559/https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|archive-date=5 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> More than 3.4 million people from the worst-affected countries entered the U.S. in the first three months since the inception of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Disaster in motion: 3.4 million travelers poured into US as coronavirus pandemic erupted |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/disaster-motion-34-million-travelers-poured-us-coronavirus/story?id=69933625 |work=ABC News |date=2 April 2020 |access-date=6 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402171949/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/disaster-motion-34-million-travelers-poured-us-coronavirus/story?id=69933625 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> This has caused a detrimental impact on the global economy, particularly for SME's and Microbusinesses with unlimited liability/self-employed, leaving them vulnerable to financial difficulties, increasing the market share for oligopolistic markets as well as increasing the barriers of entry.

==Measurement==
{{See also|List of globalization-related indices}}

One index of globalization is the ''KOF Index of Globalization'', which measures three important dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ | title=KOF Index of Globalization | publisher=The KOF Swiss Economic Institute | work=ethz.ch | date=2014 | access-date=21 January 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531222435/http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ | archive-date=31 May 2012 }}</ref> Another is the [[A.T. Kearney]] / [[Foreign Policy Magazine]] Globalization Index.<ref>[http://www.atkearney.com/shared_res/pdf/Globalization-Index_FP_Nov-Dec-06_S.pdf 16 October 2006] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306223527/http://www.atkearney.com/shared_res/pdf/Globalization-Index_FP_Nov-Dec-06_S.pdf|date=6 March 2008}}. Data for the year 2006. No longer published.</ref>
{|
|-
| style="width:50%;"|
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"
|+ <br />2014 KOF Index of Globalization
|-
! Rank !! Country
|-
|1||[[Ireland]]
|-
|2||[[Belgium]]
|-
|3||[[Netherlands]]
|-
|4||[[Austria]]
|-
|5||[[Singapore]]
|-
|6||[[Denmark]]
|-
|7||[[Sweden]]
|-
|8||[[Portugal]]
|-
|9||[[Hungary]]
|-
|10||[[Finland]]
|}
| style="width:5%;"| &nbsp;
| style="width:50%;"|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ 2006 A.T. Kearney / Foreign Policy Magazine<br />Globalization Index
|-
!Rank || Country
|-
|1|| [[Singapore]]
|-
|2||[[Switzerland]]
|-
|3||[[United States]]
|-
|4||[[Ireland]]
|-
|5||[[Denmark]]
|-
|6||[[Canada]]
|-
|7||[[Netherlands]]
|-
|8||[[Australia]]
|-
|9||[[Austria]]
|-
|10||[[Sweden]]
|}
|}

Measurements of economic globalization typically focus on variables such as [[trade]], [[Foreign Direct Investment]] (FDI), [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP), [[portfolio investment]], and [[income]]. However, newer indices attempt to measure globalization in more general terms, including variables related to political, social, cultural, and even environmental aspects of globalization.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Vujakovic | first1 = Petra | year = 2010 | title = How to Measure Globalization? A New Globalization Index (NGI) | journal = Atlantic Economic Journal | volume = 38 | issue = 2| page = 237 | doi = 10.1007/s11293-010-9217-3 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=1 April 2016|title=Energy: The missing link in globalization|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296486356|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=14|page=122|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2016.01.009|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016ERSS...14..122O |access-date=7 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205000937/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296486356|archive-date=5 February 2018|url-status=live|hdl=11250/2442076|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The DHL Global Connectedness Index studies four main types of cross-border flow: trade (in both goods and services), information, people (including tourists, students, and migrants), and capital. It shows that the depth of global integration fell by about one-tenth after 2008, but by 2013 had recovered well above its pre-crash peak.<ref name="DHL" /><ref name="Signs of life" /> The report also found a shift of economic activity to [[emerging economies]].<ref name="DHL" />

==Support and criticism==
{{See also|Criticisms of globalization}}
[[File:Press conference EU-Mercosul on June 26, 2019 (VII).jpg|thumb|The [[European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement]], which would form one of the world's largest [[free trade]] areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners.]]

Reactions to processes contributing to globalization have varied widely with a history as long as extraterritorial contact and trade. [[Philosophical]] differences regarding the costs and benefits of such processes give rise to a broad-range of [[ideologies]] and [[social movement]]s. Proponents of [[economic growth]], [[Economic expansion|expansion]], and [[Economic development|development]], in general, view globalizing processes as desirable or necessary to the well-being of human [[society]].<ref name=Sen1970>Sen, Amartya K. (1970). ''Collective choice and social welfare.'' San Francisco, CA: Holden-Day.</ref>

Antagonists view one or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well-being on a global or local scale;<ref name=Sen1970 /> this includes those who focus on social or [[natural environment|natural]] [[sustainability]] of long-term and continuous economic expansion, the social [[structural inequality]] caused by these processes, and the [[Colonialism|colonial]], [[imperialistic]], or [[hegemonic]] [[ethnocentrism]], [[cultural assimilation]] and [[cultural appropriation]] that underlie such processes.

Globalization tends to bring people into contact with foreign people and cultures. [[Xenophobia]] is the fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia|title=Definition of xenophobia in English from the Oxford dictionary|work=oxforddictionaries.com|access-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731222505/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia|archive-date=31 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/xenophobia|title=Define Xenophobia at Dictionary.com|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101202139/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Xenophobia|archive-date=1 January 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Xenophobia can manifest itself in many ways involving the relations and [[perception]]s of an [[ingroup]] towards an [[Outgroup (sociology)|outgroup]], including a fear of losing identity, suspicion of its activities, aggression, and desire to eliminate its presence to secure a presumed purity.<ref name="auto">Guido Bolaffi. ''Dictionary of race, ethnicity and culture''. SAGE Publications Ltd., 2003. p. 332.</ref>

Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions surrounding the impact of such processes on the planet as well as the human costs. They challenge directly traditional metrics, such as GDP, and look to other measures, such as the [[Gini coefficient]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html|title=Poverty Analysis – Measuring Inequality|work=worldbank.org|access-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622034007/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991%7EmenuPK:492138%7EpagePK:148956%7EpiPK:216618%7EtheSitePK:430367,00.html|archive-date=22 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> or the [[Happy Planet Index]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.happyplanetindex.org/ |title=The Happy Planet Index |publisher=Neweconomics.org |access-date=2 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926174209/http://www.happyplanetindex.org/ |archive-date=26 September 2009 }}</ref> and point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal consequences–social disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"<ref name="The Hidden Connections">{{cite book | last = Capra | first = Fritjof | year = 2002 | title = The Hidden Connections | publisher = Random House | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0-385-49471-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/hiddenconnection00capr_0 }}</ref> which they claim are the [[unintended consequences]] of globalization. Others point out that, while the forces of globalization have led to the spread of western-style democracy, this has been accompanied by an increase in inter-ethnic tension and violence as free market economic policies combine with democratic processes of universal suffrage as well as an escalation in militarization to impose democratic principles and as a means to conflict resolution.<ref>Sorrells, Kathryn. Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013. Print.</ref>

On 9 August 2019, Pope Francis denounced [[isolationism]] and hinted that the Catholic Church will embrace globalization at the [[Synod of Bishops for the Pan-Amazon region|October 2019 Amazonia Synod]], stating "the whole is greater than the parts. Globalization and unity should not be conceived as a sphere, but as a polyhedron: each people retains its identity in unity with others"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2019-08/pope-francis-interview-europe-amazonia-synod-politics-environmen.html|title=Pope: isolationism and populism lead to war – Vatican News|date=9 August 2019|website=www.vaticannews.va|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809181758/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2019-08/pope-francis-interview-europe-amazonia-synod-politics-environmen.html|archive-date=9 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Public opinion===
{{Update|type=section|date=December 2019}}
As a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered by some as a form of capitalist expansion which entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, underregulated market economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guttal|first=Shalmali|date=2007|title=Globalisation|journal=Development in Practice|volume=17|issue=4/5|pages=523–531|issn=0961-4524|jstor=25548249|doi=10.1080/09614520701469492|s2cid=218523141}}</ref> A 2005 study found a large increase in articles negative towards globalization in the years prior. In 1998, negative articles outpaced positive by two to one.<ref name="Fiss 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Fiss|first1=Peer C.|last2=Hirsch|first2=Paul M.|s2cid=16331519|date=February 2005|title=The Discourse of Globalization: Framing and Sensemaking of an Emerging Concept|journal=American Sociological Review|volume=70|issue=1|pages=29–52|doi=10.1177/000312240507000103}}</ref> The number of newspaper articles showing negative framing rose from about 10% in 1991 to 55% in 1999. This increase occurred during a period when the number of articles concerning globalization nearly doubled.<ref name="Fiss 2005"/>

International polls have shown that residents of Africa and Asia tend to view globalization more favorably than residents of Europe or North America. In Africa, a Gallup poll found 70% viewed globalization favorably.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/btglobalizationtradera/273.php|title=Africans and Asians Tend to View Globalization Favorably; Europeans and Americans are More Skeptical|date=7 November 2006|website=WorldPublicOpinion.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212025444/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/btglobalizationtradera/273.php|archive-date=12 February 2012|access-date=28 November 2019}}</ref> The BBC found that 50% of people believed that economic globalization was proceeding too rapidly, while 35% believed it was too slow.<ref name="bbc08">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/feb08/BBCEcon_Feb08_rpt.pdf|title=Widespread Unease about Economy and Globalization – Global poll|date=2008|website=BBC World Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903173226/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/feb08/BBCEcon_Feb08_rpt.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2014|access-date=24 March 2015}}</ref>

In 2004, Philip Gordon stated that "a clear majority of Europeans believe that globalization can enrich their lives, while believing the European Union can help them take advantage of globalization's benefits while shielding them from its negative effects". The main opposition consisted of socialists, environmental groups, and nationalists. Residents of the EU did not appear to feel threatened by globalization in 2004. The EU job market was more stable and workers were less likely to accept wage/benefit cuts. Social spending was much higher than in the US.<ref>Gordon, Philip. 2004. [http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/globalization-europes-wary-embrace "Globalization: Europe's Wary Embrace"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629191739/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/globalization-europes-wary-embrace|date=29 June 2011}}. Yale Global, 1 November 2004.</ref> In a Danish poll in 2007, 76% responded that globalization is a good thing.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1684528,00.html|title=Why Denmark Loves Globalization|last=Fox|first=Justin|date=15 November 2007|magazine=Time|access-date=28 November 2019|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023072043/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1684528,00.html|archive-date=23 October 2019}}</ref>

A 1993 US survey showed more than 40% of respondents were unfamiliar with the concept of globalization. When the survey was repeated in 1998, 89% had a polarized view of globalization as being either good or bad. Discourse on globalization, which began in the financial community, shifted to a heated debate between proponents and disenchanted students and workers. Polarization increased dramatically after the establishment of the WTO in 1995; this event and subsequent protests led to a large-scale anti-globalization movement.<ref name="Fiss 2005"/>
Initially, college educated workers were likely to support globalization. Less educated workers, who were more likely to compete with immigrants and workers in developing countries, tended to be opponents. The situation changed after the [[Great Recession]]. According to a 1997 poll 58% of college graduates said globalization had been good for the US. By 2008 only 33% thought it was good. Respondents with high school education also became more opposed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121623686919059307|title=The Declining Value Of Your College Degree|last=Ip|first=Greg|date=18 July 2008|work=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=29 November 2019|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229022054/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121623686919059307|archive-date=29 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Takenaka Heizo and Chida Ryokichi, {{as of|1998|lc=y}} there was a perception in Japan that the economy was "Small and Frail". However, Japan was resource-poor and used exports to pay for its raw materials. Anxiety over their position caused terms such as ''[[internationalization]]'' and ''globalization'' to enter everyday language. However, Japanese tradition was to be as self-sufficient as possible, particularly in agriculture.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.jcie.org/researchpdfs/DomAdjst/takenaka-chida.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406132050/http://www.jcie.org/researchpdfs/DomAdjst/takenaka-chida.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-06 |url-status=live|title=Domestic Adjustments to Globalization|last1=Heizo|first1=Takenaka|last2=Ryokichi|first2=Chida|publisher=Japan Center for International Exchange|year=1998|isbn=4-88907-012-5|editor-last=Morrison|editor-first=Charles E.|location=Tokyo|pages=76–102|chapter=Japan|oclc=40657196|editor-last2=Soesastro|editor-first2=Hadi}}</ref>

Many in developing countries see globalization as a positive force that lifts them out of poverty.<ref name="bhagwati"/> Those opposing globalization typically combine environmental concerns with nationalism. Opponents consider governments as agents of [[neo-colonialism]] that are subservient to [[multinational corporations]].<ref name="visuality.org">{{cite journal |last=Shoa |first=S. Rajgopal |year=2002 |title=Reclaiming Democracy, the Anti-globalization Movement in South Asia |journal=Feminist Review |number=70 |pages=134–137 |jstor=1395975}}</ref> Much of this criticism comes from the middle class; the [[Brookings Institution]] suggested this was because the middle class perceived upwardly mobile low-income groups as threatening to their economic security.<ref>{{cite web |first=Carol |last=Graham |title=Winners and Losers: Perspectives on Globalization from the Emerging Market Economies |publisher=Brookings |date=1 January 2011 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2001/fall_globaleconomics_graham.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511180832/http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2001/fall_globaleconomics_graham.aspx |archive-date=11 May 2011  }}</ref>

===Economics===
[[File:20041120-1 bushchinamtg-1-515h.jpg|thumb|[[Hu Jintao]] of China and [[George W. Bush]] meet while attending an [[APEC]] summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004.]]

The literature analyzing the economics of free trade is extremely rich with extensive work having been done on the theoretical and empirical effects. Though it creates winners and losers, the broad consensus among economists is that free trade is a large and unambiguous net gain for society.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Fuller|first1 = Dan|last2 = Geide-Stevenson|first2 = Doris|title = Consensus Among Economists: Revisited|journal = Journal of Economic Review|volume = 34|issue = 4|pages = 369–87|date =Fall 2003|url = http://www.indiana.edu/~econed/pdffiles/fall03/fuller.pdf|doi = 10.1080/00220480309595230|s2cid = 143617926|access-date = 22 December 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040920081202/http://www.indiana.edu/~econed/pdffiles/fall03/fuller.pdf|archive-date = 20 September 2004|url-status = live
}}{{registration required}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friedman|first=Milton|author-link=Milton Friedman|title=The Case for Free Trade|journal=[[Hoover Digest]]|volume=1997|issue=4|page=42|url=http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/3550727.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122032127/http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/3550727.html|archive-date=22 January 2007|bibcode=1993SciAm.269e..42B|year=1993|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1193-42|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In a 2006 survey of 83 American economists, "87.5% agree that the U.S. should eliminate remaining tariffs and other barriers to trade" and "90.1% disagree with the suggestion that the U.S. should restrict employers from outsourcing work to foreign countries."<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Whaples|first = Robert|title = Do Economists Agree on Anything? Yes!|journal = The Economists' Voice|volume = 3|issue = 9|year= 2006|doi = 10.2202/1553-3832.1156|s2cid = 201123406}}</ref>

Quoting Harvard economics professor [[N. Gregory Mankiw]], "Few propositions command as much consensus among professional economists as that open world trade increases economic growth and raises living standards."<ref>{{cite web|last = Mankiw|first = Gregory|title = Outsourcing Redux|date = 7 May 2006|url = http://gregmankiw.blogspot.com/2006/05/outsourcing-redux.html|access-date = 22 January 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070402023947/http://gregmankiw.blogspot.com/2006/05/outsourcing-redux.html|archive-date = 2 April 2007}}</ref> In a survey of leading economists, none disagreed with the notion that "freer trade improves productive efficiency and offers consumers better choices, and in the long run these gains are much larger than any effects on employment."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0dfr9yjnDcLh17m|title=Poll Results {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622104941/http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0dfr9yjnDcLh17m|archive-date=22 June 2016}}</ref> Most economists would agree that although increasing returns to scale might mean that certain industry could settle in a geographical area without any strong economic reason derived from comparative advantage, this is not a reason to argue against free trade because the absolute level of output enjoyed by both "winner" and "loser" will increase with the "winner" gaining more than the "loser" but both gaining more than before in an absolute level.

In the book ''[[The End of Poverty]]'', Jeffrey Sachs discusses how many factors can affect a country's ability to enter the world market, including government [[Political corruption|corruption]]; legal and social disparities based on gender, ethnicity, or caste; diseases such as [[AIDS]] and [[malaria]]; lack of infrastructure (including transportation, communications, health, and trade); unstable political landscapes; [[protectionism]]; and geographic barriers.<ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/endofpovertyecon00sach|title=The End of Poverty|last=Sachs|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Penguin Press|year=2005|isbn=978-1-59420-045-8|location=New York|oclc=57243168|url-access=registration}}</ref> [[Jagdish Bhagwati]], a former adviser to the U.N. on globalization, holds that, although there are obvious problems with overly rapid development, globalization is a very positive force that lifts countries out of poverty by causing a virtuous economic cycle associated with faster economic growth.<ref name="bhagwati">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indefenseofglob00bhag|title=In Defense of Globalization|last=Bhagwati|first=Jagdish|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-533093-9|location=Oxford; New York|oclc=719371219|url-access=registration}}</ref> However, economic growth does not necessarily mean a reduction in poverty; in fact, the two can coexist. Economic growth is conventionally measured using indicators such as [[GDP]] and [[Gross national income|GNI]] that do not accurately reflect the growing disparities in wealth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives|last1=Peet|first1=Richard|last2=Hartwick|first2=Elaine|publisher=The Guilford Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4625-1957-6|edition=3rd|location=New York|page=2|oclc=908634816|quote=But economic growth can occur without touching problems like inequality or poverty when all the increase in income goes to a relatively few people.}}</ref> Additionally, [[Oxfam International]] argues that poor people are often excluded from globalization-induced opportunities "by a lack of productive assets, weak infrastructure, poor education and ill-health;"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to International Development: Approaches, Actors, and Issues|last1=Beaudet|first1=Pierre|last2=Schafer|first2=Jessica|last3=Haslam|first3=Paul A.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-544020-1|page=112|quote=According to Oxfam International, the contrasting experiences of Latin America and East Asia illustrate that globalization-induced growth and poverty can co-exist. Even when the market expands, 'poor people are often excluded from opportunities by a lack of productive assets, weak infrastructure, poor education, and ill-health'}}</ref> effectively leaving these marginalized groups in a [[poverty trap]]. Economist [[Paul Krugman]] is another staunch supporter of globalization and free trade with a record of disagreeing with many critics of globalization. He argues that many of them lack a basic understanding of [[comparative advantage]] and its importance in today's world.<ref>Conversi, Daniele (2009) '[http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/Globalization.pdf Globalization, ethnic conflict and nationalism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607191631/http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/Globalization.pdf|date=7 June 2011}}', in B. Turner (ed.) Handbook of Globalization Studies. London: Routledge/ Taylor & Francis; [[Tarak Barkawi|Barkawi, Tarak]] (2005) Globalization and War. Rowman & Littlefield; Smith, Dennis (2006) Globalization: The Hidden Agenda. Cambridge: Polity Press. See also Barber, Benjamin R., [[Jihad vs. McWorld]]. Ballantine Books, 1996</ref>

The flow of migrants to advanced economies has been claimed to provide a means through which global wages converge. An IMF study noted a potential for skills to be transferred back to developing countries as wages in those a countries rise.<ref name="12th April 2000: IMF Publications"/> Lastly, the dissemination of knowledge has been an integral aspect of globalization. Technological innovations (or technological transfer) are conjectured to benefit most developing and least developing countries (LDCs), as for example in the adoption of [[mobile phone]]s.<ref name="Saggi2002" />

There has been a rapid economic growth in Asia after embracing [[market orientation]]-based economic policies that encourage private [[property rights]], free enterprise and competition. In particular, in East Asian developing countries, [[GDP]] per head rose at 5.9% a year from 1975 to 2001 (according to 2003 [[Human Development Report]]<ref>{{cite web|year=2003|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr03_complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2003|publisher=UNDP|access-date=6 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418072827/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr03_complete.pdf|archive-date=18 April 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> of UNDP). Like this, the British economic journalist [[Martin Wolf]] says that incomes of poor developing countries, with more than half the world's population, grew substantially faster than those of the world's richest countries that remained relatively stable in its growth, leading to reduced international inequality and the incidence of poverty.

[[File:Berg Ostry 2011 Chart 4.gif|thumb|left|Of the factors influencing the duration of [[economic growth]] in both developed and developing countries, [[Economic inequality|income equality]] has a more beneficial impact than trade openness, sound political institutions, and foreign investment.<ref name=BergOstryEE>{{Cite journal |last1= Berg |first1= Andrew G. |last2= Ostry |first2= Jonathan D. |year= 2011 |title= Equality and Efficiency |journal= Finance and Development |volume= 48 |issue= 3 |url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/berg.htm |access-date= 10 September 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120703033111/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/berg.htm |archive-date= 3 July 2012 |url-status= live }}</ref>]]
Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active [[economic liberalization]] and international integration resulted in rising general welfare and, hence, reduced inequality. According to Wolf, in the developing world as a whole, life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality rate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in [[standards of living]] and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing countries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate among the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furthermore, the reduction in [[fertility rate]] in the developing world as a whole from 4.1 births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of women on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention and investment.<ref name="Wolf2004">{{cite book|url= https://archive.org/details/whyglobalization00wolf|title= Why Globalization Works|publisher= [[Yale University Press]]|author= Martin Wolf|year= 2004|isbn= 978-0-300-10252-9|access-date= 6 April 2013|df= dmy-all}}{{dead link|date=January 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Consequently, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of [[child labor]]. Thus, despite seemingly unequal [[distribution of income]] within these developing countries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare for the population as a whole.

Per capita [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth seems even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries seem to fare worse than the globalizers, with the former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1990s—18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them quite substantial.<ref name="DDollar">{{cite web|author=Dollar, David|author2=Kraay, Aart|title=Trade, Growth, and Poverty|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/09/dollar.htm|work=Finance and Development|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=6 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111124849/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/09/dollar.htm|archive-date=11 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Worlds regions by total wealth(in trillions USD), 2018.jpg|thumb|Worlds regions by total [[wealth]] (in trillions USD), 2018]]
The globalization of the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to the resurfacing of the idea that the growth of economic [[interdependence]] promotes peace.<ref>E.g. {{cite web |title=Globalisation promotes peace |first1=Ju Hyun |last1=Pyun |first2=Jong-Wha |last2=Lee |date=21 March 2009 |url=http://www.voxeu.org/article/globalisation-promotes-peace |access-date=25 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025034256/http://www.voxeu.org/article/globalisation-promotes-peace |archive-date=25 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> This idea had been very powerful during the globalization of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and was a central doctrine of [[classical liberals]] of that era, such as the young [[John Maynard Keynes]] (1883–1946).<ref>See, for example, [[Roy Harrod]], ''[[The Life of John Maynard Keynes]]'', Macmillan, 1951; [[Donald Markwell]], ''[[John Maynard Keynes]] and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace'', Oxford University Press, 2006. Keynes had colourfully described the globalization before World War I in ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace'', Macmillan, 1919, chapter 2.</ref>

Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as a promotion of corporate interests.<ref>{{cite news|first=Laurence|last=Lee|title=WTO blamed for India grain suicides|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2ED53A8B-1058-49CF-B9FF-3D96639456D1.htm|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=17 May 2007|access-date=17 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519082251/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2ED53A8B-1058-49CF-B9FF-3D96639456D1.htm|archive-date=19 May 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of [[corporate entities]] shapes the political policy of countries.<ref name="The Corporation">{{cite book | last = Bakan | first = Joel | author-link = Joel Bakan | year = 2004 | title = The Corporation | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7432-4744-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/corporation00joel }}</ref><ref name="Confessions of an Economic Hit Man">{{cite book | last = Perkins | first = John | author-link = John Perkins (author) | year = 2004 | title = Confessions of an Economic Hit Man | publisher = Berrett-Koehler | location = San Francisco | isbn = 978-1-57675-301-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/confessionsofec000perk }}</ref> They advocate global institutions and policies that they believe better address the moral claims of poor and working classes as well as environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/index.php?cd_language=2&id_menu= |title=Fórum Social Mundial |publisher=Forumsocialmundial.org.br |access-date=31 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918063356/http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/index.php?cd_language=2&id_menu= |archive-date=18 September 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Economic arguments by [[fair trade]] theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more [[financial leverage]] (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epi.org/publication/webfeatures_viewpoints_nafta_legacy_at10/|title=NAFTA at 10|work=Economic Policy Institute|access-date=7 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630061101/http://www.epi.org/publication/webfeatures_viewpoints_nafta_legacy_at10/|archive-date=30 June 2012}}</ref>

Globalization allows corporations to [[outsource]] manufacturing and service jobs from high-cost locations, creating economic opportunities with the most competitive wages and worker benefits.<ref name="Kuruvilla 2008 39–72"/> Critics of globalization say that it disadvantages poorer countries. While it is true that free trade encourages globalization among countries, some countries try to protect their domestic suppliers. The main export of poorer countries is usually [[agricultural production]]s. Larger countries often subsidize their [[Agricultural subsidy|farmers]] (e.g., the EU's [[Common Agricultural Policy]]), which lowers the market price for foreign crops.<ref name="Hurst E. Charles P.41">Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. p. 41</ref>

===Global democracy===
{{Main|Democratic globalization}}

Democratic globalization is a movement towards an institutional system of global [[democracy]] that would give world citizens a say in political organizations. This would, in their view, bypass nation-states, corporate oligopolies, ideological [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGO), political cults and mafias. One of its most prolific proponents is the British political thinker [[David Held]]. Advocates of [[democratic globalization]] argue that economic expansion and development should be the first phase of democratic globalization, which is to be followed by a phase of building [[International political economy|global political institutions]]. [[Francesco Stipo]], Director of the United States Association of the [[Club of Rome]], advocates unifying nations under a [[world government]], suggesting that it "should reflect the political and economic balances of world nations. A world confederation would not supersede the authority of the State governments but rather complement it, as both the States and the world authority would have power within their sphere of competence".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usacor.org/archive/index.html |title=USACOR.org |publisher=USACOR.org |date=28 July 2009 |access-date=31 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100520180352/http://www.usacor.org/archive/index.html |archive-date=20 May 2010 }}</ref> Former [[Canadian Senator]] [[Douglas Roche]], [[Order of Canada|O.C.]], viewed globalization as inevitable and advocated creating institutions such as a [[directly elected]] [[United Nations Parliamentary Assembly]] to exercise oversight over unelected international bodies.<ref>{{cite web|last=Roche|first=Douglas|title=The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly|url=http://www.wfm-igp.org/site/files/Roche_UN_Parliamentary_Assembly_2002.pdf|publisher=The World Federalist Movement – Institute for Global Policy|access-date=28 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531054746/http://www.wfm-igp.org/site/files/Roche_UN_Parliamentary_Assembly_2002.pdf|archive-date=31 May 2013}}</ref>

===Global civics===
{{Main|Global civics|Multiculturalism}}
{{See also|Global citizenship}}

Global civics suggests that [[civics]] can be understood, in a global sense, as a [[social contract]] between [[global citizens]] in the age of interdependence and interaction. The disseminators of the concept define it as the notion that we have certain rights and responsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of being human on Earth.<ref name=case>{{Cite journal|last=Altinay |first=Hakan |title=The Case for Global Civics |journal=Global Economy and Development at Brookings |year=2010 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2010/03_global_civics_altinay.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603104201/http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2010/03_global_civics_altinay.aspx |archive-date=3 June 2010  }}</ref> [[World citizen]] has a variety of similar meanings, often referring to a person who disapproves of traditional [[geopolitical]] divisions derived from national [[citizenship]]. An early incarnation of this sentiment can be found in [[Socrates]], whom [[Plutarch]] quoted as saying: "I am not an Athenian, or a Greek, but a citizen of the world."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcaa.org.au/|title=Global Parliament &#124; World Citizens Association (Australia)|website=australia|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819194210/https://www.wcaa.org.au/|archive-date=19 August 2019}}</ref> In an increasingly interdependent world, world citizens need a compass to frame their mindsets and create a shared consciousness and sense of global responsibility in world issues such as environmental problems and [[nuclear proliferation]].<ref name = feasible>{{cite journal| last = Altinay| first = Hakan| title = A Global Civics: Necessary? Feasible?| journal = Global Policy| date = June 2010| url = http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/articles/international-law-and-human-rights/global-civics-necessary-feasible| access-date = 16 July 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120926193551/http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/articles/international-law-and-human-rights/global-civics-necessary-feasible| archive-date = 26 September 2012}}</ref>

Baha'i-inspired author Meyjes, while favoring the single world community and emergent global consciousness, warns of globalization<ref>{{cite book| chapter = Language and Universalization: a 'Linguistic Ecology' Reading of Bahá'í Writ | first = Gregory Paul | last = Meyjes (also: Posthumus Meyjes) | title = The Journal of Bahá'í Studies | publisher = Association for Bahá'í Studies | volume =IX (1) | year =1999 | location = Ottawa | pages = 51–63 }}</ref> as a cloak for an expeditious economic, social, and cultural Anglo-dominance that is insufficiently inclusive to inform the emergence of an optimal world civilization. He proposes a process of "[[Universalism#Non-religious Universalism|universalization]]" as an alternative.

[[Cosmopolitanism]] is the proposal that all human ethnic groups belong to a single [[community]] based on a shared [[morality]]. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or cosmopolite.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cosmopolitan|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cosmopolitan?s=t|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=7 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102020627/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cosmopolitan?s=t|archive-date=2 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> A cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. The cosmopolitan community is one in which individuals from different places (e.g. nation-states) form relationships based on mutual respect. For instance, [[Kwame Anthony Appiah]] suggests the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious, political, etc.).<ref>Kwame Anthony Appiah, "Cosmopolitan Patriots," Critical Inquiry 23, no. 3 (Spring, 1997): 617–39.</ref>

Canadian philosopher [[Marshall McLuhan]] popularized the term ''[[Global Village]]'' beginning in 1962.<ref>Marshall McLuhan and Bruce R. Powers (17 September 1992) The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st century . Oxford University Press: 17 September 1992</ref> His view suggested that globalization would lead to a world where people from all countries will become more integrated and aware of common interests and shared humanity.<ref>Chapman, Roger. ''Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices, Volume 1.'' 2009: M.E. Sharp</ref>

===International cooperation===
[[File:Obama and Medvedev sign Prague Treaty 2010.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Barack Obama]] and [[Dmitry Medvedev]] after signing the [[New START]] treaty in Prague, 2010]]
'''Military cooperation'''&nbsp;– Past examples of international cooperation exist. One example is the security cooperation between the United States and the former Soviet Union after the end of the Cold War, which astonished international society. Arms control and disarmament agreements, including the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (see [[START I]], [[START II]], [[START III]], and [[New START]]) and the establishment of [[NATO]]'s Partnership for Peace, the Russia NATO Council, and the [[G8]] Global Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction, constitute concrete initiatives of arms control and de-nuclearization. The US–Russian cooperation was further strengthened by anti-terrorism agreements enacted in the wake of 9/11.<ref name="globalpolicyjournal1">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/brookings-audit/international-cooperation-stepping-stone-world-government|title=International cooperation as a stepping-stone to a world government|publisher=Global Policy Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203072547/http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/brookings-audit/international-cooperation-stepping-stone-world-government|archive-date=3 December 2013|access-date=15 June 2013}}</ref>

'''Environmental cooperation'''&nbsp;– One of the biggest successes of environmental cooperation has been the agreement to reduce [[chlorofluorocarbon]] (CFC) emissions, as specified in the [[Montreal Protocol]], in order to stop ozone depletion. The most recent debate around nuclear energy and the non-alternative coal-burning power plants constitutes one more consensus on what not to do. Thirdly, significant achievements in IC can be observed through development studies.<ref name="globalpolicyjournal1"/>

'''Economic cooperation'''&nbsp;– One of the biggest challenges of globalization in contemporary times is that many believe the progress made in the past decades is now being undone. The backsliding of globalization has led to the coinage of the term ''slobalization''. Slobalization is a new, slower pattern of globalization.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Slowbalisation |magazine=The Economist |volume=430 |issue=9127 |date=Jan 26, 2019 |id={{ProQuest|2171135679}}}}</ref>

===Anti-globalization movement===
{{Main|Anti-globalization movement}}
[[File:2016-04-23 Anti-TTIP-Demonstration in Hannover, (10118).jpg|thumb|Anti-[[Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership|TTIP]] demonstration in [[Hannover]], Germany, 2016]]

Anti-globalization, or counter-globalization,<ref>[[Jacques Derrida]] (May 2004) ''[http://mondediplo.com/2004/11/06derrida Enlightenment past and to come] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719035915/http://mondediplo.com/2004/11/06derrida |date=19 July 2017 }}'', speech at the party for 50 years of ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]''</ref> consists of a number of criticisms of globalization but, in general, is critical of the globalization of [[corporate capitalism]].<ref>Morris, Douglas "Globalization and Media Democracy: The Case of Indymedia", ''Shaping the Network Society'', [[MIT Press]] 2003. Courtesy link to (pre-publication version) [http://www3.fis.utoronto.ca/research/iprp/c3n/CI/DMorris.htm FIS.utoronto.ca] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304030415/http://www3.fis.utoronto.ca/research/iprp/c3n/CI/DMorris.htm|date=4 March 2009}}</ref> The movement is also commonly referred to as the [[alter-globalization]] movement, anti-globalist movement, [[anti-corporate]] globalization movement,<ref name=Juris>{{cite book | last = Juris | first = Jeffrey S. | title =Networking Futures: The Movements against Corporate Globalization | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham | year = 2008 | page = 2 | isbn = 978-0-8223-4269-4}}</ref> or movement against [[neoliberal]] globalization. Opponents of globalization argue that power and respect in terms of international trade between the developed and underdeveloped countries of the world are unequally distributed.<ref>Staggenborg, S. (2011). Social movements (Rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> The diverse subgroups that make up this movement include some of the following: trade unionists, environmentalists, anarchists, land rights and indigenous rights activists, organizations promoting human rights and sustainable development, opponents of privatization, and [[anti-sweatshop]] campaigners.<ref name="stwr.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.stwr.org/the-un-people-politics/the-anti-globalization-movement-defined.htm|title=The Anti-Globalization Movement Defined Share The World's Resources|last=Engler|first=M.|date=30 May 2007|access-date=14 March 2013|archive-date=17 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217150223/http://www.stwr.org/the-un-people-politics/the-anti-globalization-movement-defined.htm|url-status=dead}}l</ref>

In ''[[The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy]]'', [[Christopher Lasch]] analyzed<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/the-treachery-of-the-lites-elite-sense-of-irresponsibility-1610879.html |title=The treachery of the lites Elite sense of irresponsibility |newspaper=The Independent |date=10 March 1995 |access-date=19 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827124832/http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/the-treachery-of-the-lites-elite-sense-of-irresponsibility-1610879.html |archive-date=27 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> the widening gap between the top and bottom of the social composition in the United States. For him, our epoch is determined by a social phenomenon: the revolt of the elites, in reference to ''[[The Revolt of the Masses]]'' (1929) by the Spanish philosopher [[José Ortega y Gasset]]. According to Lasch, the new elites, i.e. those who are in the top 20% in terms of income, through globalization which allows total mobility of capital, no longer live in the same world as their fellow-citizens. In this, they oppose the old bourgeoisie of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which was constrained by its spatial stability to a minimum of rooting and civic obligations. Globalization, according to the sociologist, has turned elites into tourists in their own countries. The denationalization of business enterprise tends to produce a class who see themselves as "world citizens, but without accepting ... any of the obligations that citizenship in a polity normally implies". Their ties to an international culture of work, leisure, information – make many of them deeply indifferent to the prospect of national decline. Instead of financing public services and the public treasury, new elites are investing their money in improving their voluntary ghettos: private schools in their residential neighborhoods, private police, garbage collection systems. They have "withdrawn from common life". Composed of those who control the international flows of capital and information, who preside over philanthropic foundations and institutions of higher education, manage the instruments of cultural production and thus fix the terms of public debate. So, the political debate is limited mainly to the dominant classes and political ideologies lose all contact with the concerns of the ordinary citizen. The result of this is that no one has a likely solution to these problems and that there are furious ideological battles on related issues. However, they remain protected from the problems affecting the working classes: the decline of industrial activity, the resulting loss of employment, the decline of the middle class, increasing the number of the poor, the rising crime rate, growing drug trafficking, the urban crisis.

D.A. Snow et al. contend that the [[anti-globalization movement]] is an example of a [[new social movement]], which uses tactics that are unique and use different resources than previously used before in other social movements.<ref>Snow, D.A., Soule, S.A., & Kriesi, H. (2004). The Blackwell companion to social movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.</ref>

One of the most infamous tactics of the movement is the [[Battle of Seattle]] in 1999, where there were protests against the World Trade Organization's Third Ministerial Meeting. All over the world, the movement has held protests outside meetings of institutions such as the WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Group of Eight (G8).<ref name="stwr.org"/> Within the Seattle demonstrations the protesters that participated used both creative and violent tactics to gain the attention towards the issue of globalization.

===Opposition to capital market integration===
{{Main|Anti-capitalist movements}}
[[File:Worldbank protest jakarta.jpg|thumb|World Bank Protester, [[Jakarta]], Indonesia]]
{{Capitalism sidebar}}

Capital markets have to do with raising and investing money in various human enterprises. Increasing integration of these [[financial market]]s between countries leads to the emergence of a global capital marketplace or a single world market. In the long run, increased movement of capital between countries tends to favor owners of capital more than any other group; in the short run, owners and workers in specific sectors in capital-exporting countries bear much of the burden of adjusting to increased movement of capital.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Invested Interests: The Politics of National Economic Policies in a World of Global Finance|last=Frieden|first=Jeffry A.|journal=[[International Organization]]|issn=1531-5088|volume=45|issue=4|year=1991|pages=425–51|doi=10.1017/s0020818300033178|jstor=2706944|s2cid=154738660 }}</ref>

Those opposed to capital market integration on the basis of [[human rights]] issues are especially disturbed{{According to whom|date=March 2020}} by the various abuses which they think are perpetuated by global and international institutions that, they say, promote [[neoliberalism]] without regard to ethical standards. Common targets include the [[World Bank]] (WB), [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) and [[free trade]] treaties like the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] (FTAA), the [[Multilateral Agreement on Investment]] (MAI) and the [[General Agreement on Trade in Services]] (GATS). In light of the economic gap between rich and poor countries, movement adherents claim free trade without measures in place to protect the under-capitalized will contribute only to the strengthening the power of industrialized nations (often termed the "North" in opposition to the developing world's "South").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/trade/commentary/how-tariffs-and-regressive-trade-policies-hurt-the-poor|title=How Tariffs and Regressive Trade Policies Hurt the Poor|last=Kolas|first=Logan|website=The Heritage Foundation|language=en|access-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330093705/https://www.heritage.org/trade/commentary/how-tariffs-and-regressive-trade-policies-hurt-the-poor|archive-date=30 March 2019|url-status=unfit}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2019}}

===Anti-corporatism and anti-consumerism===
{{Main|Anti-corporatism|Anti-consumerism}}

[[Corporatist]] ideology, which privileges the rights of corporations ([[Legal personality|artificial or juridical persons]]) over those of [[natural person]]s, is an underlying factor in the recent rapid expansion of global commerce.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2001/09/01/corporatism-goes-global | title=Corporatism Goes Global | author=Ottaway, Marina | journal=Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations | volume=7 | issue=3 | date=September 2001 | doi=10.1163/19426720-00703006 | access-date=28 August 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903042838/http://carnegieendowment.org/2001/09/01/corporatism-goes-global | archive-date=3 September 2014 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> In recent years, there have been an increasing number of books ([[Naomi Klein]]'s 2000 ''[[No Logo]]'', for example) and films (''e.g. [[The Corporation (2003 film)|The Corporation]]'' & ''[[Surplus (film)|Surplus]]'') popularizing an [[anti-corporate]] [[ideology]] to the public.

A related contemporary ideology, [[consumerism]], which encourages the personal acquisition of goods and services, also drives globalization.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Lived effects of the Contemporary Economy: Globalization, Inequality, and Consumer Society. | author=Storper Michael | journal=Public Culture | year=2000 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=375–409 | doi=10.1215/08992363-12-2-375| citeseerx=10.1.1.571.5793 | s2cid=53599498 }}</ref> Anti-consumerism is a social movement against equating personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material possessions. Concern over the treatment of consumers by large corporations has spawned substantial activism, and the incorporation of [[consumer education]] into school [[curricula]]. Social activists hold materialism is connected to [[Big-box store|global retail merchandizing]] and [[supplier convergence]], [[war]], greed, [[anomie]], [[crime]], [[environmental degradation]], and general social [[malaise]] and discontent. One variation on this topic is activism by ''postconsumers'', with the strategic emphasis on moving ''beyond'' addictive consumerism.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Collective dissonance and the transition to post-consumerism | author=Cohen, Maurie J. | journal=Futures |date=July 2013 | volume=52 | pages=42–51 | doi=10.1016/j.futures.2013.07.001}}</ref>

===Global justice and inequality===
====Global justice====
{{Main|Global justice movement}}
[[File:GINI index World Bank up to 2018.png|alt=|left|thumb|Differences in national income equality around the world as measured by the national [[Gini coefficient]], as of 2018<ref>{{Cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|access-date=23 July 2020|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>]]

The global justice movement is the loose collection of individuals and groups—often referred to as a "[[movement of movements]]"—who advocate [[fair trade]] rules and perceive current institutions of global economic integration as problems.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Movement of Movements: Is Another World Really Possible?|publisher=Verso|year=2004|isbn=1-85984-504-5|editor-last=Mertes|editor-first=Tom|location=London|oclc=53243132|editor-last2=Bello|editor-first2=Walden F.|editor-last3=Bové|editor-first3=José|editor-link3=José Bové|editor-last4=Cassen|editor-first4=Bernard|editor-last5=Graeber|editor-first5=David|editor-last6=Hardt|editor-first6=Michael|editor-last7=Klein|editor-first7=Naomi|editor-last8=Marcos|editor-first8=Subcomandante|editor-last9=Muchhala|editor-first9=Bumika|display-editors=4}}</ref> The movement is often labeled an anti-globalization movement by the mainstream media. Those involved, however, frequently deny that they are [[anti-globalization]], insisting that they support the globalization of communication and people and oppose only the global expansion of corporate power.<ref>della Porta, D. 2005. "The Social Bases of the Global Justice Movement: Some Theoretical Reflections and Empirical Evidence from the First European Social Forum." Civil Society and Social Movements Programme Paper No. 21.Geneva: UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development).</ref> The movement is based in the idea of [[social justice]], desiring the creation of a society or institution based on the principles of [[social equality|equality]] and [[solidarity]], the values of human rights, and the dignity of every human being.<ref name="autogenerated2006">Education and Social Justice By J. Zajda, S. Majhanovich, V. Rust, 2006, {{ISBN|1-4020-4721-5}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2005">Nursing ethics: across the curriculum and into practice By Janie B. Butts, Karen Rich, Jones and Bartlett Publishers 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-7637-4735-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/mcl/pdf/mcl-act-135-of-2004.pdf|title=Legal Birth Definition Act – Act 135 of 2004|access-date=1 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011611/http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/mcl/pdf/mcl-act-135-of-2004.pdf|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> [[Structural inequality|Social inequality]] within and between nations, including a growing [[global digital divide]], is a focal point of the movement. Many nongovernmental organizations have now arisen to fight these inequalities that many in Latin America, Africa and Asia face. A few very popular and well known [[non-governmental organizations]] (NGOs) include: [[War Child (charity)|War Child]], [[Red Cross]], [[Free The Children]] and [[CARE International]]. They often create partnerships where they work towards improving the lives of those who live in developing countries by building schools, fixing infrastructure, cleaning water supplies, purchasing equipment and supplies for hospitals, and other aid efforts.

[[File:Countries by total wealth (trillions USD), Credit Suisse.png|thumb|Countries by [[List of countries by total wealth|total wealth]] (trillions USD), [[Credit Suisse]]]]

====Social inequality====
{{Main|Social inequality|International inequality}}
[[File:Global-share-of-wealth-by-wealth-group-768x409.png|thumb|Global share of wealth by wealth group, Credit Suisse, 2017]]

The economies of the world have [[Development theory|developed]] unevenly, historically, such that entire geographical regions were left mired in poverty and disease while others began to reduce poverty and disease on a wholesale basis. From around 1980 through at least 2011, the GDP gap, while still wide, appeared to be closing and, in some more rapidly [[developing countries]], [[life expectancies]] began to rise.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24835822 | title=How much do you know about the world? | publisher=BBC | date=2013 | access-date=9 July 2014 | author=Rosling, Hans | work=BBC News | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714222626/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24835822 | archive-date=14 July 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> If we look at the Gini coefficient for world income, since the late 1980s, the gap between some regions has markedly narrowed—between Asia and the advanced economies of the West, for example—but huge gaps remain globally. Overall equality across humanity, considered as individuals, has improved very little. Within the decade between 2003 and 2013, income inequality grew even in traditionally egalitarian countries like Germany, Sweden and Denmark. With a few exceptions—France, Japan, Spain—the top 10 percent of earners in most advanced economies raced ahead, while the bottom 10 percent fell further behind.<ref name="Stiglitz">{{cite news | url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/10/13/inequality-is-a-choice/?_php=true&_type=blogs | title=Inequality is a Choice | date=13 October 2013 | access-date=9 July 2014 | author=Stiglits Joseph E. | location=New York Times | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125162537/https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/10/13/inequality-is-a-choice/?_php=true&_type=blogs | archive-date=25 November 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref> By 2013, 85 multibillionaires had amassed wealth equivalent to all the wealth owned by the poorest half (3.5 billion) of the world's total population of 7 billion.<ref name="WEF2014">{{cite web | url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GAC_GlobalAgendaOutlook_2014.pdf | title=Outlook on the Global Agenda 2014 | publisher=World Economic Forum | access-date=9 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210134450/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GAC_GlobalAgendaOutlook_2014.pdf | archive-date=10 February 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Critics of globalization argue that globalization results in weak [[labor unions]]: the surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever-growing number of companies in transition weakened labor unions in high-cost areas. Unions become less effective and workers their enthusiasm for unions when membership begins to decline.<ref name="Hurst E. Charles P.41"/> They also cite an increase in the exploitation of [[child labor]]: countries with weak protections for children are vulnerable to infestation by rogue companies and criminal gangs who exploit them. Examples include [[quarry]]ing, salvage, and farm work as well as trafficking, bondage, forced labor, prostitution and pornography.<ref name="Edmonds_Pavcni">{{cite journal | last1 = Pavcnik | first1 = Nina |date=September 2005 | title = Child Labor in the Global Economy | journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 199–220 | doi = 10.1257/0895330053147895 | last2 = Pavcnik | first2 = Nina | citeseerx = 10.1.1.488.791 }}</ref>

[[File:May Day Immigration March LA60.jpg|thumb|upright|Immigrant rights march for amnesty, [[Los Angeles]], on [[International Workers' Day|May Day]], 2006]]
Women often participate in the workforce in [[precarious work]], including [[export-oriented employment]]. Evidence suggests that while globalization has expanded women's access to employment, the long-term goal{{Whose|date=April 2024}} of transforming [[gender inequalities]] remains unmet and appears unattainable without regulation of capital and a reorientation and expansion of the state's role in funding public goods and providing a social safety net.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seguino|first1=Stephanie|last2=Grown|first2=Caren|date=November 2006|title=Gender equity and globalization: macroeconomic policy for developing countries|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=18|issue=8|pages=1081–104|doi=10.1002/jid.1295|author-link1=Stephanie Seguino|citeseerx=10.1.1.589.4614}} [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/Seguino_GrownGenderEquityandGlobalizationJID.pdf Pdf version – via the World Bank.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605144218/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/Seguino_GrownGenderEquityandGlobalizationJID.pdf |date=5 June 2013 }}</ref> Furthermore, the intersectionality of gender, race, class, can be overlooked by scholars and commentators when assessing the impact of globalization.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization: economics as if all people mattered|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|others=Berik, Günseli, Floro, Maria|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|edition= Second|location=New York|oclc=903247621|date=2014}}</ref>

In 2016, a study published by the IMF posited that [[neoliberalism]], the ideological backbone of contemporary globalized capitalism, has been "oversold", with the benefits of neoliberal policies being "fairly difficult to establish when looking at a broad group of countries" and the costs, most significantly higher income inequality within nations, "hurt the level and sustainability of growth."<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Foroohar |first=Rana |date=3 June 2016 |title=Globalization's True Believers Are Having Second Thoughts |url=https://time.com/4356816/neoliberalism-imf-globalization/ |magazine=TIME |access-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617175511/http://time.com/4356816/neoliberalism-imf-globalization/ |archive-date=17 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Anti-global governance===
{{Main|Global governance}}

Beginning in the 1930s, opposition arose to the idea of a world government, as advocated by organizations such as the [[World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy|World Federalist Movement (WFM)]]. Those who oppose global governance typically do so on objections that the idea is unfeasible, inevitably oppressive, or simply unnecessary.<ref>Kennedy, Paul. (2006.) ''The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations.'' New York: Harper Collins. {{ISBN|978-0-375-50165-4}}</ref> In general, these opponents are wary of the concentration of power or wealth that such governance might represent. Such reasoning dates back to the founding of the [[League of Nations]] and, later, the [[United Nations]].

===Environmentalist opposition===
{{Main|Environmentalism}}
{{See also|Climate change|Deforestation}}
[[File:Madagascar highland plateau.jpg|thumb|[[Deforestation]] of the [[Madagascar]] Highland Plateau has led to extensive [[siltation]] and unstable flows of western [[river]]s.]]
[[File:Carbon footprint hotspots of foreign final consumption in China.webp|thumb|'''a''' shows carbon footprint (CF) hotspots of foreign final consumption in China. '''b'''–'''d''' show carbon footprint hotspots of the consumption of the United States, Hong Kong, and Japan, respectively. Among all foreign regions, the United States, Hong Kong, and Japan have the largest CFs in China, contributing ~23.0%, 10.8%, and 9.0%, respectively, to the total foreign CF in China in 2012.]]

[[Environmentalism]] is a broad philosophy, ideology<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/ideology.html |title=Ideology and Sustainability |publisher=Formal.stanford.edu |access-date=13 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204042425/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/ideology.html |archive-date=4 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Ronald Bailey from the February 2002 issue |url=http://reason.com/archives/2002/02/01/debunking-green-myths |title=Debunking Green Myths |date=February 2002 |publisher=Reason.com |access-date=13 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710221038/http://reason.com/archives/2002/02/01/debunking-green-myths |archive-date=10 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Donald Gibson. Environmentalism: Ideology and Power. Nova Science Pub Inc. 2003</ref> and social movement regarding concerns for environmental [[Conservation movement|conservation]] and improvement of the health of the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. Environmentalist concerns with globalization include issues such as [[global warming]], global [[water supply]] and [[Water security|water crises]], inequity in [[energy consumption]] and [[energy conservation]], transnational [[air pollution]] and pollution of the [[world ocean]], [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]], world [[habitat]] [[sustainability]], [[deforestation]], [[biodiversity loss]] and [[Holocene extinction|species extinction]].

One critique of globalization is that natural resources of the poor have been systematically taken over by the rich and the pollution promulgated by the rich is systematically dumped on the poor.<ref>Low, Nicholas. (2002). ''Global Ethics and Environment''. Routledge Science. {{ISBN|978-0-415-19735-9}}.</ref> Some argue that Northern corporations are increasingly exploiting resources of less wealthy countries for their global activities while it is the South that is disproportionately bearing the environmental burden of the globalized economy. Globalization is thus leading to a type of" environmental [[apartheid]]".<ref>Lechner, Frank J., and John Boli. 2012. ''The Globalization Reader'', 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-470-65563-4}}.</ref>

[[Helena Norberg-Hodge]], the director and founder of Local Futures/[[International Society for Ecology and Culture]], criticizes globalization in many ways. In her book ''[[Ancient Futures]]'', Norberg-Hodge claims that "centuries of ecological balance and social harmony are under threat from the pressures of development and globalization." She also criticizes the standardization and rationalization of globalization, as it does not always yield the expected growth outcomes. Although globalization takes similar steps in most countries, scholars such as Hodge claim that it might not be effective to certain countries and that globalization has actually moved some countries backward instead of developing them.<ref>{{cite book|last=Norberg-Hodge|first=Helena|title=Ancient futures: learning from Ladakh|year=1992|publisher=Sierra Club Books|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-87156-643-0|edition=Sierra Club Books paperback|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientfuturesl000norb}}</ref>

A related area of concern is the [[pollution haven hypothesis]], which posits that, when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad, they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require (see [[Race to the bottom]]).<ref name="Unmaskingthe">{{cite journal|last=Levinson|first=Arik|author2=M. Scott Taylor|title=Unmasking the Pollution Haven Effect|journal=[[International Economic Review]]|year=2008|volume=49|issue=1|pages=223–54|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2354.2008.00478.x|s2cid=40982519|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10629.pdf|access-date=29 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602151508/http://www.nber.org/papers/w10629.pdf|archive-date=2 June 2018|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref> This often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices. Developing countries with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent [[environmental regulations]], and conversely, nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards. Thus, companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to (re)locate to the countries with the lowest [[environmental standard]]s or weakest enforcement.

The [[European Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement]], which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas,<ref>{{cite web |title=Farmers, environmentalists slam 'sell-out' EU-Mercosur trade deal |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190629-eu-south-america-agriculture-trade-mercosur-farmers-environmentalists |publisher=France24 |date=29 June 2019 |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825090453/https://www.france24.com/en/20190629-eu-south-america-agriculture-trade-mercosur-farmers-environmentalists |archive-date=25 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> has been denounced by [[environmental activists]] and [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|indigenous rights]] campaigners.<ref>{{cite news |title=EU urged to halt trade talks with S. America over Brazil abuses |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190618-eu-urged-halt-trade-talks-with-america-over-brazil-abuses |work=France 24 |date=18 June 2019 |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825102307/https://www.france24.com/en/20190618-eu-urged-halt-trade-talks-with-america-over-brazil-abuses |archive-date=25 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The fear is that the deal could lead to more [[deforestation of the Amazon rainforest]] as it expands market access to Brazilian beef.<ref>{{cite web |title=We must not barter the Amazon rainforest for burgers and steaks |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2019/jul/02/barter-amazon-rainforest-burgers-steaks-brazil |work=The Guardian |date=2 July 2019 |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824153649/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2019/jul/02/barter-amazon-rainforest-burgers-steaks-brazil |archive-date=24 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Business|World|Politics|Economics}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* {{anl|Civilizing mission}}
* {{anl|Cosmopolitanism}}
* {{anl|Deglobalization}}
* {{anl|Environmental racism}}
* {{anl|Eurasianism}}
* {{anl|Franchising}}
* {{anl|Free trade}}
* {{anl|Global civics}}
* {{anl|Global commons}}
* [[Global mobility]]
* [[Global public good]]s
* {{anl|Global regionalization}}
* {{anl|Globalism}}
* {{anl|Korean Wave}}
* [[List of bilateral free-trade agreements]]
* [[List of globalization-related indices]]
* [[List of multilateral free-trade agreements]]
* {{anl|Middle East and globalization}}
* {{anl|Neorealism (international relations)}}
* [[North–South divide in the World|North–South divide]]
* {{anl|Outline of globalization}}
* {{anl|Postdevelopment theory}}
* {{anl|Technocapitalism}}
* ''[[The No-Nonsense Guide to Globalization]]''
* [[Transnational cinema]]
* {{anl|Transnational citizenship}}
* {{anl|Triadization}}
* {{anl|United Nations Millennium Declaration}}
* {{anl|Vermeer's Hat|''Vermeer's Hat''}}
* {{anl|World Englishes}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Ampuja, Marko. ''Theorizing Globalization: A Critique of the Mediatization of Social Theory'' (Brill, 2012)
* Conner, Tom, and Ikuko Torimoto, eds. ''Globalization Redux: New Name, Same Game'' (University Press of America, 2004).
* Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. "Globalization." in ''Handbook of Political Anthropology'' (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018).
* Frey, James W. "The Global Moment: The Emergence of Globality, 1866–1867, and the Origins of Nineteenth-Century Globalization." ''The Historian'' 81.1 (2019): 9. [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-582097534/the-global-moment-the-emergence-of-globality-1866-1867 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203212404/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-582097534/the-global-moment-the-emergence-of-globality-1866-1867 |date=3 December 2019 }}, focus on trade and Suez Canal
* Gunder Frank, Andre, and Robert A. Denemark. ''ReOrienting the 19th Century: Global Economy in the Continuing Asian Age'' (Paradigm Publishers, 2013). 
* {{cite book |title=The Year 1000: When Explorers Connected the World―and Globalization Began |year=2020 |first=Valerie |last=Hansen |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-1501194108 }}
* Hopkins, A.G., ed. ''Globalization in World History'' (Norton, 2003).
* Lechner, Frank J., and John Boli, eds. ''The Globalization Reader'' (4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012). 
* Leibler, Anat. "The Emergence of a Global Economic Order: From Scientific Internationalism to Infrastructural Globalism." in ''Science, Numbers and Politics'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp.&nbsp;121–145 [http://www.academia.edu/download/59992228/Science_Numbers_and_Politics20190712-70585-1255i4e.pdf online]{{dead link|date=February 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Mir, Salam. "Colonialism, Postcolonialism, Globalization, and Arab Culture." ''Arab Studies Quarterly'' 41.1 (2019): 33–58. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/arabstudquar.41.1.0033 online]
*[[Diego Olstein|Olstein, Diego]] (2015) "Proto-globalization and Proto-glocalizations in the Middle Millennium." In Kedar, Benjamin and Wiesner-Hanks, Merry (Eds.), Cambridge World History. Volume 5: Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conquest, 500–1500 CE. Cambridge University Press, pp.&nbsp;665–684
* Pfister, Ulrich (2012), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/globalization/ulrich-pfister-globalization?set_language=en&-C= Globalization], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO – European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History], retrieved: 25 March 2021 ([http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060507 pdf]).
* Pieterse, Jan Nederveen. ''Globalization and culture: Global mélange'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).
* Rosenberg, Justin. "Globalization Theory: A Post Mortem," ''International Politics'' 42:1 (2005), 2–74. 
* Steger, Manfred B. ''Globalization: A Very Short Introduction'' (4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2017)
* Steger, Manfred B. ''Globalization in the 21st Century'' ((Rowman & Littlefield, 2024)
* Van Der Bly, Martha C.E. "Globalization: A Triumph of Ambiguity," ''Current Sociology'' 53:6 (November 2005), 875–893
* Wallerstein, Immanuel. "Globalization or the Age of Transition? A Long-Term View of the Trajectory of the World System," ''International Sociology'' 15:2 (June 2000), 251–267.

==External links==
{{scholia}}
{{Commons category|Globalization|lcfirst=yes}}
{{Wiktionary|globalisation|globalization}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* [http://www.polity.co.uk/global/whatisglobalization.asp Comprehensive discussion of the term at the Site Global Transformations] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091012141330/http://www.polity.co.uk/global/whatisglobalization.asp |date=12 October 2009 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026043416/http://www.sociology.emory.edu/globalization/ Globalization Website (Emory University) Links, Debates, Glossary etc.]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/business/2007/globalisation/default.stm BBC News Special Report – "Globalisation"]
* {{Guardian topic}}
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/globalization/ "Globalization" ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''] Analysis of the idea and its history.
* [http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AFA_CALC_IN3 OECD Globalization statistics]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~mapglobe/HTML/home.html Mapping Globalization, Princeton University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140903090326/http://www.dataworldwide.org/websites/data_indexes.htm List of Global Development Indexes and Rankings]
{{Aspects of capitalism}}
{{Western culture}}
{{Trade|state=collapsed}}
{{Globalization|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Globalization| ]]
[[Category:Theories of history]]
[[Category:Economic geography]]
[[Category:Cultural geography]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Interculturalism]]
[[Category:World history]]