View source for Hadrumetum

{{Short description|Phoenician colony that pre-dated Carthage}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  |name = Hadrumetum
  |native_name = 
  |alternate_name = 
  |image = GiorcesBardo42.jpg
  |alt = 
  |caption = A 3rd-century [[Roman mosaic|mosaic]] discovered at Hadrumetum depicting [[Vergil]] and his ''[[Aeneid]]'' between the [[muse]]s [[Clio]] and [[Melpomene]]. <small>([[Bardo Museum]])</small>
  |map_type = Tunisia
  |map_alt = 
  |map_size = 250
  |location = [[Tunisia]]
  |region = [[Sousse Governorate]]
  |coordinates = {{coord|35.824444|10.638889|display=inline}}
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}}
'''Hadrumetum''',{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} also known by [[#Names|many variant spellings and names]], was a [[Phoenicia]]n [[Phoenician colonies|colony]] that pre-dated [[Carthage]]. It subsequently became one of the most important cities in Roman Africa before [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] conquerors left it ruined. In the early modern period, it was the village of '''Hammeim''', now part of [[Sousse]], [[Tunisia]].

[[Hadrumetum Punic inscriptions|A number of punic steles]] were found during excavations at the site of the modern day {{ill|Église Notre-Dame-de-l'Immaculée-Conception de Sousse|fr|vertical-align=sup}}.

{{anchor|Name|Etymology|Toponymy}}

==Names==
The [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and [[Punic language|Punic]] name for the place was {{sc|drmt}} ({{lang|phn|𐤃{{popdf}}𐤓{{popdf}}𐤌𐤕{{popdf}}}}), 'southern', or {{sc|ʾdrmt}} ({{lang|phn|𐤀𐤃{{popdf}}𐤓{{popdf}}𐤌𐤕{{popdf}}}}), 'the southern'.{{sfnp|Maldonado López|2013|pp=43–45}} A similar structure appears in the Phoenician name for old [[Cádiz]], which appears as ''Gadir'' ('stronghold') or ''Agadir'' ('the stronghold').

The ancient transcriptions of the name show a great deal of variation. Different [[ancient Greek geography|Greeks]] [[hellenization|hellenized]] the name as ''Adrýmē'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀδρύμη}}),<ref name=NCD>{{harvp|''New Class. Dict.''|1860|loc=s.v. [https://archive.org/details/newclassicaldict00anthiala/page/338 "Hadrūmētum"]}}.</ref> ''Adrýmēs'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀδρύμης}}), ''Adrýmēton'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀδρύμητον}}),{{sfnp|Maldonado López|2013|pp=43–45}} ''Adrýmētos'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀδρύμητος}}), ''Adramýtēs'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀδραμύτης}}), ''Adrámētós'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀδράμητος}}){{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} and ''Adrumetum'' (Ἀδρούμητον).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DH%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Dhadrumetum-harpers Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Hadrumētum]</ref> Surviving Roman inscriptions and coinage standardized its [[latinization of names|latinization]] as Hadrumetum{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} but it appears in other sources as Adrumetum,<ref name=NCD/> Adrumetus,{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1910}} Adrimetum, Hadrymetum, etc.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} Upon its notional refounding as a [[Roman colony]], its formal name was emended to {{nowrap|Colonia Concordia}} Ulpia Trajana Augusta {{nowrap|Frugifera Hadrumetina}} to honor its imperial sponsor.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}}

It was renamed Honoriopolis after the emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] in the early 5th century,{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} then Hunericopolis after the Vandal king [[Huneric]]<ref>O. Maenchen-Helfen, ''The World of the Huns''. IX. footnote 113.</ref> and Justinianopolis<ref name=NCD/> after the first few years of occupation from emperor Justinian I.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Merrills |first=Andy |title=War, Rebellion and Epic in Byzantine North Africa |date=October 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University press |isbn=9781009392013 |location=University of Leicester |publication-date=October 2023 |pages=42 |language=English}}</ref>

==Geography==
Hadrumetum controlled the mouth of a small river<ref name=nori/> on the [[Gulf of Hammamet]] ({{langx|la|Sinus Neapolitanus}}), an inlet of the [[Mediterranean]] along the [[Tunisia]]n coast.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}}

== History ==
=== Phoenician colony ===
In the 9th century{{nbsp}}BC,{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyrians]] established Hadrumetum{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} as a trading post and waypoint along their trade routes to [[Iron Age Italy|Italy]] and the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. Its establishment preceded [[Carthage]]'s<ref>[[Sallust]], ''Jug.'', 19.</ref> but, like other western [[Phoenician colonies]], it became part of the [[Carthaginian Empire]]{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} following {{nowrap|[[Nebuchadnezzar II]]}}'s [[Siege of Tyre (586–573 BC)|long siege of Tyre]] in the 580s and 570s{{nbsp}}BC.

===Carthaginian city===
[[File:Julius Euting's Punische Steine Table XXIX.jpg|thumb|The [[Euting Hadrumetum inscriptions]] are similar to the [[Carthaginian tombstones]]]]
[[Agathocles of Syracuse]] captured the town in 310{{nbsp}}BC{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} during the [[Sicilian Wars#The Seventh Sicilian War (311–306 BC)|Seventh Sicilian War]], as part of his failed attempt to move the conflict to Africa. Hadrumetum later provided refuge to [[Hannibal]] and other Carthaginian survivors after their [[Battle of Zama|202{{nbsp}}BC defeat at Zama]],{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}} which decided the outcome of the [[Second Punic War]]. The total length of the Punic fortifications was apparently {{convert|6410|m|sp=us|0}}; some ruins survive.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}}

===Roman city===
During the [[Third Punic War]], the government of Hadrumetum supported the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] against Carthage<ref>[[Appian of Alexandria|Appian]], [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-punic-wars/? ''The Punic Wars''], [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-punic-wars/appian-the-punic-wars-19/#94 §94].</ref> and, after [[Battle of Carthage (c. 149 BC)|Carthage's destruction in 146{{nbsp}}BC]], it received additional territory and [[Free city (classical antiquity)|the status of a free city]] in thanks.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|''CIL'']], Vol.{{nbsp}}I, p.{{nbsp}}84.</ref> During this period, it chose its own [[Shophet|shufets]] ({{langx|la|[[duumvir]]}}) and minted its own [[bronze]] coins with the head of "[[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]]" or the Sun.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}}

During the [[Caesar's Civil War|civil war]] between [[Pompey]] and [[Julius Caesar]], [[Gaius Considius Longus|G. Considius Longus]] secured Hadrumetum for the [[Optimates]] with forces equivalent to two [[Roman legion|legions]]. Despite being reinforced by [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 23 BC)|Gn. Calpurnius Piso]]'s [[Berbers|Berber]] cavalry and footmen from [[Kelibia|Clupea]], however, he was obliged to allow Caesar to land nearby on 28 December 47{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>[[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] & al., ''[[De Bello Africo|Afr. War]]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=qVbFDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 Ch.{{nbsp}}iii.]</ref> According to [[Suetonius]], this landing was the occasion of the famously deft recovery, when Caesar tripped while coming ashore but dealt with the poor [[omen]] by grabbing handfuls of dirt and proclaiming "I have you now, Africa!" ({{langx|la|teneo te Africa}})<ref>[[Suetonius]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius.html ''Div. Jul.''], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius.html#59 §59.] {{in lang|la}}{{nbsp}}& {{in lang|en}}</ref> Caesar's attempts to negotiate with Longus were rejected but the campaign subsequently led to [[Battle of Thapsus|his victory]] over [[Metellus Scipio]] and [[Juba I of Numidia|Juba]] at [[Thapsus]], after which Longus was killed by his own men for the money he was carrying<ref>Caesar & al., ''Afr. War'', §76.</ref> and the town went over to Caesar.<ref>Caesar & al., ''Afr. War'', §89.</ref>

[[File:Ruines archéologiques de Sousse, Tunisie 2013.JPG|thumb|left|[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins at Hadrumetum]]
Hadrumetum was one of the most important communities in [[Roman North Africa]] because of the fertility of its hinterland (modern Tunisia's [[Sahel, Tunisia|Sahel]]), which made it an important source of [[Cura Annonae|Rome's grain supply]]. It quarreled with its neighbor [[Thysdrus]] over the temple of a goddess [[interpretatio graeca|equated to]] [[Minerva]], which stood on their shared border.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=802}}

Under [[Augustus]], Hadrumetum's coins bore his face [[obverse]] and the name (and often face) of Africa's proconsul [[obverse|reverse]]; after Augustus, the mint was closed.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}} Hadrumetum revolted while [[Vespasian]] was [[proconsul]] of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]].<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vesp.'', Ch. iv.</ref> It nonetheless continued to prosper; [[Trajan]] gave it the rank of a [[Colonia (Roman)|Roman colony]], giving its residents [[Roman citizenship]].<ref name=NCD/> A breathtaking legacy of intricate [[Roman mosaic|mosaics]] survives from this era, together with many early Christian objects from the [[catacombs]]. It was the second city in Roman Africa after [[Carthage]] and the birthplace of [[Clodius Albinus]], who attempted to become [[emperor of Rome|emperor]] in the 190s.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}} At the end of the 3rd century, it became the capital of the new province of [[Byzacena]]{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1910}}  (modern [[Sahel, Tunisia]]).

===Later history===
{{main|Sousse}}
In 434, it was largely destroyed by the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]];{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1910}}{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}} their fervent [[Arianism]] produced a number of orthodox martyrs in the remaining community, including [[Felix of Hadrumetum|SS{{nbsp}}Felix]] and [[Victorian, Frumentius and Companions|Victorian]]. A century later, Hadrumetum was retaken and rebuilt by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] during the [[Vandalic War|Vandal War]].<ref>[[Procopius|Procop]]., ''[[Procopius#The Buildings|Build]]''., Book VI, §6.</ref> It was [[Islamic conquest of the Maghreb|conquered]] by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in the 7th century.

The ruins of Hadrumetum stood in the village of Hammeim,<ref name=NCD/> {{convert|6|mi|order=flip|sp=us|0}} from the later [[Sousse]],<ref name=nori>{{harvp|Norie|1831|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0ipFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA348 348]}}.</ref> which grew up to include them in its outskirts.

Under [[French Tunisia|colonial rule]], the French engineer A. Daux{{which|date=December 2018}} rediscovered the [[jetty|jetties]] and [[harbor mole|moles]] of the Roman town's commercial harbor and the line of its military harbor; both had been mostly artificial and have [[siltation|silted up]] since antiquity.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}} [[Louis Carton]] and Abbé{{nbsp}}Leynaud{{which|date=December 2018}} rediscovered the [[Early Christianity|Christian]] [[catacombs]] in 1904; the tunnels extend for miles through small subterranean galleries filled with Roman and Byzantine [[sarcophagi]] and inscriptions.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}}

==Ruins==
In addition to the [[Carthaginian Empire|Punic]] walls, Roman harbors, and Byzantine catacombs, there are ruins of the Byzantine acropolis and [[basilica]]; the Roman [[Roman circus|horse track]], [[water cistern|cisterns]], the [[Roman theater (structure)|theater]]; and a Punic [[necropolis]].{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|1911|p=803}}

{{anchor|Ecclesiastical history}}<!--linked-->

==Religion==
As a major Roman city, Hadrumetum produced a number of [[Christian saint]]s, including [[Mavilus]] during the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire#Marcus Aurelius to Maximinus the Thracian|regional persecutions]] of [[Caracalla]]'s reign and the Bishop [[Felix of Hadrumetum|Felix]] and proconsul [[Victorian, Frumentius and Companions|Victorian]] during the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]]' efforts to [[Forced conversion|forcibly convert]] their subjects to [[Arianism]]. From 255 to 551, the city was the [[cathedra|seat]] of a [[Early Christianity|Christian]] [[bishopric]]. The see was revived in the 17th century as a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[titular see]].

===List of bishops===
{{incomplete list|date=December 2018}}
There were nine ancient bishops of Hadrumetum who are still known.{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1910}}

* [[Polycarp, Bishop of Hadrumetum|Polycarp]], who appeared at the [[Council of Carthage (256)|256 Council of Carthage]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cyprian |title=Epistle LIII |url=https://www.andrews.edu/~toews/classes/sources/early/Cyprian%20Epistles.htm |website=andrews.edu |access-date=Feb 16, 2022}}</ref>
* [[Felix of Hadrumetum|St{{nbsp}}Felix]], [[Christian martyrdom|martyred]] by [[Gaiseric]]
* [[Primasius of Hadrumetum|St{{nbsp}}Primasius]] 
* Raphael de Figueredo (1681.05.14 – 1695.10.12)
* Salvator-Alexandre-Félix-Carmel Brincat (1889.05.12 – 1909.04.02)
* Giacinto Gaggia (1909.04.29 – 1913.10.28)
* Jean-Marie Bourchany (1914.01.13 – 1931.11.27)
* Carlo Re, [[Consolata Missionaries|IMC]] (1931.12.14 – 1951.12.29)
* Jorge Manrique Hurtado (1952.02.23 – 1956.07.28)
* Celestin Bezmalinovic, [[Dominican Order|OP]] (1956.08.07 – 1967)
* Mijo Škvorc, [[Society of Jesus|SJ]] (1970.06.16 – 1989.02.15)
* [[Marian Błażej Kruszyłowicz]], [[Conventual Franciscans|OFM Conv]] (1989.12.09 – 2025.08.13)

== References ==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{citation |ref={{harvid|''New Class. Dict.''|1860}} |url=https://archive.org/details/newclassicaldict00anthiala/page/n7 |title=A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology, and Geography |editor=William Smith |editor2=Charles Anthon |display-editors=0 |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Bros |date=1860 }}.
* {{Cite EB1911|editor-last=Chisholm |editor-first=Hugh |date=1911 |wstitle= Hadrumetum |volume= 12 | pages = 802&ndash;803 |last= Babelon |first= Ernest Charles François |author-link=Ernest Babelon |ref={{harvid|''Enc. Brit.''|1911}} }}
* {{citation |last=Maldonado López |first=Gabriel |url=http://repositorio.ual.es/bitstream/handle/10835/2849/Trabajo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Las Ciudades Fenicio Púnicas en el Norte de África... |date=2013 |access-date=2018-12-08 |archive-date=2020-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128211044/http://repositorio.ual.es/bitstream/handle/10835/2849/Trabajo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=dead }}. {{in lang|es}}
* {{citation |last=Norie |first=J.W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ipFAQAAMAAJ |title=New Piloting Directions for the Mediterranean Sea... |publisher=J.W. Norie & Co |location=London |date=1831 }}.
* {{citation |last=Pétridès |first=Sophrone |date=1910 |contribution-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07105b.htm |contribution=Hadrumetum |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |volume={{nbsp}}VII |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Co |ref={{harvid|''Cath. Enc.''|1910}} }}.

== External links ==
* [http://looklex.com/e.o/sousse.htm Sousse (Sūsa)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211120613/http://www.looklex.com/e.o/sousse.htm |date=2008-12-11 }} ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient''
* [http://looklex.com/tunisia/sousse01.htm Adventures of Tunisia: A virtual tour of the historic sites of Sousse] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922042009/http://www.looklex.com/tunisia/sousse01.htm |date=2008-09-22 }}
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0067.htm GigaCatholic, with titular incumbents lists and linked biographies]

{{Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa}}
{{Phoenician cities and colonies navbox}}
{{coord|35|49|28|N|10|38|20|E|type:city(173047)_region:TN_source:nlwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Africa (Roman province)]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies in Tunisia]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 9th century BC]]
[[Category:Catholic titular sees in Africa]]
[[Category:Former Roman Catholic dioceses in Africa]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek geography of North Africa]]

[[it:Susa (Tunisia)#Storia]]