View source for Gum arabic

{{Short description|Natural gum obtained from Acacia trees}}
{{For|the chewable resin known as Arabic gum|Mastic (plant resin)}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=November 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}

[[File:Gummi arabicum pieces and powder.jpg|thumb|right|Acacia gum, pieces and powder]]
[[Image:Acacia senegal - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-004.jpg|thumb|right|[[Senegalia senegal|''Acacia senegal'']], pictured in the medicinal handbook {{nobr|''Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen'' (1887)}} {{nobr|by [[Franz Eugen Köhler]]}}]]

'''Gum arabic''' ('''gum acacia''', '''gum sudani''', '''Senegal gum''' and by other names{{efn|also known as '''acacia gum''', '''acacia''', '''Arabic gum''', and '''Indian gum''';<ref name="Mortensen-2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mortensen A, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Di Domenico A, Frutos MJ, Galtier P, Gott D, Gundert-Remy U, Lambré C, Leblanc JC, Lindtner O, Moldeus P, Mosesso P, Oskarsson A, Parent-Massin D, Stankovic I, Waalkens-Berendsen I, Woutersen RA, Wright M, Younes M, Brimer L, Christodoulidou A, Lodi F, Tard A, Dusemund B | display-authors = 6 | title = Re-evaluation of acacia gum (E 414) as a food additive | journal = EFSA Journal | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = e04741 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 32625453 | pmc = 7010027 | doi = 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4741 | doi-access = free }}</ref> {{langx|ar|صمغ عربي}}}}) is a [[tree gum]] exuded by two species of ''[[Acacia sensu lato]]:'' ''[[Senegalia senegal]],''<ref>{{cite web |title=''Acacia senegal'' (gum arabic) |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:471439-1 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228042150/http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:471439-1 |archive-date=28 February 2018 }}</ref> and ''[[Vachellia seyal]].'' However, the term "gum arabic" does not indicate a particular botanical source.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/> The gum is harvested commercially from wild trees, mostly in [[Sudan]] (about 70% of the global supply) and throughout the [[Sahel]], from [[Senegal]] to [[Somalia]]. The name "gum Arabic" (''al-samgh al-'arabi'') was used in the Middle East at least as early as the 9th century. Gum arabic first found its way to Europe via Arabic ports and retained its name of origin.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Braun |first=Bart |date=2020-01-23 |title=Tears of gold: how gum arabic conquered the world |url=https://www.mareonline.nl/en/science/tears-of-gold-how-gum-arabic-conquered-the-world/ |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Mare Online |language=en-US}}</ref>

Gum arabic is a complex [[mixture]] of [[glycoprotein]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s, predominantly polymers of [[arabinose]] and [[galactose]]. It is [[Solubility|soluble]] in water, edible, and used primarily in the [[food industry]] and soft drink industry as a [[Stabilizer (chemistry)|stabilizer]], with [[E number]] E414 (I414 in the US). Gum arabic is a key ingredient in traditional [[lithography]] and is used in [[printing]], [[paint]]s, [[glue]]s, [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]]s, and various industrial applications, including [[viscosity]] control in [[ink]]s and in [[Textile industry|textile industries]].

== Definition ==
Gum arabic was defined by the 31st Codex Committee for Food Additives, held at [[The Hague]] from 19 to 23 March 1999, as the dried exudate from the trunks and branches of ''Acacia senegal'' or ''Vachellia (Acacia) seyal'' in the family [[Fabaceae]] ([[Leguminosae]]).<ref name="Muller-2004">{{cite web | vauthors = Muller D, Okoro C |title=Production and marketing of gum arabic |url=http://ngara.org/Production%20and%20MArketing%20of%20Gum%20Arabic_english_french.pdf |publisher=Network for Natural Gums and Resins in Africa (NGARA) |location=Nairobi, Kenya |date=2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311072759/http://ngara.org/Production%20and%20MArketing%20of%20Gum%20Arabic_english_french.pdf |archive-date=11 March 2016 |access-date=10 March 2016 }}</ref>{{rp|4}} A 2017 safety re-evaluation by the Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources of the [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA) said that although the above definition holds true for most internationally traded samples, the term "gum arabic" does not indicate a particular botanical source; in a few cases, so‐called "gum arabic" may not even have been collected from ''[[Acacia]]'' (in the broad sense) species, instead coming from e.g. ''[[Combretum]]'' or ''[[Albizia]]''.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/>

== Health benefits ==
Gum arabic is a rich source of [[dietary fiber]]s, and, in addition to its widespread use in food and pharmaceutical industries as a safe [[Thickening agent|thickener]], [[Emulsion|emulsifier]], and [[Stabiliser (food)|stabilizer]], it also possesses a broad range of health benefits that have been proven through ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo'' studies.<ref name="Ahmed-2018">{{cite book | vauthors = Ahmed AA | chapter = Health benefits of gum arabic and medical use. | title = Gum Arabic | date = January 2018 | pages = 183–210 | publisher = Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-812002-6.00016-6 |isbn=978-0-12-812002-6 }}</ref> Gum arabic is not degraded in the stomach, but [[Fermentation|fermented]] in the large intestine into a number of short chain [[fatty acid]]s. It is regarded as a [[Prebiotic (nutrition)|prebiotic]] that enhances the growth and proliferation of beneficial intestinal [[microbiota]]; therefore its intake is associated with many healthful effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ali BH, Ziada A, Blunden G | title = Biological effects of gum arabic: a review of some recent research | journal = Food and Chemical Toxicology | volume = 47 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 18672018 | doi = 10.1016/j.fct.2008.07.001 }}</ref> These health benefits include:<ref name="Ahmed-2018" /><ref>{{Cite patent|title=Accelerating Agent of Calcium Absorption|gdate=2007-08-23|invent1=Matsuda|invent2=Iwaki|invent3=Kawase|inventor1-first=Hideaki|inventor2-first=Masahiro|inventor3-first=Atsushi|url=https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2007094486}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mohamed RE, Gadour MO, Adam I | title = The lowering effect of Gum Arabic on hyperlipidemia in Sudanese patients | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 6 | pages = 160 | date = 2015-05-18 | pmid = 26042049 | pmc = 4434902 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2015.00160 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abd El-Mawla AM, Osman HE | title = Effects of Gum acacia aqueous extract on the histology of the intestine and enzymes of both the intestine and the pancreas of albino rats treated with Meloxicam | journal = Pharmacognosy Research | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 114–21 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21772755 | pmc = 3129020 | doi = 10.4103/0974-8490.81959 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlson JL, Erickson JM, Lloyd BB, Slavin JL | title = Health Effects and Sources of Prebiotic Dietary Fiber | journal = Current Developments in Nutrition | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | article-number = nzy005 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 30019028 | pmc = 6041804 | doi = 10.1093/cdn/nzy005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Slavin J | title = Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits | journal = Nutrients | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 1417–35 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23609775 | pmc = 3705355 | doi = 10.3390/nu5041417 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Improved absorption of [[calcium]] from the [[gastrointestinal tract]]
* [[Diabetes medication|Anti-diabetic]]
* [[Anti-obesity medication|Anti-obesity]] (gum arabic lowers [[body mass index]] and body fat percentage)
* Lipid-lowering potential (gum arabic decreases total [[cholesterol]], [[Low-density lipoprotein|LDL]], and [[triglyceride]])
* [[Antioxidant]] activities
* [[Kidney]] and [[liver]] support
* [[Immune system|Immune function]] ''via'' modulating the release of some [[Inflammation|inflammatory mediators]]
* Improving intestinal barrier function, preventing [[Colorectal cancer|colon cancer]], and alleviating symptoms of [[Irritable bowel syndrome|irritable bowel diseases]]
* In rats, a protective effect on the intestine against the adverse actions of the [[Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug|NSAID]] drug [[meloxicam]]

== Uses ==
[[File:Gum Arabic exuding.jpg|thumb|right|Gum arabic exuding from ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'']]
Gum arabic's [[mixture]] of [[polysaccharide]]s and [[glycoprotein]]s gives it the properties of a [[Adhesive|glue]] and [[Binder (material)|binder]] that is [[edible]] by humans. Other substances have replaced it where [[toxicity]] is not an issue, as the proportions of chemicals in gum arabic vary widely and make it unpredictable. It remains an important ingredient in [[soft drink]] [[syrup]] and "hard" gummy candies such as [[gumdrop]]s, [[marshmallow]]s, and [[M&M's]] chocolate candies. For [[artist]]s, it is the traditional [[Binder (material)|binder]] in [[watercolor]] [[paint]] and in photography for [[gum printing]], and it is used as a binder in [[pyrotechnic]] compositions. [[Pharmaceutical drug]]s and [[cosmetics]] also use the gum as a [[Excipient#Binders|binder]], [[emulsifier]], and [[suspending agent]] or [[viscosity]]-increasing agent.<ref>
{{Cite book | isbn = 0-8493-3585-X | page = 7 | vauthors = Smolinske SC | title = Handbook of Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Excipients | year = 1992 | publisher = CRC Press }}</ref> Wine makers have used gum arabic as a [[wine]] [[fining agent]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vivas N, Vivas de Gaulejac N, Nonier MF, Nedjma M | title = Effect of gum arabic on wine astringency and colloidal stability  |url= http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=2001/FR/FR01027.xml;FR2001002322 | journal=Progres Agricole et Viticole |year=2001 |language=fr |volume=118 |issue=8 |pages=175–176 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608173333/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=2001%2FFR%2FFR01027.xml%3BFR2001002322 |archive-date=8 June 2012 |access-date=29 April 2018 }}</ref>

It is an important ingredient in [[shoe polish]], and can be used in making homemade [[incense]] cones. It is also used as a lickable [[adhesive]], for example on [[postage stamp gum|postage stamps]], [[envelopes]], and [[cigarette papers]]. Lithographic printers employ it to keep the non-image areas of the plate receptive to water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Printing Process Explained|url=http://www.dynodan.com/printing-process-explained/lithography-files/offset-plate-technology.html|access-date=29 August 2012|work=dynodan.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815112536/http://www.dynodan.com/printing-process-explained/lithography-files/offset-plate-technology.html|archive-date=15 August 2012}}</ref> This treatment also helps to stop [[oxidation]] of [[aluminium]] [[printing]] plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a [[printing press]].

=== Food ===
Gum arabic is used in the food industry as a [[Stabiliser (food)|stabiliser]], [[Emulsion|emulsifying agent]], and [[thickening agent]] in [[icing (food)|icing]], fillings, soft candy, [[chewing gum]], and other [[confectionery]],<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Rinsky LH, Rinsky G |title=The Pastry Chef's Companion: A Comprehensive Resource Guide for the Baking and Pastry Professional |url=https://archive.org/details/pastrychefscompa00rins |url-access=limited |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pastrychefscompa00rins/page/n10 1], 134 |isbn=978-0-470-00955-0 |oclc=173182689}}</ref> and to bind the [[sweetener]]s and [[flavoring]]s in [[soft drink]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/gum-arabic-soft-drink-supply-chain|title=Gum arabic: the invisible ingredient in soft drink supply chains | vauthors = McEachran R |date=16 August 2013|website=The Guardian|access-date=29 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315133744/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/gum-arabic-soft-drink-supply-chain|archive-date=15 March 2018}}</ref> A solution of sugar and gum arabic in water, [[gomme syrup]], is sometimes used in cocktails to prevent the sugar from crystallising and provide a smooth texture.

Gum arabic is a complex [[polysaccharide]] and [[Solubility|soluble]] [[dietary fibre]] that is [[generally recognized as safe]] for human consumption.<ref>{{cite web | last=David Carr | first=Liz Lalor |title=Acacia's Role as a Functional Fibre| publisher=Kerry Health And Nutrition Institute | date=8 March 2022 | url=https://khni.kerry.com/news/functional-nutrition/acacias-role-as-a-functional-fibre/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=FDA Grants Citizen Petition on Acacia (Gum Arabic) as a Dietary Fiber | publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration | date=17 December 2021 | url=https://www.fda.gov/food/hfp-constituent-updates/fda-grants-citizen-petition-acacia-gum-arabic-dietary-fiber}}</ref> An indication of harmless [[flatulence]] occurs in some people taking large doses of {{Nowrap|30 g (1 oz)}} or more per day.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/> It is not degraded in the [[Gastrointestinal tract|intestine]], but [[Fermentation|fermented]] in the colon under the influence of microorganisms; it is a [[Prebiotic (nutrition)#Exogenous|prebiotic]] (as distinct from a [[probiotic]]). No regulatory or [[scientific consensus]] has been reached about its [[caloric value]]; an upper limit of {{convert|2|kcal/g|abbr=on}} was set for rats, but this is invalid for humans. The US [[FDA]] initially set a value of {{convert|4|kcal/g|abbr=on}} for food labelling, but in Europe no value was assigned for soluble [[Dietary fiber|dietary fibre]]. A 1998 review concluded that "based on present scientific knowledge, only an arbitrary value can be used for regulatory purposes".<ref name="Phillips-1998">{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips GO | title = Acacia gum (Gum Arabic): a nutritional fibre; metabolism and calorific value | journal = Food Additives and Contaminants | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 251–64 | date = April 1998 | pmid = 9666883 | doi = 10.1080/02652039809374639 }}</ref> In 2008, the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] sent a letter of no objection in response to an application to reduce the rated caloric value of gum arabic to {{convert|1.7|kcal/g|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2008/11/17/Gum-arabic-caloric-value-lowered |title=Gum arabic caloric value lowered |website=foodnavigator-usa|date=17 November 2008 | vauthors = Hills S |access-date= 6 June 2018}}</ref>

=== Painting and art ===
[[Image:Gum-arabic.png|thumb|right|Powdered gum arabic for artists, one part of which is dissolved in four parts distilled water to make a liquid suitable for adding to pigments]]
[[Image:Gouache.jpg|thumb|right|A selection of [[gouache]]s, some containing gum arabic]]

Gum arabic is used as a binder for [[watercolor painting]] because it dissolves easily in water. [[Pigment]] of any color is suspended within the acacia gum in varying amounts, resulting in watercolor paint. Water acts as a vehicle or a [[diluent]] to thin the watercolor paint and helps to transfer the paint to a surface such as [[paper]]. When all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers.<ref name="Kraaijpoel-2007">{{cite book | vauthors = Kraaijpoel D, Herenius C | date = 2007 | title = Het kunstschilderboek – handboek voor materialen en technieken | publisher = Tirion Creatief | page = 183 | isbn = 978-90-439-1107-8 }}</ref>

If little water is used, after evaporation, the acacia gum functions as a true binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity and helping prevent the colors from lightening. Gum arabic allows more subtle control over washes, because it facilitates the dispersion of the pigment particles. In addition, acacia gum slows evaporation of water, giving slightly longer working time.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

The addition of a little gum arabic to watercolor pigment and water allows for easier lifting of pigment from paper, thus can be a useful tool when lifting out color when painting in watercolor.<ref name="Kraaijpoel-2007"/>

=== Ceramics ===
Gum arabic has a long history as additives to [[ceramic glazes]]. It acts as a binder, helping the glaze adhere to the clay before it is fired, thereby minimising damage by handling during the manufacture of the piece. As a secondary effect, it also acts as a [[flocculation|deflocculant]], increasing the fluidity of the glaze mixture, but also making it more likely to sediment out into a hard cake if not used for a while.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

The gum is normally made up into a solution in hot water (typically 10–25 g/L; ¼ to ½ oz per pint), and then added to the glaze solution after any ball milling in concentrations from 0.02% to 3.0% of gum arabic to the dry weight of the glaze.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Parmalee CW, Harman CG |title=Ceramic Glazes|date=1973|publisher=Cahners Bookj|isbn=0-8436-0609-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ceramicglazes0000parm/page/131 131–133, 145, 589]|edition=3rd|url=https://archive.org/details/ceramicglazes0000parm/page/131}}</ref> On firing, the gum burns out at a low temperature, leaving no residues in the glaze. More recently, particularly in commercial manufacturing, gum arabic is often replaced by more refined and consistent alternatives, such as [[carboxymethyl cellulose]].

=== Photography ===
The historical [[photography]] process of [[gum printing|gum bichromate photography]] uses gum arabic mixed with [[Ammonium dichromate|ammonium]] or [[potassium dichromate]] and [[pigment]] to create a coloured photographic [[emulsion]] that becomes relatively insoluble in water upon exposure to [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet light]]. Unreacted gum remains soluble and can be washed off in warm water so that the reacted gum arabic permanently binds the pigments onto the paper in the final print.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gum Bichromate Prints |url=https://www.nga.gov/research/online-editions/alfred-stieglitz-key-set/practices-and-processes/gum-bichromate-prints.html |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=www.nga.gov}}</ref>

=== Printmaking ===
Gum arabic is also used to protect and [[etching|etch]] an image in [[lithography|lithographic processes]], both from traditional stones and aluminum plates.  In lithography, gum by itself may be used to etch very light tones, such as those made with a number-five crayon. [[Phosphoric acid|Phosphoric]], nitric, or tannic acid is added in varying concentrations to the acacia gum to etch the darker tones up to dark [[black]]s. The etching process creates a gum adsorb layer within the matrix that attracts water, ensuring that the oil-based ink does not stick to those areas.  Gum is also essential to what is sometimes called paper lithography, printing from an image created by a laser printer or photocopier.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

=== Pyrotechnics ===
Gum arabic is also used as a water-soluble binder in [[firework]]s composition.<ref name="Azzaoui-2014">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Azzaoui K, Hammouti B, Lamhamdi A, Mejdoubi E, Berrabah M |date=2014-12-20 |title=The Gum Arabic in the southern region of Morocco |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269763551 |journal=Moroccan Journal of Chemistry |volume=3 |pages=99–107}}</ref>

== Composition ==
[[Arabinogalactan]] is a biopolymer consisting of arabinose and galactose monosaccharides. It is a major component of many plant gums, including gum arabic. [[8,5'-Diferulic acid|8-5' Noncyclic diferulic acid]] has been identified as covalently linked to carbohydrate moieties of the arabinogalactan-protein fraction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Renard D, Lavenant-Gourgeon L, Ralet MC, Sanchez C | title = Acacia senegal gum: continuum of molecular species differing by their protein to sugar ratio, molecular weight, and charges | journal = Biomacromolecules | volume = 7 | issue = 9 | pages = 2637–49 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16961328 | doi = 10.1021/bm060145j }}</ref>

== Production ==
[[Image:Acacia senegal Taub68.png|thumb|right|''[[Acacia senegal]]'' from Paul Hermann Wilhelm Taubert's Leguminosae, in Engelmann (ed.): Natürliche Pflanzenfamilien. Vol. III, 3., 1891]]
[[Image:Acacia seyal Taub66.png|thumb|right|''[[Acacia seyal|Vachellia seyal]]'' from Paul Hermann Wilhelm Taubert's Leguminosae, in Engelmann (ed.): Natürliche Pflanzenfamilien. Vol. III, 3., 1891]]

While gum arabic has been harvested in [[Arabia]] and [[West Asia]] since antiquity, sub-Saharan acacia gum has a long history as a prized export.  The gum exported came from the band of acacia trees that once covered much of the Sahel region, the southern littoral of the [[Sahara Desert]] that runs from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Red Sea]]. Today, the main populations of gum-producing ''Acacia'' species are found in [[Mauritania]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]], [[Sudan]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], and [[Tanzania]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} ''Acacia'' is tapped for gum by stripping bits off the bark, from which gum then exudes. Traditionally harvested by seminomadic desert pastoralists in the course of their [[transhumance]] cycle, acacia gum remains a main export of several African nations, including Mauritania, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. Total world gum arabic exports were estimated in 2019 at 160,000 tonnes, having recovered from 1987 to 1989 and [[2004 locust outbreak|2003–2005 crises]] caused by the destruction of trees by the [[desert locust]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

== History ==
=== Political aspects ===

==== West Africa ====
In 1445, Prince [[Henry the Navigator]] set up a trading post on [[Arguin]] Island (off the coast of modern Mauritania), which acquired acacia gum and [[slaves]] for Portugal. With the merger of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns in 1580, the Spaniards became the dominant influence along the coast. In 1638, however, they were replaced by the Dutch, who were the first to begin exploiting the acacia gum trade. Produced by the acacia trees of [[Trarza]] and [[Brakna]], this acacia gum was considered superior to that previously obtained in [[Arabia]]. By 1678, the French had driven out the Dutch and established a permanent settlement at Saint Louis at the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Arguin |volume=2 |page=482}}</ref> Gum Arabic came to play an essential role in textile printing and therefore in pre-industrial economies of France, Great Britain and other European countries. Throughout the 18th century, their competition over the commodity was so fierce, that some have referred to it as the gum wars.<ref name="van Dalen-2020" />

[[Image:GommeBakel.jpg|thumb|right|West African tribes meet to trade gum arabic at [[Bakel, Senegal|Bakel]] on the [[Senegal River]], 1890 (illustration from "''Côte occidentale d'Afrique du Colonel Frey''", pl. en reg. p. 100)]]

For much of the 18th and 19th centuries, gum arabic was the major export from French and British trading colonies in modern Senegal and Mauritania. West Africa had become the sole supplier of world acacia gum by the 18th century, and its export at the French colony of [[Saint-Louis, Senegal|Saint-Louis]] doubled in the decade of 1830 alone. A threat to bypass Saint-Louis and taxes by sending gum to the British traders at [[Portendick]], eventually brought the [[Emirate of Trarza]] into direct conflict with the French. In the 1820s, the French launched the [[Franco-Trarzan War of 1825]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} The new emir, [[Muhammad al Habib]], had signed an agreement with the [[Waalo|Waalo Kingdom]], directly to the south of the river. In return for an end to raids in Waalo territory, the emir took the heiress of Waalo as a bride. The prospect that Trarza might inherit control of both banks of the Senegal struck at the security of French traders, and the French responded by sending a large expeditionary force that crushed Muhammad's army.  The war incited the French to expand to the north of the Senegal River for the first time, heralding French direct involvement in the interior of West Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|title= The Trade in Gum Arabic: Prelude to French Conquest in Senegal |doi=10.1017/S0021853700036914 |jstor=181721 |year= 2009| last= Webb | first= J. L. |journal= The Journal of African History |volume= 26 |issue= 2–3 |pages= 149–168 |s2cid= 162162993}}</ref> Africa continued to export gum arabic in large quantities—from the Sahel areas of [[French West Africa]] (modern Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger) and [[French Equatorial Africa]] (modern Chad) as well as [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|British-administered Sudan]], until these nations gained their [[Decolonization|independence]] in 1959–61.

==== Sudan ====
Since the 1950s, the global supply of gum arabic has been dominated by Sudan.<ref name="AlJazeera-2023">{{cite news| title=What does Sudan's crisis mean for the gum arabic industry? | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/11/what-does-sudan-crisis-mean-for-the-gum-arabic-industry | date=11 July 2023 | publisher=Al Jazeera | access-date=18 September 2023 }}</ref> In the early 2020s, about 70% of the global supply has been sourced from Sudan,<ref>{{cite news| title=Sudan crisis spells uncertainty for key Coca-Cola ingredient | url=https://www.dw.com/en/sudan-crisis-spells-uncertainty-for-key-coca-cola-ingredient/a-66256836 | date=20 July 2023 | publisher=Deutsche Welle | access-date=18 September 2023 }}</ref> with approximately 5 million Sudanese people (more than 10 percent of a country's population) being directly or indirectly dependent on gum arabic for their livelihoods.<ref>{{cite news| title=Conflict casts ominous shadow over global supplies of Sudan's flagship export: gum Arabic | url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2309826/middle-east | date=29 May 2023 | publisher=Arab News | access-date=18 September 2023 }}</ref> After market reforms in 2019, official figures showed that Sudan's exports of gum arabic were at about 60,000 tonnes in 2022, but exact numbers are difficult to ascertain because some production is in regions that are hard to access.<ref name="AlJazeera-2023"/><ref>{{cite news| title=Gum arabic threatened by the war in Sudan | url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/05/22/gum-arabic-threatened-by-the-war-in-sudan/ | date=22 May 2023 | publisher=AfricaNews | access-date=18 September 2023 }}</ref> Before the reforms, the production of gum arabic was heavily dominated by the Sudanese government and in some periods there were attempts of using its importance to the global market as a leverage against other countries.<ref name="AlJazeera-2023"/><ref name="Gerstenzang-2007">{{cite news |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003726884_sudan30.html |title=Impact of Bush's Sudan sanctions doubted | vauthors = Gerstenzang J, Sanders E |work=Los Angeles Times |date=30 May 2007 |access-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070601175632/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003726884_sudan30.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 }}</ref> Since the [[2023 Sudan conflict]], the export of gum arabic has been interrupted, causing a crash in its price in Sudan because of a reduced ability to export the product, whereas international companies that rely on it are attempting to diversify the supply chain of gum arabic and find alternative ingredients that can be used as a replacement.<ref name="AlJazeera-2023"/><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/key-ingredient-in-coca-cola-chocolate-and-red-wine-is-caught-up-in-sudan-crisis-cf769a87|title= Key Ingredient in Coca-Cola, Chocolate and Red Wine Is Caught Up in Sudan Crisis |work=The Wall Street Journal|date=2023-05-03}}</ref>

== Pharmacology ==
Gum arabic slows the rate of absorption of some drugs, including [[amoxicillin]], from the gut.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eltayeb IB, Awad AI, Elderbi MA, Shadad SA | title = Effect of gum arabic on the absorption of a single oral dose of amoxicillin in healthy Sudanese volunteers | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 54 | issue = 2 | pages = 577–8 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15269196 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkh372 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== Symbolic value ==
In the works of English playwright [[William Shakespeare]], Dutch poet [[Jacob Cats]] and other European poets of the 13th to 17th centuries, gum arabic represented the "noble Orient". In the Sahel, it is a symbol of the purity of youth.<ref name="van Dalen-2020">{{cite book | vauthors = van Dalen D |title=Gum Arabic.The Golden Tears of the Acacia Tree |date=2020 |publisher=Leiden University Press |location=Leiden |isbn=9789087283360}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Mastic (plant resin)]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161214153251/http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/acacia-senegal-gum-arabic Kew Species Profile: ''Acacia senegal'' (gum arabic)]
* [https://www.npr.org/2007/06/20/11224050/gum-arabic-sudans-miracle-commodity Story on gum arabic, its production, and use in industry] from [[NPR]]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2013/apr/01/harvesting-gum-arabic-sudan-in-pictures Harvesting gum arabic in Sudan – in pictures]

{{Non-timber forest products}}

[[Category:Adhesives]]
[[Category:Agricultural products of Africa]]
[[Category:Food ingredients]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Natural gums]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Sudan]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Niger]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Chad]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Mauritania]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Senegal]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Nigeria]]
[[Category:Excipients]]
[[Category:Food stabilizers]]
[[Category:E-number additives]]