View source for Guru

{{Short description|Spiritual teacher and guide}}
{{Other uses}}

[[File:Guru and DiscipleI.jpg|thumb|The guru-smiti relationship. Watercolour, Punjab Hills, India, 1740.]]
'''Guru''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|uː|r|uː}} {{langx|sa|गुरु}}; [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: ''guru'') is a [[Sanskrit]] term for a "[[mentor]], [[guide]], [[expert]], or master" of certain knowledge or field.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pertz |first1=Stefan |year=2013 |title=The Guru in smiti - Critical Perspectives on Management |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3638749251 |pages=2–3}}</ref> In pan-[[Indian religions|Indian traditions]], a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential figure to the disciple (or ''[[wikt:शिष्य|shisya]]'' in Sanskrit, literally ''seeker [of knowledge or truth'']) or student, with the guru serving as a "counsellor, who helps mould values, shares [[experiential knowledge]] as much as [[Knowledge#Hinduism|literal knowledge]], an [[Role model|exemplar in life]], an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student".<ref name=joelmlecko/> Whatever language it is written in, [[Judith Simmer-Brown]] says that a [[tantra|tantric]] spiritual text is often codified in an obscure [[twilight language]] so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher, the guru.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Judith Simmer-Brown |last=Simmer-Brown |first=Judith |year=2002 |title=Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Shambhala Publications|page=169|isbn=978-1-57062-920-4}}</ref> A guru is also one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the ''guru'' has already realized.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism |title=Guru |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2013}}</ref>

The oldest references to the concept of ''guru'' are found in the earliest [[Veda|Vedic]] [[Hindu texts|texts]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref name=joelmlecko/> The ''guru'', and ''[[gurukula]]'' – a school run by ''guru'', were an established tradition in India by the [[Vedic period|1st millennium BCE]], and these helped compose and transmit the various [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], texts of various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], and post-Vedic [[Shastras]] ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts so also specific science and technology.<ref name=joelmlecko/><ref name=tamara/><ref name=scharfetempleschools2/> By about mid 1st millennium CE, [[The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual|archaeological]] and [[Early Indian epigraphy|epigraphical evidence]] suggest numerous larger institutions of ''gurus'' existed in India, some near [[List of Hindu temples|Hindu temples]], where [[guru-shishya tradition]] helped preserve, create and transmit various fields of knowledge.<ref name=scharfetempleschools2/> These gurus led broad ranges of studies including [[Hindu scriptures]], [[Buddhist texts]], [[Sanskrit grammar|grammar]], [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]], [[Indian martial arts|martial arts]], [[Indian music|music]] and [[Indian painting|painting]].<ref name=scharfetempleschools2/><ref name=michelltempleschool/>

The tradition of the guru is also found in [[Jainism]], referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a [[Jainism|Jain]] [[Jain monasticism|ascetic]].<ref name="Jeffery D Long 2009 pages 110, 196">Jeffery D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, IB Tauris, {{ISBN|978-1845116262}}, pages 110, 196</ref><ref name=patridge252/> In [[Sikhism]], the ''guru'' tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as [[Guru Nanak]], and its scripture as [[Guru Granth Sahib]].<ref>William Owen Cole (1982), The Guru in Sikhism, Darton Longman & Todd, {{ISBN|9780232515091}}, pages 1-4</ref><ref name=singhakaur/> The guru concept has thrived in [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, where the tantric guru is considered a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.<ref name=berkwitz130/><ref name=johnston371/>

== Definition and etymology ==

The word ''{{IAST|[[wikt:guru|guru]]}}'' (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|[[wikt:गुरु#Sanskrit|गुरु]]}}), a noun, connotes "teacher" in [[Sanskrit]], but in [[Historical Vedic religion|ancient Indian traditions]] it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English.<ref name="joelmlecko">{{cite journal | last=Mlecko | first=Joel D. | title=The Guru in Hindu Tradition | journal=Numen | publisher=Brill | volume=29 | issue=1 | year=1982 | issn=0029-5973 | doi=10.1163/156852782x00132 | pages=33–61 | jstor=3269931}}</ref> Beyond a teacher of specific knowledge, "guru" refers to someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind (''[[Citta]]'') and Self (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]]''), who helps [[Ethics in religion#Hindu ethics|mold values]] ([[Yamas]] and [[Niyamas]]) and experiential knowledge as much as [[Domain knowledge|specific knowledge]], an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the [[Meaning of life#South Asian religions|meaning of life]]."<ref name=joelmlecko/> The word has the same meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]]. The Malayalam term Acharyan or [[Aasaan|Asan]] is derived from the Sanskrit word [[Acharya]].

As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge (''[[jnana|jñāna]]''; also [[Pali]]: ''ñāna''). As an adjective, it means 'heavy,' or 'weighty,' in the sense of "heavy with knowledge,"{{refn|"Guru: a spiritual master; one who is heavy with knowledge of the Absolute and who removes nescience with the light of the divine."<ref name="tirha">Tirtha Goswami Maharaj, ''A Taste of Transcendence'', (2002) p. 161, Mandala Press. {{ISBN|1-886069-71-9}}.</ref>|group=Note}} heavy with spiritual wisdom,<ref name="lipner">[[Julius J. Lipner|Lipner, Julius J.]],''Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'' p.192, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN|0-415-05181-9}}</ref> "heavy with spiritual weight,"<ref name="cornille">Cornille, C. ''The Guru in Indian Catholicism'' (1991) p.207. Peeters Publishers {{ISBN|90-6831-309-6}}</ref> "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization,"<ref name="hopkins">Hopkins, Jeffrey ''Reflections on Reality'' (2002) p. 72. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-21120-0}}</ref> or "heavy with a wealth of knowledge."<ref name="varene">Varene, Jean. ''Yoga and the Hindu Tradition'' (1977). p.226. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-85116-8}}</ref> The word has its roots in the Sanskrit ''gri'' (to invoke, or to praise), and may have a connection to the word ''gur'', meaning 'to raise, lift up, or to make an effort'.<ref name=Lowitz>{{cite book|title=Sacred Sanskrit Words|first=Leza A.|last=Lowitz|page=85|publisher=Stone Bridge Press|year=2004|id=1-880-6568-76}}</ref>

Sanskrit ''guru'' is [[cognate]] with Latin ''gravis'' 'heavy; grave, weighty, serious'<ref>{{cite book |title=The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology|first=Robert K.|last=Barnhart|page=447|publisher=H.W. Wilson Co.|year=1988|isbn=978-0-8242-0745-8}}</ref> and Greek βαρύς ''barus'' 'heavy'. All three derive from the [[Proto-Indo-European root]] ''*gʷerə-'', specifically from the [[Indo-European ablaut#Zero grade|zero-grade]] form *''gʷr̥ə-''.<ref>{{cite book|title=''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|edition=4th|year=2000|isbn=978-0-395-82517-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7/page/2031 2031]|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7/page/2031}}</ref>

=== Darkness and light ===
{{poem quote|
{{lang|sa|'''गु'''शब्दस्त्वन्धकारः स्यात्‌ '''रु'''शब्दस्तन्निरोधकः ।
अन्धकारनिरोधित्वात्‌ '''गुरु'''रित्यभिधीयते ॥ १६॥}}
The syllable ''gu'' means darkness, the syllable ''ru'', he who dispels them,
Because of the power to dispel darkness, the guru is thus named.
|[[Advayataraka Upanishad]] (100 BCE–300 CE)| Verse 16.<ref>[http://www.gayathrimanthra.com/contents/documents/Vedic-related/Advayataraka_Upanishad.pdf Advayataraka Upanishad with Commentaries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924020854/http://www.gayathrimanthra.com/contents/documents/Vedic-related/Advayataraka_Upanishad.pdf |date=2015-09-24 }}, Verse 16, Sanskrit</ref><ref>G Feuerstein (1989), Yoga, Tarcher, {{ISBN|978-0874775259}}, pages 240-243</ref>}}

A popular etymological theory considers the term "guru" to be based on the syllables ''gu'' ({{lang|sa|गु}}) and ''ru'' ({{lang|sa|रु}}), which it claims stands for darkness and "light that dispels it", respectively.{{refn|"[...] the term is a combination of the two words ''gu''(darkness) and ''ru'' (light), so together they mean 'divine light that dispels all darkness.'" [...] "Guru is the light that disperses the darkness of ignorance."<ref name="murray">Murray, Thomas R. ''Moral Development Theories - Secular and Religious: A Comparative Study.'' (1997). p. 231. Greenwood Press.</ref>|group=Note}} The guru is seen as the one who "dispels the darkness of ignorance."{{refn|"The etymological derivation of the word guru is in this verse from [[Guru Gita]]: 'The root ''gu'' stands for darkness; ''ru'' for its removal. The removal of the darkness of ignorance in the heart is indicated by the word "guru'" (Note: Guru Gita is a spiritual text in the [[Markandeya Purana]], in the form of a dialog between Siva and Parvati on the nature of the guru and the guru/disciple relationship.) [...] the meanings of ''gu'' and ''ru'' can also be traced to the ''Panini-sutras gu samvarane'' and ''ru himsane'', indicating concealment and its annulment."<ref name="dict">Grimes, John. ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English.'' (1996) p.133. SUNY Press. {{ISBN|0-7914-3067-7}}</ref>|group=Note}}{{refn|"Guru: remover of darkness, bestower of light'"<ref name="dict"/>|group=Note}}<ref name="krs">[[Jiddu Krishnamurti|Krishnamurti, J.]] ''The Awakening of Intelligence.'' (1987) p.139. HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-06-064834-1}}</ref>

[[Reender Kranenborg]] disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word ''guru''. He describes this as a [[folk etymology]].{{refn|Dutch original: "a. De goeroe als geestelijk raadsman Als we naar het verschijnsel goeroe in India kijken, kunnen we constateren dat er op zijn minst vier vormen van goeroeschap te onderscheiden zijn. De eerste vorm is die van de 'geestelijk raadsman'. Voordat we dit verder uitwerken eerst iets over de etymologie. Het woord goeroe komt uit het Sanskriet, wordt geschreven als 'guru' en betekent 'zwaar zijn', 'gewichtig zijn', vooral in figuurlijk opzicht. Zo krijgt het begrip 'guru' de betekenis van 'groot', 'geweldig' of 'belangrijk', en iets verdergaand krijgt het aspecten van 'eerbiedwaardig' en 'vererenswaardig'. Al vrij snel word dit toegepast op de 'geestelijk leraar'. In allerlei populaire literatuur, ook in India zelf, wordt het woord 'guru' uiteengelegd in 'gu' en 'ru', als omschrijvingen voor licht en duister; de goeroe is dan degene die zijn leerling uit het materiële duister overbrengt naar het geestelijk licht. Misschien doe een goeroe dat ook inderdaad, maar het heeft niets met de betekenis van het woord te maken, het is volksetymologie."<br />English translation "a. The guru as spiritual adviser: If we look at the phenomenon of gurus in India then we can see that there are at least four forms of guruship that can be distinguished. The first form is that of the "spiritual adviser." Before we will elaborate on this, first something about the etymology. The word ''guru'' comes from Sanskrit, is written as 'guru' and connotes philosophically 'being heavy' or 'being weighty'. In that way, the concept of guru gets the meaning of 'big', 'great', or 'important' and somewhat further it also gets aspects of 'respectable' and 'honorable'. Soon it is applied to the 'spiritual adviser'. In various popular literature, in India herself too, the word 'guru' is explained in the parts 'gu' and 'ru', as descriptions for light and darkness: the guru is then the person who bring the student from the material darkness into the spiritual light. A guru may indeed do that, but it has nothing to do with the meaning of the word, it is folk etymology."<ref name="kraneborg2002">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht'' page 50 (En: ''Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands'', published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) {{ISBN|90-435-0493-9}} Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht (En: Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands, published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) {{ISBN|90-435-0493-9}} page 50</ref>|group=Note}}

Joel Mlecko states, "''Gu'' means ignorance, and ''Ru'' means dispeller," with ''guru'' meaning the one who "dispels ignorance, all kinds of ignorance", ranging from spiritual to skills such as dancing, music, sports and others.<ref name="joelmlecko"/> Karen Pechilis states that, in the popular parlance, the "dispeller of darkness, one who points the way" definition for ''guru'' is common in the Indian tradition.<ref>Karen Pechilis (2004), ''The Graceful Guru'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195145373}}, pages 25-26</ref>

In ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'', Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between "occult" and "scientific" etymologies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of 'guru' in which the derivation is presented as ''gu'' ("darkness") and ''ru'' ('to push away'); the latter he exemplifies by "guru" with the meaning of 'heavy.'<ref name="wesr">Riffard, Pierre A. in ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'' Faivre A. & [[Wouter Hanegraaff|Hanegraaff W.]] (Eds.) Peeters Publishers( 1988), {{ISBN|90-429-0630-8}}</ref>

== In Hinduism ==
{{Further|list of Hindu gurus}}
{{Hinduism}}
The Guru is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of [[Hinduism]].<ref name=joelmlecko/> Ultimate liberation or ''[[moksha]]'' and inner perfection is considered achievable in Hinduism with the help of a ''guru''.<ref name=joelmlecko/> The Guru can also serve as a teacher of skills, a counselor, one who helps in the realization of one's Self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atma]]), who instills values and experiential knowledge, an exemplar, an inspiration and one who helps guide a student's (''[[shishya|śiṣya]]'') spiritual development.<ref name=joelmlecko/> At a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life.<ref name=joelmlecko/> Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture.<ref name=joelmlecko/>

===Scriptures===
The word Guru is mentioned in the earliest layer of [[Vedas|Vedic]] texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda describes the guru as, "the source and inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the essence of reality," for one who seeks.<ref>Sanskrit original: {{lang|sa|इदं मे अग्ने कियते पावकामिनते '''गुरुं''' भारं न मन्म । बृहद्दधाथ धृषता गभीरं यह्वं पृष्ठं प्रयसा सप्तधातु ॥६॥}} – [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_४.५ Rigveda 4.5.6] Wikisource<br />English Translation: Joel Mlecko (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition] Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 35</ref>

In chapter 4.4 within the [[Chandogya Upanishad]], a guru is described as one whom one attains knowledge that matters, the insights that lead to Self-knowledge.<ref name=mleckopage35/> Verse 1.2.8 of the [[Katha Upanisad]] declares the guru "as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge."<ref name=mleckopage35>English Translation: Joel Mlecko (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition] Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 35-36</ref> In chapter 3 of [[Taittiriya Upanishad]], human knowledge is described as that which connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, just like a child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 222-223</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/AitareyataittiriyaUpanishadsWithShankaraBhashya-English/05AitareyataittiriyaUpanishadsWithShankaraBhashya-English#page/n61/mode/2up Taittiriya Upanishad] SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 65-67</ref> In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the ''guru'' then urges a student to "struggle, discover and experience the Truth, which is the source, stay and end of the universe."<ref name=mleckopage35/>

The ancient tradition of reverence for the ''guru'' in Hindu scriptures is apparent in 6.23 of the [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]], which equates the need of reverence and devotion for ''guru'' to be the same as for god,<ref>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n431/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 411</ref><ref name=mlecko37>Joel Mlecko (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition] Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 37</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
{{lang|sa|यस्य देवे परा भक्तिः यथा देवे तथा '''गुरौ'''}} <nowiki>।</nowiki>
{{lang|sa|तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः <nowiki>॥ २३ ॥</nowiki>}}<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23] Wikisource</ref>
He who has highest ''[[Bhakti]]'' (love, devotion)<ref name=paulcarus>Paul Carus, {{Google books|96sLAAAAIAAJ|The Monist|PA514}}, pages 514-515</ref> of ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' (god),
just like his ''Deva'', so for his '''Guru''',
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 326</ref><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/266/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 267</ref>}}

The [[Bhagavad Gita]] also exemplifies the importance of a guru within [[Hinduism]]. [[Arjuna]] when faced with the realization of having to wage war with his kin is paralyzed with grief and remorse. Overwhelmed he lays down his weapons and refuses to fight. Despite his intellectual prowess and skill in warfare he finds himself lacking in [[Dharma|Dharmic]] (moral) clarity. At this moment he turns to Krishna for guidance and in essence seeks Krishna as his guru. This interaction exemplifies the importance within the Hindu tradition for a disciple to seek guidance from an experienced spiritual guru.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Bhagavad Gita |date=2007 |publisher=Nilgiri Press |isbn=978-1-58638-019-9 |editor-last=Eknath |editor-first=Easwaran |edition=2nd |series=The classics of Indian spirituality |location=Tomales, CA |pages=Chapter 2}}</ref> Additionally, other references to the role of a guru in the [[Bhagavad Gita]] include verse 4.34 - those who know their subject well are eager for good students, and the student can learn from such a ''guru'' through reverence, service, effort and the process of inquiry.<ref name="chapple">Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 234</ref><ref>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page 87</ref>

===Capabilities, role and methods for helping a student===
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''[[Adi Shankara]] with Disciples'', by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] (1904)]]

The 8th century Hindu text ''Upadesasahasri'' of the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students.<ref name="ŚaṅkarācāryaMayeda1979">{{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KcNM17mfaRgC&pg=PR15|access-date=28 June 2012|year=1979|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0944-2|pages=15–17}}</ref><ref name="Jacobsen2008">{{cite book|author=Knut A. Jacobsen|title=Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPK2spNnwm4C&pg=PA75|access-date=28 June 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3232-9|pages=75–76}}</ref> In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as the student rows. The text describes the need, role and characteristics of a teacher,<ref name=mayeda92>{{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-8120827714|page=92}}</ref> as follows,
 
{{Blockquote|
When the teacher finds from signs that knowledge has not been grasped or has been wrongly grasped by the student, he should remove the causes of non-comprehension in the student. This includes the student's past and present knowledge, want of previous knowledge of what constitutes subjects of discrimination and rules of reasoning, behavior such as unrestrained conduct and speech, courting popularity, vanity of his parentage, ethical flaws that are means contrary to those causes. The teacher must enjoin means in the student that are enjoined by the [[Śruti]] and [[Smriti|Smrti]], such as avoidance of anger, [[Yamas]] consisting of [[Ahimsa]] and others, also the rules of conduct that are not inconsistent with knowledge. He [teacher] should also thoroughly impress upon the student qualities like humility, which are the means to knowledge.
|Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.4-1.5<ref>'''Sanskrit''': {{lang|sa|शिष्यस्य ज्ञानग्रहणं च लिन्गैर्बुद्ध्वा तदग्रहणहेतूनधर्म लौकिकप्रमादनित्यानित्य(वस्तु) विवेकविषयासञ्जातदृढपूर्वश्रुतत्व-लोक-चिन्तावेक्षण-जात्याद्यभिमानादींस्तत्प्रतिपक्षैः श्रुतिस्मृतिविहितैरपनयेदक्रोधादिभिरहिंसादिभिश्च यमैर्ज्ञानाविरुद्धैश्च नियमैः ॥ ४॥ अमानित्वादिगुणं च ज्ञानोपायं सम्यग् ग्राहयेत् ॥ ५॥}} [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_shankara/US_itran_new.html?lang=sa Source];<br />'''English Translation 1''': S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, {{ISBN|978-8171200597}}, pages 3-4; {{oclc|218363449}}<br/>'''English Translation 2''': {{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-8120827714}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803107}}, pages 218-219</ref>}}

{{Blockquote| 
The teacher is one who is endowed with the power of furnishing arguments pro and con, of understanding questions [of the student], and remembers them. The teacher possesses tranquility, self-control, compassion and a desire to help others, who is versed in the Śruti texts ([[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]]), and unattached to pleasures here and hereafter, knows the subject and is established in that knowledge. He is never a transgressor of the rules of conduct, devoid of weaknesses such as ostentation, pride, deceit, cunning, jugglery, jealousy, falsehood, egotism and attachment. The teacher's sole aim is to help others and a desire to impart the knowledge.
|Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.6<ref>S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, {{ISBN|978-8171200597}}, page 5; {{oclc|218363449}}<br/>'''English Translation 2''': {{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-8120827714}}</ref>}}

Adi Shankara presents a series of examples wherein he asserts that the best way to guide a student is not to give immediate answers, but posit dialogue-driven questions that enable the student to discover and understand the answer.<ref>Sanskrit: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_shankara/upadeshasaahasrii1.pdf Upadesha sahasri];<br />English Translation: S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, {{ISBN|978-8171200597}}, prose section, page 43; {{oclc|218363449}}</ref>

=== Reverence and ''Guru-Bhakti'' ===
Reverence for the guru is a fundamental principle in Hinduism, as illustrated in the [[Guru Gita]] by the following shloka <ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffin |first=Mark |title=Shri Guru Gita |publisher=Hard Light Center of Awakening |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-975902-07-3 |edition=2nd}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=गुरु ब्रह्मा गुरु विष्णु गुरु देवो महेश्वरः।
गुरु साक्षात् परम ब्रह्म तस्मै श्री गुरुवे नमः।

Transliteration: Guru Brahma, Guru Vishnu, Guru Devo Maheshwara,
Guru Sakshat Parabrahma, Tasmai Shri Gurave Namah.

Meaning: This shloka praises the Guru, identifying them as the creator (Brahma), the preserver (Vishnu), and the destroyer (Shiva), ultimately recognizing the Guru as the supreme reality.|source=Guru Gita Shloka 22}}Other notable examples of devotion to the guru within Hinduism include the religious festival of [[Guru Purnima]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-20 |title=Guru Purnima: Know the date, origin, theme and significance; all you need to know |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/guru-purnima-know-the-date-origin-theme-and-significance-all-you-need-to-know-9448960/ |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Guru Purnima 2024: Date, Auspicious Times, And Traditional Prasad Recipe |url=https://www.ndtv.com/offbeat/guru-purnima-2024-date-auspicious-times-and-traditional-prasad-recipe-6146806 |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

=== Gurukula and the guru-shishya tradition ===
[[File:Parmarth4.jpg|thumb|upright 1.2|Guru teaching students in a gurukul]]

{{Main|Brahmacharya|Guru-shishya tradition|Parampara|Gurukula}}

Traditionally, the ''Guru'' would live a simple married life, and accept ''shishya'' (student, Sanskrit: शिष्य) where he lived. A person would begin a life of study in the [[Gurukula]] (the household of the ''Guru''). The process of acceptance included proffering firewood and sometimes a gift to the guru, signifying that the student wants to live with, work and help the ''guru'' in maintaining the ''gurukul'', and as an expression of a desire for education in return over several years.<ref name=mlecko37/><ref>Ludo Rocher (2003), The Dharmaśāstas, in ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism'' (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell Publishing Oxford, {{ISBN|0-631-21535-2}}, page 102-104</ref> At the Gurukul, the working student would study the basic traditional [[Vedanga|vedic sciences]] and various practical skills-oriented shastras<ref name=stella>Stella Kramrisch (1958), Traditions of the Indian Craftsman, ''The Journal of American Folklore'', Volume 71, Number 281, Traditional India: Structure and Change (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pages 224-230</ref> along with the religious texts contained within the [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishads]].<ref name=tamara/><ref name=sameul>Samuel Parker (1987), Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview, ''Journal of Aesthetic Education'', pages 123-141</ref><ref>Misra, R. N. (2011), Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society, ''Social Scientist'', Vol. 39, No. 7/8, pages 43-54</ref> The education stage of a youth with a ''guru'' was referred to as [[Brahmacharya]], and in some parts of India this followed the [[Upanayana]] or [[Sanskara (rite of passage)|Vidyarambha]] rites of passage.<ref>Mary McGee (2007), Samskara, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Mittal and Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772273}}, pages 332-356;<br />Kathy Jackson (2005), ''Rituals and Patterns in Children's Lives'', University of Wisconsin Press, {{ISBN|978-0299208301}}, page 46</ref><ref name=kaneupan>PV Kane, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofdharmas029210mbp#page/n325/mode/2up Samskara, Chapter VII], ''History of Dharmasastras'', Vol II, Part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pages 268-287</ref><ref>V Narayanan (Editors: Harold Coward and Philip Cook, 1997), ''Religious Dimensions of Child and Family Life'', Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-1550581041}}, page 67</ref>

The gurukul would be a hut in a forest, or it was, in some cases, a monastery, called a ''matha'' or ''[[ashram]]'' or ''[[sampradaya]]'' in different parts of India.<ref name="michelltempleschool"/><ref>[[Gavin Flood]] (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, pages 133-135</ref><ref name=scharfetempleschools>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 173-174</ref> Each ashram had a lineage of gurus, who would study and focus on certain schools of Hindu philosophy or trade,<ref name=stella/><ref name=sameul/> also known as the [[Guru–shishya tradition|''guru-shishya'' ''parampara'']] (teacher-student tradition).<ref name=tamara>Tamara Sears (2014), ''Worldly Gurus and Spiritual Kings: Architecture and Asceticism in Medieval India'', Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0300198447}}, pages 12-23, 27-28, 73-75, 187-230</ref> This ''guru''-driven tradition included arts such as sculpture, poetry and music.<ref>Winand Callewaert and Mukunda Lāṭh (1989), ''The Hindi Songs of Namdev'', Peeters Publishers, {{ISBN|978-906831-107-5}}, pages 57-59</ref><ref name=stellacrafts>Stella Kramrisch (1994), ''Exploring India's Sacred Art'' (Editor: Barbara Miller), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812086}}, pages 59-66</ref>

Inscriptions from 4th century CE suggest the existence of ''gurukuls'' around [[Hindu temple]]s, called ''Ghatikas'' or ''Mathas'', where the [[Vedas]] were studied.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), "From Temple schools to Universities", in ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 169-171</ref> In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called ''Calai'' or ''Salai'', and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), "From Temple schools to Universities", in ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 175</ref> Archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggests that ancient and medieval era gurukuls near Hindu temples offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.<ref name=scharfetempleschools2>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), "From Temple schools to Universities", in ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 176-182</ref><ref name=michelltempleschool>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pages 58-60</ref>

The ''guru-shishya parampara'', occurs where knowledge is passed down through succeeding generations. It is the traditional, residential form of education, where the Shishya remains and learns with his Guru as a family member.<ref>William Pinch (2012), ''Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-1107406377}}, pages 37-38, 141-144, 110-117<br />William Pinch, ''Peasants and Monks in British India'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520200616}}, pages 57-78</ref><ref>Sunil Kothari and Avinash Pasricha (2001), Kuchipudi, Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|978-8170173595}}, pages 155-170 and chapter on dance-arts related ''Guru parampara''</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti - the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3643501301}}, pages 50-51</ref>

====Gender and caste====
The Hindu texts offer a conflicting view of whether access to ''guru'' and education was limited to men and to certain ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' (castes).<ref name=murty>[[Kotha Satchidanda Murthy]] (1993), Vedic Hermeneutics, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811058}}, pages 14-17</ref><ref name=asharma/> The Vedas and the Upanishads never mention any restrictions based either on gender or ''varna''.<ref name=murty/> The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda texts state that knowledge is for everyone, and offer examples of women and people from all segments of society who are ''guru'' and participated in vedic studies.<ref name=murty/><ref>D Chand, [https://archive.org/stream/yajurveda029670mbp#page/n279/mode/2up Yajurveda], Verses 26.2-26.3, Osmania University, page 270</ref> The Upanishads assert that one's birth does not determine one's eligibility for spiritual knowledge, only one's effort and sincerity matters.<ref name=asharma/>

The early Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, such as Paraskara Grhyasutra, Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya smriti, state all four varnas are eligible to all fields of knowledge while verses of Manusmriti state that Vedic study is available only to men of three varnas, unavailable to Shudra and women.<ref name=murty/><ref name=asharma>[[Arvind Sharma]] (2000), ''Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195644418}}, pages 147-158</ref>{{refn|[[Patrick Olivelle]] notes the modern doubts about the reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes, "Manusmriti was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. (...) This was based on the Calcutta manuscript with the commentary of Kulluka. It was Kulluka's version that has been assumed to be the original [vulgate version] and translated repeatedly from Jone (1794) and [[Wendy Doniger|Doniger]] (1991). The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell. This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over 50 manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings."<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2004), ''Manu's Code of Law'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195171464}}, pages 353-354, 356-382</ref><br />Sinha writes, in case of Manusmriti, that "certain verses discouraged, but others allowed women to read Vedic scriptures."<ref>J Sinha (2014), Psycho-Social Analysis of the Indian Mindset, Springer Academic, {{ISBN|978-8132218036}}, page 5</ref>|group=Note}} Kramrisch, Scharfe, and Mookerji state that the guru tradition and availability of education extended to all segments of ancient and medieval society.<ref name=stellacrafts/><ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2007), ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 75-79, 102-103, 197-198, 263-276</ref><ref>Radha Mookerji (2011), ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120804234}}, pages 174-175, 270-271</ref> Lise McKean states the ''guru'' concept has been prevalent over the range of class and caste backgrounds, and the disciples a guru attracts come from both genders and a range of classes and castes.<ref>Lise McKean (1996), ''Divine Enterprise: Gurus and the Hindu Nationalist Movement'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226560106}}, pages 14-22, 57-58</ref> During the [[bhakti movement]] of Hinduism, which started in about mid 1st millennium CE, the ''gurus'' included women and members of all ''varna''.<ref>John Stratton Hawley (2015), ''A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement'', Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674187467}}, pages 304-310</ref><ref>Richard Kieckhefer and George Bond (1990), ''Sainthood: Its Manifestations in World Religions'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520071896}}, pages 116-122</ref><ref>Sheldon Pollock (2009), ''The Language of the Gods in the World of Men'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520260030}}, pages 423-431</ref>

=== Attributes ===
The [[Advayataraka Upanishad]] states that the true teacher is a master in the field of knowledge, is well-versed in the [[Veda]]s, is free from envy, knows [[yoga]], lives the simple life of a yogi, and has realized the knowledge of the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self).<ref name="feuerstein1990" /> Some scriptures and gurus have warned against false teachers, and have recommended that the spiritual seeker test the guru before accepting him.  [[Swami Vivekananda]] said that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |date=1982|title= Karma-Yoga and Bhakti-Yoga|location=Oxford |publisher=Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center |isbn=9780911206227|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJA4wQEACAAJ}}</ref>

According to the Indologist [[Georg Feuerstein]], in some traditions of Hinduism, when one reaches the state of Self-knowledge, one's own Self becomes the ''guru''.<ref name="feuerstein1990">[[Georg Feusterstein|Feuerstein, Georg]] Dr. ''Encyclopedic dictionary of yoga'' Published by Paragon House 1st edition (1990) {{ISBN|1-55778-244-X}}</ref> In Tantra, states Feuerstein, the guru is the "ferry who leads one across the ocean of existence."<ref name=georgtantra>Georg Feuerstein (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy'', Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1570623042}}, pages 85-87</ref> A true guru guides and counsels a student's spiritual development because, states ''Yoga-Bija'', endless logic and grammar leads to confusion, and not contentment.<ref name=georgtantra/> However, various Hindu texts caution prudence and diligence in finding the right guru, and avoiding the wrong ones.<ref name=georgtantra91>Georg Feuerstein (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy'', Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1570623042}}, pages 91-94</ref> For example, in ''Kula-Arnava'' text states the following guidance:

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
Gurus are as numerous as lamps in every house. But, O-Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who lights up everything like a sun.
Gurus who are proficient in the Vedas, textbooks and so on are numerous. But, O Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who is proficient in the supreme Truth.
Gurus who rob their disciples of their wealth are numerous. But, O Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who removes the disciples' suffering.
Numerous here on earth are those who are intent on social class, stage of life and family. But he who is devoid of all concerns is a guru difficult to find.
An intelligent man should choose a guru by whom supreme Bliss is attained, and only such a guru and none other.
</poem>
|Kula-Arnava|13.104 - 13.110, Translated by Georg Feuerstein<ref name=georgtantra91/>}}

A true guru is, asserts ''Kula-Arnava'', one who lives the simple virtuous life he preaches, is stable and firm in his knowledge, master yogi with the knowledge of Self (''[[jnana|Atma Gyaan]]'') and [[Brahman]] (ultimate reality).<ref name=georgtantra91/> The guru is one who initiates, transmits, guides, illuminates, debates and corrects a student in the journey of knowledge and of self-realization.<ref name=georgyoga>Georg Feuerstein (2011), ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1570629358}}, pages 127-131</ref> The attribute of the successful guru is to help make the disciple into another guru, one who transcends him, and becomes a guru unto himself, driven by inner spirituality and principles.<ref name=georgyoga/>

=== In modern Hinduism ===
{{further|Contemporary Hindu movements|Modern yoga gurus}}

In modern neo-Hinduism, Kranenborg states ''guru'' may refer to entirely different concepts, such as a ''spiritual advisor'', or someone who performs traditional rituals outside a temple, or an ''enlightened master'' in the field of tantra or yoga or eastern arts who derives his authority from his experience, or a reference by a group of devotees of a sect to someone considered a god-like [[Avatar]] by the sect.<ref name="kraneborg2002" />

The tradition of reverence for ''guru'' continues in several denominations within modern Hinduism, but rather than being considered as a prophet, the guru is seen as a person who points the way to spirituality, oneness of being, and meaning in life.<ref>Ranade, Ramchandra Dattatraya ''Mysticism in India: The Poet-Saints of Maharashtra'', pp.392, SUNY Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-87395-669-9}}</ref><ref>Mills, James H. and Sen, Satadru (Eds.), ''Confronting the Body: The Politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India'', pp.23, Anthem Press (2004), {{ISBN|1-84331-032-5}}</ref>{{refn|"Gurus are not prophets who declare the will of God and appeal to propositions found in a Scripture. Rather, they are said to be greater than God because they lead to God. Gurus have shared the essence of the Absolute and experienced the oneness of being, which endows them with divine powers and the ability to master people and things in this world."<ref name="isbn0-8133-2508-0">{{cite book |last1=Poewe |first1=Karla O. |last2=Hexham |first2=Irving |title=New religions as global cultures: making the human sacred |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado |year=1997 |page=106 |isbn=0-8133-2508-0 }}</ref>}}

== In Buddhism ==
{{Buddhism|terse=1}}
{{Further|Tibetan Buddhism}}

In some forms of [[Buddhism]], states Rita Gross, the concept of Guru is of supreme importance.<ref>Rita Gross (1993), Buddhism After Patriarchy, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791414033}}, page 253</ref> Guru is called as Garu in Pali. The Guru is the teacher, who teaches the spiritual and religious knowledge. Guru can be anyone who teach this knowledge and not generally need to be [[Acharya|Acariya]] or [[Upajjhaya]]. Guru can also be a personal teacher. Buddha is called as Lokagaru, meaning "the teacher of the world".

In [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism's [[Tantra|Tantric]] teachings, the rituals require the guidance of a guru.<ref name=berkwitz130/> The guru is considered essential and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the "enlightened teacher and ritual master", states Stephen Berkwitz.<ref name=berkwitz130>Stephen Berkwitz (2009), ''South Asian Buddhism: A Survey'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415452496}}, pages 130-133</ref> The guru is known as the ''[[vajra]] guru'' (literally "diamond guru").<ref name=vajra>{{cite book |author=Strong, John S. |title=The experience of Buddhism: sources and interpretations |publisher=Wadsworth Pub. Co |location=Belmont, CA |year=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/experienceofbudd00stro/page/76 76] |isbn=978-0-534-19164-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofbudd00stro/page/76 }}</ref> Initiations or ritual [[wang (Tibetan Buddhism)|empowerments]] are necessary before the student is permitted to practice a particular [[Tantras (Buddhism)|tantra]], in Vajrayana Buddhist sects found in Tibet and South Asia.<ref name=berkwitz130/> The tantras state that the guru is equivalent to Buddha, states Berkwitz, and is a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.<ref name=berkwitz130/><ref name=johnston371>William Johnston (2013), ''Encyclopedia of Monasticism'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1579580902}}, page 371</ref><ref>Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche (2007), ''Losing the Clouds, Gaining the Sky: Buddhism and the Natural Mind'' (Editor: Doris Wolter), Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0861713592}}, pages 72-76</ref>

{{Blockquote|
The guru is the [[Buddha]], the guru is the [[Dhamma]], and the guru is the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]]. The guru is the glorious [[Vajradhara]], in this life only the guru is the means [to awakening]. Therefore, someone wishing to attain the state of Buddhahood should please the guru.
|Guhyasanaya Sadhanamala 28|12th-century<ref name=berkwitz130/>}}

There are Four Kinds of [[Lama]] (Guru) or spiritual teacher<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rigpawiki.org/index.php?title=Lama |title=Lama |publisher=Rigpa Wiki |access-date=2012-12-26}}</ref> (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]:

# gangzak gyüpé lama — the individual teacher who is the holder of the [[Parampara|lineage]]
# gyalwa ka yi lama — the teacher which is the word of the buddhas
# nangwa da yi lama — the symbolic teacher of all appearances
# rigpa dön gyi lama — the absolute teacher, which is [[rigpa]], the true nature of mind

In various Buddhist traditions, there are equivalent words for ''guru'', which include ''Shastri'' (teacher), ''Kalyana Mitra'' (friendly guide, Pali: [[Kalyāṇa-mittatā]]), ''Acarya'' (master), and ''Vajra-Acarya'' (hierophant).<ref name=alexwayman>Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120813212}}, pages 206, 205-219</ref> The ''guru'' is literally understood as "weighty", states Alex Wayman, and it refers to the Buddhist tendency to increase the weight of canons and scriptures with their spiritual studies.<ref name=alexwayman/> In Mahayana Buddhism, a term for Buddha is [[Bhaisajyaguru|Bhaisajya guru]], which refers to "medicine guru", or "a doctor who cures suffering with the medicine of his teachings".<ref>Alex Wayman (1997), ''Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120813212}}, pages 208-209</ref><ref>Paul Williams (1989), ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415025379}}, pages 247-249</ref>

== In Jainism ==
{{Jainism}}
''Guru'' is the spiritual [[preceptor]] in [[Jainism]], and typically a role served by [[Jain monasticism|Jain ascetics]].<ref name="Jeffery D Long 2009 pages 110, 196"/><ref name=patridge252>Christopher Partridge (2013), ''Introduction to World Religions'', Augsburg Fortress, {{ISBN|978-0800699703}}, page 252</ref> The ''guru'' is one of three fundamental ''tattva'' (categories), the other two being ''dharma'' (teachings) and ''deva'' ([[God in Jainism|divinity]]).<ref name=johncort/> The ''guru-tattva'' is what leads a lay person to the other two ''tattva''.<ref name="johncort">John Cort (2011), ''Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199796649}}, page 100</ref> In some communities of the [[Śvētāmbara]] sect of Jainism, a traditional system of ''guru-disciple'' lineage exists.<ref>Peter Fl Gel and Peter Flügel (2006), ''Studies in Jaina History and Culture'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1134235520}}, pages 249-250</ref>

The ''guru'' is revered in Jainism [[Jain rituals and festivals#Rituals|ritually]] with ''Guru-vandan'' or ''Guru-upashti'', where respect and offerings are made to the ''guru'', and the ''guru'' sprinkles a small amount of ''vaskep'' (a scented powder mixture of sandalwood, saffron, and camphor) on the devotee's head with a mantra or blessings.<ref>John Cort (2011), ''Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199796649}}, pages 111-115</ref>
== In Sikhism ==
{{Sikhi}}
{{Main|Sikh gurus|Sikhism}}

In Sikhism, seeking a ''Guru'' (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ''gurū'') is of the utmost importance,<ref>{{Cite web |title=iGurbani - Shabad |url=https://www.igurbani.com/shabad/w7i8?verse=cj9h |access-date=2023-06-20 |website=www.igurbani.com}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak]] writes in Ang (ਅੰਗ):751 (੫੧ of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]:<blockquote>ਗਾਫਲ ਗਿਆਨ ਵਿਹੂਣਿਆ ਗੁਰ ਬਿਨੁ ਗਿਆਨੁ ਨ ਭਾਲਿ ਜੀਉ ॥

O foolish mind, without seeking a Guru, loving devotion with the Almighty is not possible.</blockquote>[[Guru Amar Das]], the third [[Sikh Guru]], says knowledge will have no foundation without a Guru.<ref>{{Cite web |title=iGurbani - Shabad |url=https://www.igurbani.com/shabad/domu?verse=zr2d |access-date=2023-06-20 |website=www.igurbani.com |page=650}}</ref>

The Guru is the source of all knowledge which is Almighty. In [[Chaupai (Sikhism)|Chaupai Sahib]], [[Guru Gobind Singh]] states about who is the Guru:<ref name="dasam384">Translation 1: [http://www.sridasam.org/dasam?Action=Page&p=2260&english=t&id=157684 Sri Dasam Granth Sahib] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105148/http://www.sridasam.org/dasam?Action=Page&p=2260&english=t&id=157684 |date=2015-09-24 }}, Verses 384-385, page 22; [http://searchgurbani.com/dasam_granth/page/1466/line/9 Translation 2]</ref>

{{verse translation|lang=pa|italicsoff=y
|ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਜੋਗੀ ਸ਼ਿਵ ਕੀਯੋ ॥ ਬੇਦ ਰਾਜ ਬ੍ਰਹਮਾ ਜੂ ਥੀਯੋ ॥
ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਸਭ ਲੋਕ ਸਵਾਰਾ ॥ ਨਮਸ਼ਕਾਰ ਹੈ ਤਾਹਿ ਹਮਾਰਾ ॥੩੮੪॥
ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਸਭ ਜਗਤ ਬਨਾਯੋ॥ ਦੇਵ ਦੈਤ ਜੱਛਨ ਉਪਜਾਯੋ ॥
ਆਦਿ ਅੰਤਿ ਏਕੈ ਅਵਤਾਰਾ॥ ਸੋਈ ਗੁਰੂ ਸਮਝਿਯਹੁ ਹਮਾਰਾ ॥੩੮੫॥
|The [[God in Sikhism|Temporal Lord]], who created Shiva, the Yogi; who created Brahma, the Master of the Vedas;
The Temporal Lord who fashioned the entire world; I salute the same Lord.
The Temporal Lord, who created the whole world; who created angels, demons and yakshas;
He is the only one form the beginning to the end; '''I consider Him only my Guru'''.
|attr1=[[Dasam Granth]], 384-385|italicsoff2=y}}

The Sikh gurus were fundamental to the Sikh religion, however the concept in Sikhism differs from other usages. The [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] word [[Sikh]] derives from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[shishya]]'', or disciple and is all about the relationship between the teacher and a student.<ref>Geoffrey Parrinder (1971), ''World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present'', Hamlyn Publishing, page 254, {{ISBN|978-0-87196-129-7}}</ref> The concept of Guru in Sikhism stands on two pillars i.e. [[Miri Piri|Miri-Piri]] (ਮੀਰੀ-ਪੀਰੀ). 'Piri' means spiritual authority and 'Miri' means temporal authority.<ref>{{cite book | title=Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance | url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart | url-access=registration | publisher=University of Chicago Press |author1=E. Marty, Martin  |author2=Appleby R. Scott | date=1996 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart/page/278 278] | isbn=978-0226508849}}</ref> Traditionally, the concept of Guru is considered central in Sikhism, and its main scripture is prefixed as a ''Guru'', called [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the words therein called ''[[Gurbani]]''.<ref name=singhakaur>HS Singha & Satwant Kaur, ''Sikhism, A Complete Introduction'', Hemkunt Press, {{ISBN|81-7010-245-6}}, pages 21-29, 54-55</ref>

==In Western culture==
As an alternative to established religions in the West, some people in Europe and the US looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the US and established followings.

In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the US. According to the American sociologist [[David G. Bromley]] this was partially due to the repeal of the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the US.<ref name="bromley1989">[[David G. Bromley|Bromley, David G.]], Ph.D. & [[Anson Shupe]], Ph.D., ''Public Reaction against New Religious Movements'' article that appeared in ''Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association'', edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) {{ISBN|0-89042-212-5}}</ref> According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values.<ref name="nugteren1997">[[Nugteren, Albertina (Tineke)]] Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the [[Universiteit van Tilburg|university of Tilburg]]) "Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism", article that appeared at a 1997 [[CESNUR]] conference and that was published in the book ''New Religions in a Postmodern World'' edited by [[Mikael Rothstein]] and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions [[Aarhus University]] press, (2003) {{ISBN|87-7288-748-6}}</ref>

In the [[Western world]], the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain [[cults]] or groups in the fields of [[hippie]], [[new religious movement]]s, [[self-help]], and [[tantra]].<ref name="Forsthoefel and Humes">{{cite journal |last1=Gressett |first1=Michael J. |title=Gurus in America |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor1-first=Thomas A. |editor2-last=Humes |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=November 2006 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=842–844 |doi=10.1017/S0021911806001872}}</ref> It is also employed more generally for [[wellness guru]]s focused on alternative medicine.

According to the professor in [[sociology]] [[Stephen A. Kent]] at the [[University of Alberta]] and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including [[hippie]]s turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get ''high'' without drugs.<ref name="kranenborg1974">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur'' (En: [[Self-realization]]: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture'', published by Kampen Kok (1974)''</ref><ref name="kent2001">[[Stephen A. Kent|Kent, Stephen A.]] Dr. ''From slogans to mantras: social protest and [[religious conversion]] in the late [[Vietnam War|Vietnam war]] era'' [[Syracuse University]] press {{ISBN|0-8156-2923-0}} (2001)</ref> According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the US then, was because some anti-[[Vietnam War]] [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|protesters]] and political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means.<ref name="kent2001" /> One example of such group was the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] movement (ISKCON) founded by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demanding lifestyle of [[bhakti yoga]] on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time.{{refn|"Devotees don't have such an easy time. They who choose to live in the temples – now a very small minority -chant the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]] mantra 1,728 time a day. […] Those living in an ashram – far fewer than in the 1970s – have to get up at 4am for worship. All members have to give up meat, fish and eggs; alcohol, tobacco, drugs, tea and coffee; gambling, sports, games and novels; and sex except for procreation with marriage […] It's a demanding lifestyle. Outsiders may wonder why people join."<ref>Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions 2001 UK, Cassell & Co. {{ISBN|0-304-35592-5}} entry [[ISKCON]] page 287,288</ref>|group=Note}}

Some gurus and the groups they lead attract opposition from the [[Anti-cult movement|Anti-Cult Movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Anti-Cult Movement {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/anti-cult-movement|access-date=2020-09-08|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> According to Kranenborg (1984), [[Jesus Christ]] fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.<ref name="kranenborg1984">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) {{ISBN|90-239-0809-0}} pp 93-99</ref>

Environmental activists are sometimes called "gurus" or "prophets" for embodying a moral or spiritual authority and gathering followers. Examples of environmental gurus are [[John Muir]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Aldo Leopold]], [[George Perkins Marsh]], and [[David Attenborough]]. Abidin et al. wrote that environmental gurus "merge the boundaries" between spiritual and scientific authority.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abidin|first1=Crystal|last2=Brockington|first2=Dan|last3=Goodman|first3=Michael K.|last4=Mostafanezhad|first4=Mary|last5=Richey|first5=Lisa Ann|date=2020-10-17|title=The Tropes of Celebrity Environmentalism|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|language=en|volume=45|issue=1|pages=387–410|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-081703|doi-access=free|issn=1543-5938|url=https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/poncom/2020/3139ef098559/The_Tropes_of_Celebrity.pdf}}</ref>

=== Viewpoints ===
Gurus and the [[Guru-shishya tradition]] have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, [[theology|theologians]], [[anti-cult movement|anti-cultists]], [[Scientific skepticism|skeptics]], and religious philosophers.

[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the leadership of the [[Theosophical Society]] in the early part of the 20th century, publicly renounced this role in 1929 while also denouncing the concept of gurus, spiritual leaders, and teachers, advocating instead the unmediated and direct investigation of [[reality]].<ref>Jiddu, Krishnamurti (September 1929). [http://www.jkrishnamurti.org/about-krishnamurti/dissolution-speech.php "The Dissolution of the Order of the Star: A Statement by J. Krishnamurti"]. ''International Star Bulletin'' '''2''' [Volumes not numbered in original] (2) [Issues renumbered starting August 1929]: 28-34. ([[Eerde (Ommen)|Eerde]]: Star Publishing Trust). {{OCLC|34693176}}. J.Krishnamurti Online. Retrieved 2010-08-24.</ref>

[[U. G. Krishnamurti]], [no relation to Jiddu], sometimes characterized as a spiritual [[anarchist]], denied both the value of gurus and the existence of any related worthwhile teaching.<ref>Uppaluri Gopala (U. G.) Krishnamurti (2002) (Revised ed.) [Originally published 1982. [[Goa, India]]: Dinesh Vaghela Cemetile]. ''[[s:The Mystique of Enlightenment/Part One|The Mystique of Enlightenment: The Radical Ideas of U.G. Krishnamurti]]''. Arms, Rodney ed. Sentient Publications. [[Paperback]]. p. 2. {{ISBN|0-9710786-1-0}}. Wikisource. Retrieved 2010-08-28.</ref>

Dr. [[David C. Lane]] proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, ''Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical''. One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following [[Ockham's razor]] and by using [[common sense]], and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.<ref name="lane1984">{{cite book |author-link=David C. Lane |last=Lane |first=David C. |chapter-url=http://geocities.com/eckcult/cultexpose/crucible.html |chapter=Chapter 12: The Spiritual Crucible |title=Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical |year=1994 |publisher=Garland Pub. |isbn=978-0815312758|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027111139/http://geocities.com/eckcult/cultexpose/crucible.html |archive-date=2009-10-27 }}</ref>

Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern tradition]] in Western society, [[Indologist]] [[Georg Feuerstein]] writes in the chapter ''Understanding the Guru'' in his book ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice'': "The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. [...] Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing".<ref name="feuerstein2003">[[Georg Feusterstein|Feuerstein, Georg]] Dr. ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) {{ISBN|1-57062-928-5}}</ref> In his ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga'' (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of ''yoga'' to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.<ref name="feuerstein1990" />

A British professor of psychiatry, [[Anthony Storr]], states in his book, ''Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus'', that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of [[schizophrenia]]. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, [[Paranoia|paranoid]], [[wikt:eloquent|eloquent]], or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to [[Eileen Barker|Eileen Barker's checklist]] to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of [[psychosis]] to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr notes that gurus generalize their experience to all people. Some of them believe that all humanity should accept their vision, while others teach that when the end of the world comes, only their followers will be saved, and the rest of the people will remain unredeemed. According to him, this ″apparently arrogant assumption″ is closely related and other characteristics of various gurus. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Gurdjieff]], [[Rudolf Steiner]], [[Carl Jung]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Jim Jones]] and [[David Koresh]].<ref name="storr1996">{{Cite book |last=Storr |first=Anthony |title=Feet of Clay; Saints, Sinners, and Madmen: A Study of Gurus |publisher=Free Press |location=New York |year=1996 |isbn=0-684-82818-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/feetofclaysaints00stor }}</ref> 

[[Rob Preece]], a [[psychotherapist]] and a practicing Buddhist, writes in ''The Noble Imperfection'' that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of ''naiveté'' amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of [[transference]] to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves." In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype".<ref name="ref_preece">Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in ''The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life'', Mudras Publications</ref>

The psychiatrist [[Alexander Deutsch]] performed a long-term observation of a small [[cult]], called ''The Family'' (not to be confused with [[Family International]]), founded by an American guru called ''Baba'' or ''Jeff'' in [[New York (state)|New York]] in 1972, who showed increasingly [[schizophrenic]] behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly [[Jew]]ish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as ''holy madness'', and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author.<ref name="deutsch1975">Deutsch, Alexander [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] ''Observations on a sidewalk ashram'' Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175</ref><ref name="deutsch1980">Deutsch, Alexander M.D. ''Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective'' American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.</ref>

[[Jan van der Lans]] (1933–2002), a professor of the [[psychology of religion]] at the [[Radboud University Nijmegen|Catholic University of Nijmegen]], wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands-based [[KSGV|Catholic Study Center for Mental Health]], about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false [[mysticism]]. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes is often lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical [[personality cult]].{{refn|"Wat [[Jan van der Lans|Van der Lans]] hier signaleert, is het gevaar dat de goeroe een instantie van absolute overgave en totale overdracht wordt. De leerling krijgt de gelegenheid om zijn grootheidsfantasieën op de goeroe te projecteren, zonder dat de goeroe daartegen als kritische instantie kan optreden. Het lijkt er zelfs vaak eerder op dat de goeroe in woord, beeld en geschrift juist geneigd is deze onkritische houding te stimuleren. Dit geldt zeker ook voor goeroe Maharaji, maar het heeft zich -gewild en ongewild ook voorgedaan bij Anandamurti en Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. [..] De vergoddelijking van de goeroe is 'een traditioneel element in de Oosterse spiritualiteit, maar, losgemaakt, uit dit cultuurmilieu en overgenomen door Westerse mensen, gaat het onderscheid vaak verloren tussen de persoon van de goeroe en dat wat hij symboliseert en verwordt tot een kritiekloze persoonlijkheidsverheerlijking' (Van der Lans 1981b, 108)"<ref name="lans1981">[http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/obits/vanderlans.html Lans, Jan van der Dr.] (Dutch language) [http://www.ksgv.nl/2-18.html ''Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050114094319/http://www.ksgv.nl/2-18.html |date=2005-01-14 }}, written upon request for the [http://www.ksgv.nl/KSGV_English.html KSGV] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208164006/http://www.ksgv.nl/KSGV_English.html |date=2005-02-08 }} published by Ambo, Baarn, 1981 {{ISBN|90-263-0521-4}}</ref><ref>[[Paul Schnabel|Schnabel, Paul]] Dr. (Dutch language) Between stigma and charisma: new religious movements and mental health Erasmus university Rotterdam, Faculty of Medicine, Ph.D. thesis, {{ISBN|90-6001-746-3}} (Deventer, Van Loghum Slaterus, 1982) Chapter V, page 142</ref>|group=Note}}

In their 1993 book, ''[[The Guru Papers]]'', authors Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer reject the [[Guru-shishya tradition|guru-disciple tradition]] because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of [[surrender (religion)|surrender]] to him. Alstad and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be [[Hypocrisy|hypocrites]] because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.<ref name="kramer1993">Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad ''The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power'' (1993) {{ISBN|1-883319-00-5}}</ref>

According to the journalist Sacha Kester, in a 2003 article in the Dutch newspaper ''[[De Volkskrant]]'', finding a guru is a precarious matter, pointing to the many holy men in India and the case of [[Sathya Sai Baba]] whom Kester considers a swindler. In this article he also quotes the book ''Karma Cola'' describing that in this book a German economist tells author [[Gita Mehta]], "It is my opinion that quality control has to be introduced for gurus. Many of my friends have become crazy in India". She describes a comment by Suranya Chakraverti who said that some Westerners do not believe in spirituality and ridicule a true guru. Other westerners, Chakraverti said, on the other hand believe in spirituality but tend to put faith in a guru who is a swindler.<ref>Kester, Sacha "Ticket naar Nirvana"/"Ticket to Nirvana", article in the Dutch Newspaper [[De Volkskrant]] 7 January 2003</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal | religion | Hinduism | }}
{{div col |colwidth=12em}}
* Lineage
** [[Guru–shishya tradition]]
** [[Parampara]]
** [[Sampradaya]]
** [[Lineage (Buddhism)]]
** [[List of Hindu gurus]]
* Lifestyle
** [[Akhara]]
** [[Apprenticeship]]
** [[Chillum (pipe)|Chillum]] 
** [[Darśana|Darshan]]
** [[Gurukula]]
** [[Kaupinam]]
** [[Kacchera]]
** [[Langota]]
* Others
** [[Aghori]]
** [[Charismatic authority]]
** [[Godman (India)|Godman]]
** [[Guru Gita]]
** [[Gurunath]]
** [[Hindu reform movements]]
** [[Lama]]
** [[Lifestyle guru]]
** [[Nath]]
** [[Religious conversion]]
** [[Sage (philosophy)]]
** [[Satguru]] (Sadguru)
** [[Shramana]]
** [[Sikh gurus]]
** [[Shifu]]
** [[Sensei]]
** [[Eight Garudhammas]]
** [[Vishwa Guru]]
{{div col end}}

== Bibliography ==

* Amanda Lucia (2022), [https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12427 ''The contemporary guru field'']. ''Religion Compass''.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Barth |first=F. |date=1990 |title=The Guru and the Conjurer: Transactions in Knowledge and the Shaping of Culture in Southeast Asia and Melanesia |journal=Man |volume=25 |number=4 |pages=640–653 |doi=10.2307/2803658 |jstor=2803658 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Mick |last=Brown |title=The Spiritual Tourist |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=1-58234-034-X |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first1=Jacob |last1=Copeman |first2=Aya |last2=Ikegame |year=2012 |title=The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-51019-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor1-first=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas Forsthoefel |editor2-last=Humes |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |editor2-link=Cynthia Ann Humes |title=Gurus in America |place=Albany, New York |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6573-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Hara |first=M. |year=1979 |chapter=Hindu Concepts of Teacher Sanskrit Guru and Ācārya |editor1-last=Nagatomi |editor1-first=M. |display-editors=etal |title=Sanskrit and Indian Studies |series=Studies of Classical India |volume=2 |pages=93–118 |publisher=Springer |place=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-8941-2_6 |isbn=978-94-009-8943-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=André |last=Padoux |year=2013 |chapter=The Tantric Guru |title=Tantra in Practice |editor-first=David Gordon |editor-last=White |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1778-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Karen |last=Pechelis |year=2004 |title=The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-514537-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=André |last=van der Braak |year=2003 |title=Enlightenment Blues: My Years with an American Guru |publisher=Monkfish Book Publishing |isbn=0-9726357-1-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |first=Alex |last=Wayman |year=1987 |title=The Guru in Buddhism |journal=Studia Missionalia |volume=36 |publisher=Universita Gregoriana Roma |pages=195–214 |ref=none}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|lang=en|गुरु}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Gurus}}

<!--all the following shouldn't be here: either in a reasoned bibliography, or better used in refs in the text-->
*[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11407-003-0002-7?LI=true Guru choice and spiritual seeking in contemporary India], M Warrier (2003), ''International Journal of Hindu Studies'', Volume 7, Issue 1–3, pages 31–54
*[http://pds.sagepub.com/content/14/1/167.abstract Guru-shishya relationship in Indian culture: The possibility of a creative resilient framework], MK Raina (2002), Journal: ''[[Psychology & Developing Societies]]''
*[https://archive.today/20160204052538/http://mls.sagepub.com/content/31/2/137.short Mentors in Indian mythology - Guru and Gurukul system], P. Nachimuthu (2006), Management and Labor Studies
*[http://dro.dur.ac.uk/3932/1/3932.pdf Scandals in emerging Western Buddhism - Gurus], Sandra Bell (2002), Durham University
*[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002234098604000407 The Guru as Pastoral Counselor], Raymond Williams (1986), ''Journal of Pastoral Care Counseling''
*[http://manushi-india.org/test/pdfs_issues/PDF%20files%2031/2.%20The%20tradition%20of%20female%20gurus.pdf The Tradition of Female Gurus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407094912/http://www.manushi-india.org/pdfs_issues/PDF%20files%2031/2.%20The%20tradition%20of%20female%20gurus.pdf |date=2016-04-07 }}, Catherine Clémentin-Ojha (1985)
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition], J Mlecko (1982), [[Numen (journal)|''Numen'']] journal

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Spirituality-related topics}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Sikh gurus]]
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[[Category:Gurus| ]]