View source for Greco-Buddhist art

{{short description|Artistic syncretism between Classical Greece and Buddhist India}}
{{Infobox art movement
| name = Gandhara art
|image = {{photomontage
|photo1a= Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg
|photo2a= BimaranCasket2.JPG
|photo3a= KushanMaitreya.JPG
|size = 250
|color_border = #AAAAAA
|color = #F9F9F9
}}
| caption = Top: [[Standing Buddha from Gandhara (Tokyo)|Standing Buddha from Gandhara]], 1st-2nd century AD Centre: The [[Bimaran casket]], representing the Buddha, is dated to around 30–10 BC. [[British Museum]]; Bottom: The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], 2nd century AD, [[Gandhara]]
| yearsactive = 1st century B.C. -5th century A.D.
|location = [[Central Asia]]<br> [[South Asia]]
}}

The '''Greco-Buddhist art''' or '''Gandhara art''' is the artistic manifestation of [[Greco-Buddhism]], a cultural [[syncretism]] between [[Ancient Greek art]] and [[Buddhism]]. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of [[Gandhara]], located in the northwestern fringe of the [[Indian subcontinent]].

The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with [[Alexander the Great]]'s brief incursion into the area, followed by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] Emperor [[Ashoka]] converting the region to Buddhism.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} Buddhism became the prominent religion in the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]s. However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under the [[Kushan Empire]], when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries AD.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|date=2007-12-01|title=The art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century AD, when most surviving motifs and artworks were produced.<ref name=":1" />

Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art. It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description of [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic art]], and it is believed to have produced the first representations of [[Gautama Buddha]] in human form, ending the early period of [[aniconism in Buddhism]].<ref>Craven, 40, 70, 84; Harle, 126</ref>

The representation of the human form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the south in the rest of India, and to the east, where the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|spread of Buddhism]] carried its influence as far as Japan.<ref>Craven, 100-101; Harle, 84</ref>
[[File:The Buddha and nude Vajrapani at Jamal Garhi.jpg|thumb|The [[Buddha]] and a naked [[Vajrapani]] in a frieze at [[Jamal Garhi]], [[Gandhara]].]]

==Historical outline==
{{Main|Greco-Buddhism}}
{{Further|Buddhist art|Hellenization|History of Buddhism}}
[[File:Buddhist Expansion.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Buddhist expansion in Asia]]: [[Mahayana Buddhism]] [[Chinese Buddhism#History|first entered]] the [[Chinese Empire]] ([[Han dynasty#Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics|Han dynasty]]) through [[Silk Road]] during the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan Era]]. The overland and [[Maritime Southeast Asia|maritime]] "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Acri |author-first=Andrea |date=20 December 2018 |title=Maritime Buddhism |url=https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219153342/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638 |archive-date=19 February 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=30 May 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]
[[File:Map of the Indo-Greeks.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100–150 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (d) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=2022-05-11 |archive-date=2022-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005120122/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Cuthbert Collin|title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1959}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Narain|first=A.K.|title=The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek Kings, 256-54 B.C.|publisher=Ares|year=1976|isbn=0-89005-109-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Hans Erich |last1=Stier |first2=Ernst |last2=Kirsten |first3=Ekkehard |last3=Aner |title=Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Vorzeit, Altertum, Mittelalter, Neuzeit |publisher=Georg Westermann Verlag |year=1978 |isbn=3-14-100919-8 }}</ref>]]

There has been disagreement among art historians as to whether Gandharan art owes more to the culture established immediately after Alexander's campaigns, or to a synthesis several centuries later between travelling Greco-Roman artists from the eastern [[Roman Empire]] in regions where Greek settlers were still important. Most of the considerable quantity of Gandharan art that can be dated comes from after about 50 AD, although some clearly was created earlier.<ref>Rowland, 125-128</ref> For this reason, some scholars prefer to call this '''Romano-Indian art''',<ref>The title, for example, of Rowland's "Part 3".</ref> or talk of an "Indo-Classical style".<ref>Rowland, 126</ref> 

The French scholar [[Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher|Alfred C. A. Foucher]] first identified the Western influences on Gandharan art at the end of the 19th century. He was initially a proponent of the continuity between the first Greek settlements and this art, and dated much of the art much earlier than more recent scholars do. However, he later revised his views and datings somewhat. His views as to dates and the crucial period of Western influence came to be widely rejected, but then received considerable support by the discovery of the important deserted city site of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (Alexandria on the Oxus), which was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s, where quantities of clearly Greek-influenced art were found, datable to the 3rd and (mostly) 2nd centuries BC.<ref>Harle, 82-83; Rowland, 126</ref>

Greco-Buddhist art originated after a series of cultural exchanges between populations. During the time of [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|military campaign in the Indian subcontinent]] and [[South Asia]], Buddhism was mostly limited to North Eastern India and not common in North Western India, where the [[Satrap#Hellenistic satraps|Greek satrapies]] formed. Buddhism became widespread throughout South and Central Asia under the [[Maurya Empire]]. The Mauryan Emperor [[Ashoka]] converted his Greek subjects among others to Buddhism as mentioned in his [[Edicts of Ashoka]].<ref>Rowland, 121</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.|author=|title=Ashoka|source=Rock Edict 13}}

After the overthrow of the Maurya Empire by the [[Shunga Empire]], which did not extend to the north-western corners of the Mauryan territories, many of the Greek satrapies continued to practice Buddhism and developed the Greco-Buddhist art. This was evident during the reign of the Hellenistic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] (250–130 BC) and the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] (180–10 BC).<ref>Rowland, 122, 126</ref> Under the [[Indo-Greeks]] and especially later under the [[Kushan Empire]], Greco-Buddhist art flourished in the area of [[Gandhara]] and even spread to [[Central Asia]], affecting the art of the [[Tarim Basin]], as well as permeating again into India.<ref>Harle, 84; Craven, 97</ref> 

The Yavana (Greek) king [[Menander I]] was given the title of ''Soter'' ("Savior"), presumably for his aid of [[Persecution of Buddhists|Buddhists that were being persecuted]]. According to the [[Milinda Panha]], Menander was a devout Buddhist and achieved the title of an ''[[arhat]]'', and was buried in a [[stupa]] according to the Buddhist fashion. Following the death of Menander, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms disintegrated and their realm was conquered by invading [[Indo-Scythians]] or other regional entities. The Indo-Scythians were in turn subjugated by the [[Kushan Empire]] as the [[Western Satraps]] and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout most of Central Asia and North India. The Kushan Emperor [[Kanishka]], was also a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible for [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|spreading Mahayana Buddhism]] and [[Buddhist art]] throughout the [[Silk Road]].

==Early Buddhist art and aniconic Buddhist representations==
Buddhist art first became evident and widespread under the Maurya Empire during the reign of [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sac-asianarthistory/chapter/maurya-and-shunga-periods/|title = Mauryan Period and the Rise of Buddhism &#124; Asian Art History}}</ref> [[Mauryan art]] heavily influenced early Buddhist art and its iconography. This is evident in the art found throughout the Maurya Empire such as [[capital (architecture)|capital]]s including the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], and [[stupas]] such as the [[Sanchi]] and [[Bharhut]] stupas, which were constructed and first decorated during the Maurya Era. 

Early Buddhist art, including Mauryan art, depicted various structures and symbols pertaining to dharmic religions which are still used today. Symbols such as the [[Dharmachakra]], [[Lotus (plant)|lotus]], and the [[Bodhi tree]] have become common iconography representing Buddhism.

Additionally, these Buddhist artforms included various mythological beings such as [[yakshas]] including [[Kubera]] and [[yakshini]] such as Chanda, as well as celestial [[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] (Suras) and [[Asuras]]. Furthermore, Mauryan art especially those found on reliefs throughout stupas, depict the [[Life of Buddha in art|life of the Buddha]] including his birth, royal processions, the [[Great Renunciation|Great Departure]], [[Life of Buddha in art#Enlightenment and after|enlightenment]], and [[Parinirvana|death and entry to Nirvana]].

Interestingly, although these sculptures depict other humans and various divinities in anthropomorphic forms, the Buddha is purposefully not shown in a human representation. Instead, the Buddha is depicted with various symbols.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Leidy|first=Denise Patry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcOIisZzTVcC&q=first+buddha+statue|title=The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its History & Meaning|date=2008|publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-1-59030-594-2|language=en}}</ref> This includes a riderless horse depicting his departure from his kingdom as shown on the Bharhut stupa, Bodhi tree to depict the [[Shakyamuni]] Buddha achieving enlightenment, and the [[Buddha footprint]]s to convey his legacy after moving on from this world. 

There is much debate on why the Buddha was not depicted as a human unlike other sculptures found throughout Buddhist art. It is considered that the orthodox Buddhists choose not to represent the Shakyamuni Buddha out of respect, as giving him a human form would bound him to this Earth as a living being which contradicts him obtaining his goal of enlightenment and achieving [[moksha]].<ref name=":0" />

==Hellenistic art in South Asia==
{{main|Hellenistic influence on Indian art}}
[[File:DemetriusCoin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Silver coin depicting Demetrius I of Bactria (200-180 BC) wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India, and reverse Herakles, holding a lion skin and a club|Silver coin depicting the [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]] (200–180 BC) wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India. '''Back:''' [[Herakles]], holding a lion skin and a club resting over the arm. The text reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ – ''BASILÉŌS DĒMĒTRÍOU'' "of King Demetrius".]]

The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kings of the period, such as [[Demetrius I of Bactria]]. Many coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings have been unearthed, including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted in the Hellenistic world, ranking among the best in artistic and technical sophistication: they "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often more bland descriptions of their royal contemporaries further West". ("Greece and the Hellenistic world").

[[File:Indo-GreekBanquet.JPG|thumb|alt=stone relief carving Wine-drinking and music from Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa, Hadda, Afghanistan|Wine-drinking and music (Detail from [[Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa]], [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], 1st–2nd century AD).]]
These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as in [[Ai-Khanoum]] in [[Bactria]], displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic statuary, and remains of [[Aristotle|Aristotelician]] papyrus prints and coin hoards.

These Greek elements penetrated India quite early as shown by the Hellenistic [[Pataliputra capital]]<ref name="John Boardman 1993, p.110">the "pilaster capitals with Greek florals and a form which is of Greek origin (though generally described as Persian) go back to [[Archaic Greece|Late Archaic]]."in "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p.110</ref> (3rd century BC) during the Maurya Era, but the influence became especially strong, particularly in northwestern India following the invasion of the [[Greco-Bactrians]] in 180 BC, with the establishment of the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] in India. Architectural styles used Hellenistic decorative motifs such as fruit garland and scrolls. Stone palettes for aromatic oils representing purely Hellenistic themes such as a [[Nereid]] riding a [[Ketos]] sea monster are found.

==Early Gandhara creations: stone palettes (2nd century BC – 1st century AD)==
{{main|Stone palettes}}
The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for their [[stone palettes]], also called "toilet trays", round trays commonly found in the areas of [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]], which usually represent [[Greek mythology|Greek mythological]] scenes. The earliest of them are attributed to the [[Indo-Greek]] period in the 2nd and 1st century [[Before Christ|BC]] (a few were retrieved from the Indo-Greek stratum No.5 at [[Sirkap]]).<ref>Greek Gods in the East, Stančo, Ladislav, Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press, 2012 [https://books.google.com/books?id=lKJyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 p.167]</ref><ref>"Gandhara palette: The so-called palettes or 'toilet trays' of the late second century BC and the first century AD depicting Classical scenes" in The Monuments of Afghanistan: History, Archaeology and Architecture, Warwick Ball, I. B. Tauris, 2008, p.115</ref> Production continued until the time of the [[Indo-Parthians]], but they practically disappeared after the 1st century.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = collapsed align=center colspan=2 style="background:#D3D3D3; font-size: 100%;"| '''Early stone palettes'''
|-
|align=center colspan=2|
<gallery mode="packed" heights=100px>
Image:NereidAndKetos.JPG|[[Nereid]] goddess riding a [[Ketos]] sea-monster, 2nd century BC, [[Sirkap]].
Image:StonePaletteApolloAndDaphne.jpg|Apollo and Daphne.
Image:StonePaletteCoupleWithSeaSerpent.jpg|Couple with sea serpent.
Image:StonePaletteMythologicalScene.jpg|Mythological scene with [[Athena]] and [[Herakles]].
Image:IndoGreekNeptune.JPG|[[Poseidon]] with attendants. [[Ancient Orient Museum]].
Image:IndoGreekAphrodite.JPG|[[Aphrodite]] at her bath.
Image:StonePalette1.JPG|Man with cup in hand, riding a [[Ketos]] sea-monster.
Image:StonePaletteTNM.jpg|Female triton, [[Tokyo National Museum]]
Image:FriendlyAnimalsPalette.jpg|Friendly animals.
</gallery>
|}

==Interaction==
As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]], a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This artistic trend then developed for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during the [[Kushan Empire]] from the 1st century AD.

===Early contributions of Gandharan artists to Buddhist art (2nd-1st century BC)===
According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art at [[Sanchi]] and [[Bharhut]].<ref>"There is evidence of Hellensitic sculptors being in touch with Sanchi and Bharhut" in The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA9 p.9]</ref> The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the [[Persepolitan]] order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic [[flame palmette]] or [[honeysuckle]] motif.<ref name="Krishan">The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA17 p.17-18 Note 3]</ref>

====Sanchi====
Around 115 BC, the embassy of [[Heliodurus|Heliodorus]] from king [[Antialkidas]] to the court of the [[Sungas]] king [[Bhagabhadra]] in [[Vidisha]] is recorded. In the Sunga capital, Heliodorus constructed the [[Heliodorus pillar]] in a dedication to [[Vāsudeva]]. This would indicate that relations between the Indo-Greeks and the Sungas had improved by that time, that people traveled between the two realms, and also that the Indo-Greeks readily followed Indian religions.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA170 p.170]</ref>

Also around the same time, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such as decorative reliefs started to be introduced at nearby [[Sanchi]], 6&nbsp;km away from Vidisha, by craftsmen from the area of [[Gandhara]], a central Indo-Greek region.<ref name="AG"/><ref name="HP"/> Typically, the earliest medallions at [[Sanchi Stupa No.2]] are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar carvings are dated to 80 BC.<ref name="Shaw 90">''Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD'', by Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jzkyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 p.90]</ref> These early decorative reliefs were apparently the work of craftsmen from the northwest (around the area of [[Gandhara]]), since they left mason's marks in [[Kharoshthi]], as opposed to the local [[Brahmi]] script.<ref name="AG"/><ref name="HP">Buddhist Architecture Huu Phuoc Le Grafikol, 2010 [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA161 p.161]</ref> This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa.<ref name="AG">An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, by [[Amalananda Ghosh]], BRILL [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wba-EZhZcfgC&pg=PA295 p.295]</ref><ref name="HP"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = collapsed align=center colspan=2 style="background:#D3D3D3; font-size: 100%;"| '''Early reliefs at [[Sanchi]], [[Sanchi Stupa No.2|Stupa No 2]] (circa 115 BC)'''
|-
|align="center" style="background:#D3D3D3; width: 1%;" |'''Sanchi, Stupa No2'''<br>[[File:Sanchi Stupa 12.jpg|200px]]<br>Mason's marks in [[Kharoshti]] point to craftsmen from the north-west (region of [[Gandhara]]) for the earliest reliefs at Sanchi, circa 115 BC.<ref name="AG"/><ref name="Shaw 90"/><ref name="Shaw 88">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jzkyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 p.88ff]</ref>
|
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Sanchi Stupa 2 man on horse.jpg|Foreigner on a horse. The medallions are dated circa 115 BC.<ref name="Shaw 90"/>
File:Lakshmi Sanchi Stupa 2.jpg|[[Lakshmi]] with lotus and two child attendants, probably derived from [[:File:Venus with two cupids 2.jpg|similar images of Venus]]<ref>An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) [https://ja.scribd.com/document/260301968/An-Indian-Statuette-From-Pompeii p.171]</ref>
Flying griffin Sanchi Stupa 2.jpg|[[Griffin]].
Female riding a Centaur Sanchi Stupa 2.jpg|Female riding a [[Centaur]].
File:Lotus within beads and reels motif Stupa No2 Sanchi.jpg|Lotus within Hellenistic [[beads and reels]] motif.
File:Flower motif Stupa No2 Sanchi.jpg|Floral motif.
</gallery>
|}

====Bharhut====
[[File:Bharhut Eastern gateway.jpg|thumb|left|upright|At [[Bharhut]], the gateways were made by northern (probably [[Gandharan]]) masons using [[Kharosthi]] marks, while the railings were made by masons exclusively using marks in the local [[Brahmi]] script, now in [[Indian Museum]].<ref name="Boardman 115"/><ref name="AC"/> 150-100 BC.]]
Craftsmen from the [[Gandhara]] area, a central region of the [[Indo-Greek]] realm, are known to have been involved in the construction of the gateways at [[Bharhut]], which are dated to 100-75 BC:<ref name="HPL"/><ref>''Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor'', Charles Allen, Hachette UK, 2012 [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C&pg=PT122 p.122]</ref> this is because [[Stonemasonry|mason]]'s marks in [[Kharosthi]] have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the north, particularly from [[Gandhara]] where the Kharoshti script was in use.<ref name="Boardman 115">The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press, p.115</ref><ref name="Krishan"/><ref>Buddhist Architecture by Huu Phuoc Le [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA161 p.161]</ref>

[[File:Bharhut torana statues.jpg|thumb|Statues on the architraves of the torana gateway, associated with Kharosthi marks. 100-75 BC.]]
Cunningham explained that [[:File:Bharhut ballustrades with Kharoshti mason marks.jpg|the Kharosthi letters were found on the ballusters]] between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.<ref name="AC">"These little balusters are of considerable interest, as their sculptured statues are much superior in artistic design and execution to those of the railing pillars. They are further remarkable in having Arian letters engraved on their bases or capitals, a peculiarity which points unmistakably to the employment of Western artists, and which fully accounts for the superiority of their execution. The letters found are p, s, a, and b, of which the first three occur twice. Now, if the same sculptors had been employed on the railings, we might confidently expect to find the same alphabetical letters used as private marks. But the fact is just the reverse, for the whole of the 27 marks found on any portions of the railing are Indian letters. The only conclusion that I can come to from these facts is that the foreign artists who were employed on the sculptures of the gateways were certainly not engaged on any part of the railing. I conclude, therefore, that the Raja of [[Sungas]], the donor of the gateways, must have sent his own party of workmen to make them, while the smaller gifts of pillars and rails were executed by the local artists." in The stūpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist legend and history in the third century BC, by Alexander Cunningham [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924016181111 p. 8] (Public Domain)</ref> The Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC (most probably 75 BC based on artistic analysis).<ref name="HPL">Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA149 p.149ff]</ref>

The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the [[Persepolitan]] order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic [[flame palmette]] or [[honeysuckle]] motif.<ref name="Krishan"/>

==Characteristics of Greco-Buddhist art==
===Artistic model===
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header_align = left/right/center| footer = '''Left image''': Classical Greek [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[anta (architecture)|anta]] capital.<br> '''Right image''': An [[Indo-Corinthian capital]] with a palmette and the Buddha at its centre, 3-4th century, [[Gandhara]].| footer_align = left | image1 =Greek Corinthian anta capital.jpg| width1 = 145 | caption1 = | image2 =BuddhaAcanthusCapitol.JPG| width2 = 182| caption2 = }}
[[File:IndoGreeksTrojanHorse.jpg|thumb|The story of the [[Trojan horse]] was depicted in the art of [[Gandhara]]. [[British Museum]].]]
Later, Greco-Buddhist art depicts the [[life of the Buddha in art]]. The [[Bodhisattva]]s are depicted as bare-chested and jewelled Indian princes, and the [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] as Greek kings wearing the light [[toga]]-like himation. The buildings in which they are depicted incorporate Greek style, with the ubiquitous [[Indo-Corinthian capital]]s and Greek decorative scrolls. Surrounding deities form a pantheon of Greek ([[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], [[Herakles]]) and Indian gods ([[Indra]]).

=== Material ===
Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and China.

===Stylistic evolution===
Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work" (Boardman). It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.

===Architecture===
[[File:GandharanAtlas.JPG|thumb|left|alt=he Titan Atlas supporting a Buddhist monument, from Hadda, Afghanistan|The Titan [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], supporting a Buddhist monument, [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]].]]

The presence of [[stupa]]s at the Greek city of [[Sirkap]], which was built by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] around 180 BC, already indicates a strong syncretism between Hellenism and the [[Buddhism|Buddhist faith]], together with other religions such as [[Hinduism]] and [[Zoroastrianism]]. The style is Greek, adorned with [[Corinthian column]]s in excellent Hellenistic execution.

Later in [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], the Greek divinity [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the Indian [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] in the monuments of the [[Shunga Empire]] around the 2nd century BC.

===Buddha===
[[File:Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_(Niche_V1).jpg|thumb|Seated Buddha in Hellenistic style, [[Tapa Shotor]], 2nd century AD.<ref name="ZTSRH62">{{cite journal |last1=Tarzi |first1=Zémaryalai |page=62 ff|title=Le site ruiné de Hadda |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00003888/document}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tepe Shotor Tableau. Hadda, Nangarhar Province. ACKU Images System |url=https://ackuimages.photoshelter.com/image/I0000Q4Qi50_eVEg |website=ackuimages.photoshelter.com}}</ref>]]
[[File:SFAAMBuddha.jpg|thumb|upright|Seated Buddha, 300-500 AD, from near [[Jamal Garhi]], [[Pakistan]], now [[Asian Art Museum (San Francisco)|Asian Art Museum]] in [[San Francisco]].]]

Sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.
[[File:The Buddha teaching. Kushan period. National Museum, Delhi. 2004.jpg|thumb|Buddha teaching. [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] period. National Museum, Delhi]]

Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek [[himation]] (a light [[toga]]-like wavy robe covering both shoulders: Buddhist characters are always represented with a [[dhoti]] [[loincloth]] before this innovation), the [[halo (religious iconography)|halo]], the [[contrapposto]] stance of the upright figures, the stylized [[Mediterranean]] curly hair and top-knot apparently derived from the style of the [[Apollo Belvedere|Belvedere Apollo]] (330 BC), and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artistic [[Realism (visual arts)|realism]] (See: [[Greek art]]). Some of the standing Buddhas (as the one pictured) were sculpted using the specific Greek technique of making the hands and sometimes the feet in marble to increase the realistic effect, and the rest of the body in another material.

Foucher especially considered Hellenistic free-standing Buddhas as "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BC, and making them the starting point of the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101).

====Development====
[[File:PilarImage4.jpg|thumb|left|alt=An Indo-Corinthian capital from the Butkara Stupa from the Turin City Museum of Ancient Art|An [[Indo-Corinthian capital]] from the [[Butkara Stupa]] under which a coin of [[Azes II]] was found. Dated to 20 BC or earlier ([[Turin City Museum of Ancient Art]]).]]

There is some debate regarding the exact date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from the [[Indo-Greeks]], or was a later development by the [[Indo-Scythians]], the [[Indo-Parthians]] or the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]]s under Hellenistic artistic influence. Most of the early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult date definitely. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate dating is the [[Bimaran casket]], which was found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian king [[Azes II]] (or possibly [[Azes I]]), indicating a 30–10 BC date, although this date is not undisputed.

Such dating, as well as the general Hellenistic style and pose of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket ([[himation]] dress, [[contrapposto]] pose, general depiction) makes it a possible Indo-Greek work, used in dedications by Indo-Scythians soon after the end of Indo-Greek rule in [[Gandhara]]. Since it already displays quite a sophisticated iconography ([[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahma]] and [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]] as attendants, [[Bodhisattva]]s) in an advanced style, it would suggest much earlier representations of the Buddha were already current by that time, going back to the rule of the Indo-Greeks ([[Alfred A. Foucher]] and others). The next datable findings come later, such as the [[Kanishka casket]] (c. AD 120) and [[Kanishka]]'s Buddhist coins. These works indicate that the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha was already extant in the 1st century AD.

Chinese texts and mural paintings in the [[Tarim Basin]] city of [[Dunhuang]] describe ambassador [[Zhang Qian]] traveling to [[Central Asia]], as far as [[Bactria]] around 130 BC. The same murals describe [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as ''"golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads."'' Although there is no other mention of Emperor Wu worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BC, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.

The ''[[Book of Later Han]]'' describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around AD 67 by the emperor [[Emperor Ming of Han|Emperor Ming]] (AD 58–75). He sent an envoy to the [[Yuezhi]] in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date:

:''"The Emperor, to discover the true doctrine, sent an envoy to [[Names of India#Tianzhu|Tianzhu]] (India) to inquire about the Buddha’s doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Middle Kingdom."'' (''Book of Later Han'', trans. John Hill)

====Artistic model====
[[File:Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG|thumb|alt=Vajrapani-Heracles as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century AD, from Gandhara|[[Heracles]] depiction of [[Vajrapani]] as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century AD, [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]]

In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god [[Herakles]], standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm.<ref>Vajrapani-Herakles:[http://www.exoticindiaart.com/artimages/BuddhaImage/greece_sm.jpg Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216205740/http://www.exoticindiaart.com/artimages/BuddhaImage/greece_sm.jpg |date=2013-12-16 }}</ref> This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son [[Euthydemus II]]), seen only on the back of his coins.

Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.
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===Gods and Bodhisattvas===
[[File:KushanMaitreya.JPG|thumb|left|160px|alt=bronze figure The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 2nd century, Gandhara|The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], 2nd century AD, [[Gandhara]].]]
[[File:PharroAndArdoxsho.jpg|thumb|alt=stone fragment The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), 3rd century, Takht-i Bahi|The Buddhist gods [[Pancika]] (left) and [[Hariti]] (right), 3rd century, Takht-i Bahi, [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]]

Deities from the Greek mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular, [[Herakles]] (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation of [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha.<ref>"''The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio).''" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23)</ref> Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], and the Greek wind god [[Boreas (god)|Boreas]]. Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind god [[Fūjin|Fujin]] through the Greco-Buddhist Wardo/Oado and Chinese [[Fengbo (deity)|Feng Bo]]/Feng Po ("Uncle Wind"; among various other names). The mother deity [[Hariti]] was inspired by [[Tyche]].

Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely [[Bodhisattva]]s all in a very realistic Greco-Buddhist style. The [[Bodhisattvas]], characteristic of the [[Mahayana]] form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories.
{{clear}}
<gallery>
Image:WindGod2.JPG|Fragment of the wind god [[Boreas (god)|Boreas]], [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], [[Afghanistan]].
Image:Atalante.JPG|Gandharan [[Atalanta]]
Image:WingedDeity.jpg|Winged Atalante.
Image:BuddhaWithHeraclesAndTychee.jpg|The Buddha, flanked by [[Herakles]]/ [[Vajrapani]] and [[Tyche]]/ [[Hariti]].
Image:PoseidonGandhara.JPG|Gandhara [[Poseidon]] ([[Ancient Orient Museum]])
Image:GandharaTriton.JPG|[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]
File:Laughing boy JN 16 F.25-876 (1).jpg|"Laughing boy" from Hadda
File:Gandharan sculpture - head of a bodhisattva front view (cropped).jpg|Head of a bodhisattva, Gandhara ca. 4th century
</gallery>

===Cupids===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align    = left
| direction =vertical
| header=Garland bearers
| image1   = Marble sarcophagus with garlands and the myth of Theseus and Ariadne 130-150 CE Rome (detail).jpg
| caption1 = [[Garland bearers]] on a Roman sarcophagus, found in the vicinity of [[Rome]], 130-150 AD.
| image2   = Garland and amorini, Gandhara, c. 2nd-3rd century AD, gray schist - Matsuoka Museum of Art - Tokyo, Japan.jpg
| caption2 = [[Garland bearers]], [[Gandhara]], c. 2nd-3rd century AD.
}}
Winged cupids are another popular motif in Greco-Buddhist art. They usually fly in pair, holding a [[wreath]], the Greek symbol of victory and kingship, over the Buddha.
[[File:CupidsAndBuddha.JPG|thumb|alt=Winged Cupids holding a wreath over the Buddha from Hadda, Afghanistan|Winged [[Cupid]]s holding a wreath over the Buddha (left:detail), [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], 3rd century. [[Musée Guimet]].]]
These figures, also known as "[[apsaras]]es" were extensively adopted in Buddhist art, especially throughout East Asia, in forms derivative to the Greco-Buddhist representation. The progressive evolution of the style can be seen in the art of [[Qizil, Iran|Qizil]] and [[Dunhuang]]. It is unclear however if the concept of the flying cupids was brought to India from the West, of if it had an independent Indian origin, although Boardman considers it a Classical contribution: "Another Classical motif we found in India is the pair of hovering winged figures, generally called apsaras." (Boardman)

Scenes of cupids holding rich [[Garland (decoration)|garlands]], sometimes adorned with fruits, is another very popular Gandharan motif, directly inspired from Greek art. It is sometimes argued that the only concession to Indian art appears in the anklets worn by the cupids. These scenes had a very broad influence, as far as [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]] on the eastern coast of India, where the cupids are replaced by [[yaksha|yakṣas]].
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===Devotees===
[[File:GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG|thumb|alt=Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding Plantain leaves 1st-2nd century AD.|Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]] leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside [[Corinthian column]]s, 1st-2nd century AD. [[Buner]], [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]], [[Pakistan]]. [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]

Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.

Some groups, often described as the "[[Buner reliefs]]," usually dated to the 1st century AD, depict Greeks in perfect Hellenistic style, either in posture, rendering, or clothing (wearing the Greek [[chiton (costume)|chiton]] and [[himation]]). It is sometimes even difficult to perceive an actual religious message behind the scenes. (The devotee scene on the right might, with doubt, depict of the presentation of Prince [[Gautama Buddha|Siddharta]] to his bride. It may also just be a festive scene.)

About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually with the Buddha as the central figure.

===Fantastic animals===
[[File:Ichthyo-Centaur.jpg|thumb|left|alt=stone fragment An Ichthyo-Centaur, 2nd century Gandhara|An Ichthyo-Centaur, 2nd century Gandhara, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]

Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in the 5th century BC, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in [[Sirkap]]. Among the most popular fantastic animals are [[triton (mythology)|tritons]], ichthyo-[[centaurs]] and [[ketos]] [[sea-monster]]s. Similar fantastic animals are found in ancient Egyptian reliefs, and might therefore have been passed on to Bactria and India independently.

As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise beyond the waters. These motifs were later adopted in Indian art, where they influenced the depiction of the Indian monster [[Makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]], [[Varuna]]'s mount.
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==Kushan contribution==
[[File:BuddhistTriad.JPG|thumb|alt=An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, the Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. from the 2nd-3rd century AD|An early [[Mahayana]] Buddhist triad. From left to right, a [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] devotee, the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the Buddha, the Bodhisattva [[Avalokitesvara]], and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century AD, [[Gandhara]].]]
[[File:Coin of Kanishka I.jpg|thumb|A Buddhist coin of [[Kanishka I]], with "Boddo" (=[[Buddha]]) in Greek script.]]

The later part of Greco-Buddhist art in northwestern India is usually associated with the [[Kushan Empire]]. The Kushans were nomadic people who started migrating from the [[Tarim Basin]] in [[Central Asia]] from around 170 BC and ended up founding an empire in northwestern India from the 2nd century BC. After conquering the lands once inhabited by Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, the Kushan Empire adopted Greco-Buddhist art.

<gallery>
Image:MaitreyaSeated.JPG|Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century [[Gandhara]].
Image:Kushans&Maitreya.JPG|Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right. 2nd century Gandhara.
Image:KushansAndMaitreya2.JPG|Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees.
Image:Kushans&WorshippingOfTheBowl.JPG|Kushans worshipping the Buddha's bowl. 2nd century Gandhara.
Image:Kushan,_Brahma,_Indra,_Indian.JPG|Kushan devotee couple, around the Buddha, [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]].
Image:KanishkaCasket.JPG|The "[[Kanishka casket]]," with the Buddha surrounded by [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]], and [[Kanishka]] on the lower part, AD 127.
Image:BuddhaTriadAndKushanCouple.JPG|Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century.
</gallery>

==Later period (5th-7th centuries)==
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara essentially ends with the 5th-7th centuries. A late evolution is the appearance of a halo and mandorla surrounding the Buddha figure.<ref>"In Gandhara the appearance of a halo surrounding an entire figure occurs only in the latest phases of artistic production, in the fifth and sixth centuries. By this time in Afghanistan the halo/mandorla had become quite common and is the format that took hold at Central Asian Buddhist sites." in {{cite web |title=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38782 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> The last stages correspond roughly to the destruction of the [[Alchon Huns]], when the art of Gandhara, becomes essentially extinct. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in {{circa|630}} AD, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.<ref name="HeirmanBumbacher2007">{{cite book|author1=Ann Heirman|author2=Stephan Peter Bumbacher|title=The Spread of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NuOvCQAAQBAJ|date=11 May 2007|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-474-2006-4|page=60}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Seated Buddha with halo and mandorla 5th-6th century CE Gandhara.jpg|Seated Buddha with halo and mandorla 5th-6th century Gandhara.
File:Buddha with radiate halo and mandorla.Gandhara.Met.jpg|The Buddha with a radiate mandorla, [[Gandhara]], 6th century 
File:Afghanistan, bodhisattva, valle di ghorband, monastero di fondukistan, VII sec.JPG|Last stages of Greco-Buddhist art. 7th century, [[Ghorband District]], [[Afghanistan]].
</gallery>

==Southern influences==

===Art of the Shunga===
[[File:SungaAtalante.JPG|thumb|upright|left|alt=Balustrade-holding Yaksh with Corinthian columns, from Madhya Pradesh|Balustrade-holding [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns, [[Madhya Pradesh]] (?), [[Shunga Empire|Shunga period]] (2nd-1st century BC). [[Musee Guimet]].]]
[[File:Bharhut Yavana.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Indian relief of possible Indo-Greek king, with Buddhist triratana symbol on his sword|Indian relief of probable [[Indo-Greek]] king, with Buddhist [[triratana]] symbol on his sword. Bharhut, 2nd century BC. [[Indian Museum]], [[Calcutta]].]]
Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of the [[Shunga Empire]] (183-73 BC) are usually faint. The main religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have been [[Hinduism]], although some late Buddhist realizations in [[Madhya Pradesh]] as also known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at the [[stupa]]s of [[Sanchi]] and [[Bharhut]], originally started under King [[Ashoka]].

===Art of Mathura===
{{main|Mathura art}}
[[File:MathuraBodhisattvaSide.jpg|thumb|alt=The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 2nd century,|The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], 2nd century, [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], 2nd-century AD.]]
[[File:MathuraBuddha.JPG|thumb|150px|left|alt=stone fragment A Bodhisattva, 2nd century, Mathura|A Bodhisattva, 2nd century, Mathura]]

The representations of the Buddha in [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], in central northern India, are generally dated slightly later than those of Gandhara, although not without debate, and are also much less numerous. Up to that point, Indian Buddhist art had essentially been aniconic, avoiding representation of the Buddha, except for his symbols, such as the wheel or the [[Bodhi tree]], although some archaic Mathuran sculptural representation of [[Yaksha|Yaksas]] (earth divinities) have been dated to the 1st century BC. Even these Yaksas indicate some Hellenistic influence, possibly dating back to the occupation of Mathura by the Indo-Greeks during the 2nd century BC.

In terms of artistic predispositions for the first representations of the Buddha, Greek art provided a very natural and centuries-old background for an anthropomorphic representation of a divinity, while on the contrary "there was nothing in earlier Indian statuary to suggest such a treatment of form or dress, and the Hindu pantheon provided no adequate model for an aristocratic and wholly human deity" (Boardman).

[[File:AmaravatiScroll.JPG|thumb|alt=Greek scroll supported by Indian Yaksas|Greek scroll supported by Indian Yaksas, [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]], 3rd century AD]]
The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in ''Hellenism in ancient India'' describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of [[Bharhut]] and [[Sanchi]] and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".

The influence of Greek art can be felt beyond Mathura, as far as [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]] on the East coast of India, as shown by the usage of Greek scrolls in combination with Indian deities. Other motifs such as Greek chariots pulled by four horses can also be found in the same area.

Incidentally, [[Hindu art]] started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century AD and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements however, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art.

The art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.

===Arts of Western India===
[[File:Head of Buddha Shakyamuni LACMA M.79.8.jpg|thumb|left|A terracotta head of Buddha Shakyamuni, inspired by Greco-Buddhist art, [[Devnimori]], [[Gujarat]] (375-400 AD).]]
[[File:089 Cave 10, Buddha Drawing on Column (33896473480) detail.jpg|thumb|upright|The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of Gandhara, [[Ajanta Caves]], 5th century AD.<ref>The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I [https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443 An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā]</ref>]]
It has been suggested that the art of [[Devnimori]] in [[Gujarat]], dated to the 4th century AD, represented a Western Indian artistic tradition, based on the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art of [[Gandhara]], that was anterior to the rise of [[Gupta Empire]] art, and that it may have influenced it, and have influenced the art of the [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Sarnath]] and other places from the 5th century onward.<ref name="Schastok 28">{{cite book|last1=Schastok|first1=Sara L.|title=The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India|date=1985|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004069410|pages=28–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC&pg=PA24|language=en}}</ref> Devnimori may also have received some influence from [[Mathura art]].<ref name="Schastok 28"/> At Ajanta, some connections with the art of Gandhara can be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.<ref name="BRILL">{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004185258|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107|language=en}}</ref>

The site of Devnimori included numerous terracotta Buddhist sculptures (but no stone sculptures), which are among the earliest sculptures that can be found in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Schastok">{{cite book|last1=Schastok|first1=Sara L.|title=The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India|date=1985|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004069410|pages=24–27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC&pg=PA24|language=en}}</ref> The style is clearly influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.<ref name="JIABS">The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I [https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443 An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2]</ref>

The [[Indo-Scythian]] [[Western Satraps]] (1st century AD-405 AD may have played a role in the transmission of the art of Gandhara to the western [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region, as may also have the southern expansion of the [[Alchon Huns]] in the 6th-7th century.<ref name="BRILL"/>

===Art of the Gupta===
The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the [[Gupta Empire]], between the 4th and the 6th century AD. The [[Gupta art|art of the Gupta]] is considered as the final pinnacle of Indian art reflecting Hindu, Buddhist and Jain iconography.

Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the statuary and the folds of the clothing, but are improved upon with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.
Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha.

<gallery>
File:GuptaBuddha.jpg|alt=Buddha of the Gupta Empire|Buddha of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period, 5th century, Mathura.
File:MathuraBuddhaHead.JPG|alt=large stone Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.|Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.
</gallery>

==Expansion in Central Asia==
Greco-Buddhist artistic influences naturally followed Buddhism in its expansion to Central and East Asia from the 1st century BC.

===Bactria===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:GBA1(trimmed).jpg|thumb|200px|alt=stone Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD, Afghanistan|Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD, Afghanistan]] -->
[[Bactria]] was under direct Greek control for more than two centuries from the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC to the end of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom around 125 BC. The art of Bactria was almost perfectly Hellenistic as shown by the archaeological remains of [[Greco-Bactrian]] cities such as [[Alexandria on the Oxus]] ([[Ai-Khanoum]]), or the numismatic art of the Greco-Bactrian kings, often considered as the best of the Hellenistic world, and including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted by the Greeks.

When Buddhism expanded in Central Asia from the 1st century AD, Bactria saw the results of the [[Greco-Buddhist]] syncretism arrive on its territory from India, and a new blend of sculptural representation remained until the Islamic invasions.

The most striking of these realizations are the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]]. They tend to vary between the 5th and the 9th century AD. Their style is strongly inspired by Hellenistic culture.

In another area of Bactria called [[Fondukistan]], some Greco-Buddhist art survived until the 7th century in Buddhist monasteries, displaying a strong Hellenistic influence combined with Indian decorativeness and mannerism, and some influence by the [[Sasanid]] Persians.

Most of the remaining art of Bactria was destroyed from the 5th century onward: the Buddhists were often blamed for [[idolatry]] and tended to be persecuted by the [[iconoclastic]] Muslims. Destructions continued during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan War]], and especially by the [[Taliban]] regime in 2001. The most famous case is that of the destruction of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]]. Ironically, most of the remaining art from Afghanistan still extant was removed from the country during the Colonial period. In particular, a rich collection exists at the [[Musee Guimet]] in France.

===Tarim Basin===
[[File:SerindiaHead.JPG|thumb|150px|left|alt=terracotta Head of a Bodhisattva, 6th-7th century Tumshuq|Head of a Bodhisattva, 6th-7th century [[terracotta]], Tumshuq (Xinjiang).]]
[[File:SerindianGroup.jpg|thumb|alt=three terracotta figures "Heroic gesture of the Bodhisattva", 6th-7th century|"Heroic gesture of the [[Bodhisattva]]", 6th-7th century [[terracotta]], Tumshuq (Xinjiang).]]

The art of the [[Tarim Basin]], also called [[Serindian art]], is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century in [[Serindia]] or [[Xinjiang]], the western region of China that forms part of [[Central Asia]]. It derives from the art of the [[Gandhara]] and clearly combines Indian traditions with Greek and Roman influences. Buddhist missionaries travelling on the [[Silk Road]] introduced this art, along with [[Buddhism]] itself, into Serindia, where it mixed with Chinese and Persian influences.

{{See also|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
{{clear}}

==Influences in East Asia==
The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist influences, but also added many local elements as well. What remains identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art are [[Realism (arts)|realism]] in sculpture, clothing with elaborate folds, curly hairstyles, and winged figures holding wreaths.

===China===
[[File:NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG|thumb|170px|alt=bronze Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya, AD 443|Buddha Maitreya, [[Northern Wei dynasty]], AD 443]]
[[File:HanWudiBuddhas.jpg|thumb|alt=Fresco describing Emperor Han Wudi (156–87 BC) worshipping two statues of the Buddha|Fresco describing [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] (156–87 BC) worshipping two statues of the Buddha, [[Mogao Caves]], [[Dunhuang]], c. 8th century AD]]
Greco-Buddhist influences are found in Chinese Buddhist art, with local and temporal variations depending on the dynasties that adopted Buddhism. [[Money tree (myth)|Money tree]] artifacts from the [[Han dynasty]] often contain small depictions of the Buddha similar to Gandhara styles, such as the high ''[[ushnisha]]'', vertical hair bun, moustache, and symmetrical depictions of the robe and folds of the arms.<ref>"Crossroads of Asia" p209</ref>

Some [[Northern Wei Dynasty|Northern Wei]] and [[Northern Qi]] statues are reminiscent of Gandharan style standing Buddhas, although in a more symbolic style. Some [[Eastern Wei]] statues display Buddhas with elaborate Greek-style robe folds, and surmounted by flying figures holding a wreath.

===Japan===
[[File:AsukaSeatedBuddha.jpg|thumb|180px|alt=The Buddha, Asuka period, 7th century.|Buddha figure, Japan, [[Asuka period]], 7th century]]
In Japan, Buddhist art developed as the country converted to Buddhism in AD 548. After the adoption of Buddhism, items of the [[Asuka Period]] display a classical style, with Hellenistic dress and realism characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art. Other art incorporated Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhism became varied in its expression. Elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day, such as depictions of the Buddha with Greek style clothing folds.<ref>"Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p19)</ref>

Greek influence is also found in depictions of the wind god [[Fūjin]], which shows similarities with the god [[Boreas (god)|Boreas]]. Both hold a "wind bag" above their head in a similar pose.<ref>"The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a separate tradition apart from that of their Western counter-parts but share the same origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern wind god images is the wind bag held by this god with both hands, the origin of which can be traced back to the shawl or mantle worn by [[Boreas (god)|Boreas]]/ Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p21)</ref> 

{| width="800"
| 
[[File:WindGods.JPG|thumb|400px|alt=Iconographical evolution of the Wind God Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, Afghanistan 2nd century. Middle: wind god from Kizil Caves, 7th century Right: Japanese wind god Fūjin, 17th century.|Iconographical evolution of the Wind God.<br />
Left: Greek wind god from [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], 2nd century.<br />
Middle: wind god from [[Kizil Caves|Kizil]], [[Tarim Basin]], 7th century.<br />
Right: Japanese wind god [[Fūjin|Fujin]], 17th century.]]
|
[[File:Heracles-Shukongoshin.JPG|thumb|400px|alt=Iconographical evolution from the Greek god Herakles to Nio temple guardians|Iconographical evolution from the Greek god [[Herakles]] to Nio temple guardians. From left to right:<br />
1) [[Herakles]] (Louvre Museum).<br />
2) [[Herakles]] on coin of [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]].<br />
3) [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Herakles in [[Gandhara]].<br />
4) [[Nio (Buddhism)|Nio]] gate guardian, manifestation of [[Vajrapani]]]]
|}

==Influences on Southeast Asian art==
[[File:Bodhisattva Lokesvara statue.jpg|thumb|left|180px|alt=Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia|Bodhisattva [[Avalokitesvara|Lokesvara]], [[Cambodia]] 12th century.]]
[[File:Avalokitesvara Plaosan.jpg|thumb|150px|alt=Avalokiteshvara on the wall of Plaosan temple, Java|Avalokiteshvara on the wall of [[Plaosan]] temple ([[Indonesia]])[[Javanese people|, Javanese]] [[Sailendra]]n art, 9th century.]]
The Indian civilization proved very influential on the cultures of [[Southeast Asia]]. Most countries adopted Indian writing and culture, together with [[Hinduism]] and [[Mahayana]] and [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]].

The influence of Greco-Buddhist art is still visible in most of the representation of the Buddha in Southeast Asia, through their idealism, realism and details of dress, although they tend to intermix with Indian [[Hindu art]], and they progressively acquire more local elements.
{{clear}}

==Museums==
{{History of Greek art}}

===Major collections===
* [[Peshawar Museum]], [[Peshawar]], [[Pakistan]] (largest collection in the world).
* [[Lahore Museum]], [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[Taxila Museum]], [[Taxila]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[National Museum of Pakistan]], [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[Indian Museum]], [[Kolkata, West Bengal]], India (largest collection in India).
* [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh|Government Museum and Art Gallery]], [[Chandigarh]], [[India]] (627 artifacts; second largest in India).
* [[Mathura Museum]], [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], India.
* [[National Museum, New Delhi]], India
* [[Musée Guimet]], [[Paris]], France (about 150 artifacts, largest collection outside of Asia.)<ref name=MS>{{cite news |title=Musee Guimet and the Greek Buddhas of Gandhara|url=http://www.minorsights.com/2015/04/france-musee-guimet.html |work=Minor Sights |date=6 April 2014 |access-date=2015-04-30}}
</ref>
* [[British Museum]], [[London]], [[Great Britain]] (about 100 artifacts), such as [[Seated Buddha from Gandhara]]
* [[Tokyo National Museum]], [[Tokyo]], Japan (about 50 artifacts)
* [[National Museum of Oriental Art]], [[Rome]], Italy (about 80 artifacts)
* [[Museum of Asian Art]], Dahlem, [[Berlin]], Germany.

===Small collections===
* [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City|New York]], United States
* [[Ancient Orient Museum]], Tokyo, Japan (About 20 artifacts)
* [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London, Great Britain (About 30 artifacts)
* [[City Museum of Ancient Art]] in [[Palazzo Madama, Turin|Palazzo Madama]], [[Turin]], Italy.
* [[Rubin Museum of Art]] in [[New York City, NY]], United States.
* [[Chazen Museum of Art]] in [[Madison, WI]], United States.

===Private collections===
* [[Collection de Marteau]], [[Brussels]], Belgium.

{{Greco-Buddhist art}}

==See also==
* [[Kushan art]]
* [[Indo-Greek art]]
* [[Buddhist art]]
* [[Greco-Buddhism]]
* [[Index of Buddhism-related articles]]
* [[History of Buddhism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* John Boardman, ''The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity'' (Princeton University Press, 1994) {{ISBN|0-691-03680-2}}
* [[Roy C. Craven|Craven, Roy C.]], ''Indian Art: A Concise History'', 1987, Thames & Hudson (Praeger in USA), {{ISBN|0500201463}} 
* [[Richard Foltz]], ''Religions of the Silk Road'' 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmilla, 2010) {{ISBN|978-0-230-62125-1}}
* Harle, J.C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, {{ISBN|0300062176}} 
* Sir John Marshall, ''The Buddhist art of Gandhara'', 1960, {{ISBN|81-215-0967-X}}
* Michell, George (2000), ''Hindu Art and Architecture'', 2000, Thames & Hudson, {{ISBN|978-0500203378}}
* Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}} 
* Gauranga Nath Banerjee, ''Hellenism in ancient India'' (Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal., 1961) {{ISBN|0-8364-2910-9}}
* Jerry H. Bentley, ''Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times'' (Oxford University Press, 1993) {{ISBN|0-19-507639-7}}
* ''Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan'' (NHK and Tokyo National Museum, 2003)
* W.W. Tarn, ''The Greeks in Bactria and India'' Cambridge University Press
* [[Robert Linssen]], ''Living Zen'' (Grove Press New York, 1958) {{ISBN|0-8021-3136-0}}
* Marian Wenzel, ''Echoes of Alexander the Great: Silk route portraits from Gandhara'' (Eklisa Anstalt, 2000) {{ISBN|1-58886-014-0}}
* ''The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Image and Symbol'', 1992, {{ISBN|0-9518399-1-8}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | title= ''Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1982 | isbn=9780870993008 | url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/33392/rec/2}}
* Ihsan Ali and Muhammad Naeem Qazi, ''[https://archive.org/details/GandharanSculpturesInPeshawarMuseum Gandharan Sculptures in Peshawar Museum]'', Hazara University, Mansehra.
* [[Alfred Foucher]], 1865-1952; Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, ''[[iarchive:lartgrcobouddh02foucuoft|L'art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra : étude sur les origines de l'influence classique dans l'art bouddhique de l'Inde et de l'Extrême-Orient (1905)]]'', Paris : E. Leroux.

==External links==
*{{commons category-inline}}
{{Gandhara|state=expanded}}
{{Buddhism topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Greco-Buddhist Art}}
[[Category:Gandhara art| ]]
[[Category:Buddhist art]]
[[Category:Greco-Buddhism|Art]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian art]]
[[Category:Indian Buddhist sculpture]]
[[Category:Hellenistic art]]
[[Category:Pakistani art]]
[[Category:Ancient Central Asian art]]