View source for Harold Holt

{{Short description|Prime Minister of Australia from 1966 to 1967}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use Australian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix    = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name                = Harold Holt
| honorific-suffix    = {{post-nominals|country=AUS|size=100%|CH}}
| image               = HaroldHolt.jpg
| caption             = Holt in the late 1950s
| order               = 17th
| office              = Prime Minister of Australia
| term_start          = 26 January 1966
| term_end            = 17 December 1967
| monarch             = [[Elizabeth II]]
| governor-general    = [[Richard Casey, Baron Casey|Lord Casey]]
| deputy              = John McEwen (''de facto'')
| predecessor         = [[Robert Menzies]]
| successor           = [[John McEwen]]
| order1              = 2nd [[Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia|Leader of the Liberal Party]]
| term_start1         = [[1966 Liberal Party of Australia leadership election|20 January 1966]]
| term_end1           = 17 December 1967
| deputy1             = [[William McMahon]]
| predecessor1        = Robert Menzies
| successor1          = [[John Gorton]] (1968)
| order2              = [[Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia#Federal deputy leaders|Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party]]
| term_start2         = 26 September 1956
| term_end2           = 20 January 1966
| leader2             = Robert Menzies
| predecessor2        = [[Eric Harrison]]
| successor2          = William McMahon
| order3              = [[Leader of the House (Australia)|Leader of the House]]
| term_start3         = 26 September 1956
| term_end3           = 26 January 1966
| predecessor3        = [[Eric Harrison]]
| successor3          = [[David Fairbairn (politician)|David Fairbairn]]
| order4              = [[Treasurer of Australia]]
| primeminister4      = Robert Menzies
| term_start4         = 10 December 1958
| term_end4           = 26 January 1966
| predecessor4        = [[Arthur Fadden]]
| successor4          = William McMahon
| order5              = [[Minister for Employment (Australia)|Minister for Labour and National Service]]
| primeminister5      = Robert Menzies
| term_start5         = 19 December 1949
| term_end5           = 10 December 1958
| predecessor5        = [[Jack Holloway]]
| successor5          = William McMahon
| primeminister6      = Robert Menzies<br />Arthur Fadden
| term_start6         = 28 October 1940
| term_end6           = 7 October 1941
| predecessor6        = 
| successor6          = [[Eddie Ward]]
| order7              = [[Minister for Immigration and Border Protection|Minister for Immigration]]
| primeminister7      = Robert Menzies
| term_start7         = 19 December 1949
| term_end7           = 24 October 1956
| predecessor7        = [[Arthur Calwell]]
| successor7          = [[Athol Townley]]
| order8              = [[Minister for Industry and Science#List of science ministers|Minister of Scientific and Industrial Research]]
| primeminister8      = Robert Menzies
| term_start8         = 28 October 1940
| term_end8           = 28 August 1941
| predecessor8        = [[Herbert Collett]]
| successor8          = [[John Dedman]]
| constituency_MP9    = [[Division of Higgins|Higgins]]
| parliament9         = Australian
| term_start9         = [[1949 Australian federal election|10 December 1949]]
| term_end9           = 17 December 1967
| predecessor9        = 
| successor9          = [[John Gorton]]
| constituency_MP10   = [[Division of Fawkner|Fawkner]]
| parliament10        = Australian
| term_start10        = 17 August 1935
| term_end10          = 10 December 1949
| predecessor10       = [[George Maxwell (Australian politician)|George Maxwell]]
| successor10         = [[Bill Bourke (politician)|Bill Bourke]]
| birth_name          = Harold Edward Holt
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1908|8|5|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Stanmore, New South Wales]], Australia
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1967|12|17|1908|8|5|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Cheviot Beach]], [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]], Australia
| death_cause         = [[Disappearance of Harold Holt|Drowning (presumed)]]
| party               = [[United Australia Party|United Australia]] (until 1945)<br/>[[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] (after 1945)
| alma_mater          = [[University of Melbourne]]
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Zara Bate|Zara Dickins Fell]]|1946}}
| children            = 3
| relations           = [[Vera Pearce]] (aunt)
| profession          = Lawyer
| signature           = Harold Holt's signature.svg
| nickname            = Gunner Holt
| branch              = [[Second Australian Imperial Force|Australian Imperial Force]]
| serviceyears        = 1939–1940
| rank                = [[Gunner (rank)|Gunner]]
| unit                = [[2/4th Field Regiment (Australia)|2/4th Field Regiment]]
| battles             = [[World War II]]
}}
{{Harold Holt sidebar}}
'''Harold Edward Holt''' (5 August 1908{{spaced ndash}}17 December 1967) was an Australian politician who served as the 17th [[prime minister of Australia]] from 1966 until [[Disappearance of Harold Holt|his disappearance]] and presumed death in 1967. He held office as leader of the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] and held various [[Minister (government)|ministerial positions]] from 1949 to 1966 in the governments of [[Robert Menzies]] and [[Arthur Fadden]].

Holt was born in [[Sydney]] and moved to [[Melbourne]] in childhood, studying law at the [[University of Melbourne]]. Before entering politics he practised law and was a lobbyist for cinema operators. He was first elected to the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] at the [[1935 Fawkner by-election]], aged 27, as a member of the [[United Australia Party]] (UAP). Holt was made a [[minister without portfolio]] in 1939, when his mentor [[Robert Menzies]] became prime minister. His tenure in the ministry was interrupted by a brief stint in the [[Australian Army]], which ended when he was recalled to cabinet following the deaths of three ministers in the [[1940 Canberra air disaster]]. The government was defeated in 1941, sending the UAP into opposition, and he joined the new Liberal Party upon its creation in 1945.

When the Liberals came to office [[1949 Australian federal election|in 1949]], Holt became a senior figure in [[Menzies Government (1949–1966)|the new government]]. As [[Minister for Immigration (Australia)|Minister for Immigration]] (1949–1956), he expanded the [[Post-war immigration to Australia|post-war immigration scheme]] and relaxed the [[White Australia policy]] for the first time. He was also influential as [[Minister for Labour and National Service]] (1949–1958), where he handled several industrial relations disputes. Holt was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party in 1956, and after the [[1958 Australian federal election|1958 election]] replaced [[Arthur Fadden]] as [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]]. He oversaw the creation of the [[Reserve Bank of Australia]] and the decimal [[Australian dollar]], but was blamed for a [[credit crunch]] that almost cost the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] the [[1961 Australian federal election|1961 election]]. However, the economy soon rebounded and Holt retained his place as Menzies' heir apparent.

Holt became prime minister in January 1966, [[1966 Liberal Party of Australia leadership election|elected unopposed]] as Liberal leader following Menzies' retirement. He fought [[1966 Australian federal election|a general election]] later that year, winning a landslide victory. The [[Holt government]] continued the dismantling of the White Australia policy, [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|amended the constitution]] to give the federal government responsibility for [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous affairs]], and took Australia out of the [[sterling area]]. Holt promoted greater engagement with Asia and the Pacific, and made visits to a number of East Asian countries. His government expanded [[Australia in the Vietnam War|Australia's involvement]] in the [[Vietnam War]], and maintained close ties with the United States under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. While visiting the [[White House]], Holt proclaimed that he was "all the way with LBJ", a remark which was poorly received at home.

In December 1967, Holt [[Disappearance of Harold Holt|disappeared while swimming in rough conditions]] at [[Cheviot Beach]], [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]]. He was [[Presumption of death|presumed dead]], although his body was never recovered; his disappearance spawned a number of conspiracy theories. Holt was the third Australian prime minister to die in office. He was succeeded by Country Party leader [[John McEwen]] on an interim basis and then by [[John Gorton]]. His death was commemorated in a number of ways, among them by the establishment of the [[Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre]] in Melbourne, and the [[Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt|Harold E. Holt Naval Communication Station]] in Exmouth (Western Australia).

== Early life ==
===Birth and family background===
Holt was born on 5 August 1908 at his parents' home in [[Stanmore, New South Wales]], a suburb of [[Sydney]]. He was the first of two sons born to Olive May (née Williams; formerly Pearce){{Efn|Holt's mother was born Olive May Williams. His maternal grandmother had remarried after the death of her first husband, James Henry Williams, and her children took the name of their stepfather, Arthur Pearce.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=4}}}} and Thomas James Holt; his younger brother Clifford was born in 1910. His parents had married seven months before his birth, in January 1908.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=4}}

Holt's mother was born in [[Eudunda]], [[South Australia]], and had Cornish, English, German, and Irish ancestry; her sister was the actress [[Vera Pearce]].{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=4}} Holt's father had trained as a schoolteacher in Sydney and was working as a physical education teacher at the [[Central Sydney Intensive English High School|Cleveland Street School]] in [[Surry Hills]] at the time of his son's birth. His paternal grandfather Thomas Holt Sr. owned a large farming property in [[Nubba]], and was twice elected mayor of nearby [[Wallendbeen]].{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=4}} He was more distantly descended from James Holt, a cobbler from [[Birmingham]], England, who arrived in New South Wales in 1829.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=3}}

===Education===
[[File:Young Harold Holt.jpg|thumb|Holt as a young man in the 1930s|left|195x195px]]
In 1914, Holt's parents moved to [[Adelaide]], where his father became the licensee of a hotel in [[Payneham]]. He and his brother stayed behind in Sydney, living with an uncle and attending [[Randwick Public School]]. In late 1916, Holt was sent to live with grandparents in the country, where he briefly attended the Nubba State School. He returned to Sydney the following year, and for three years was enrolled at [[Abbotsholme College]], a private school in [[Killara]]; his parents separated around that time.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=4}} In 1920, Holt began boarding at [[Wesley College, Melbourne]]. He was a popular and talented student, winning a scholarship in his final year and graduating second in his class. Holt generally spent school holidays with his relatives in Nubba or with schoolmates, rather than with his parents&nbsp;– his father had begun working as a talent agent, touring the country on the [[Tivoli circuit]], while his mother died in 1925. He was 16 at the time, and was unable to attend the funeral.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=5}}

In 1927, Holt began studying law at the [[University of Melbourne]], living at [[Queen's College (University of Melbourne)|Queen's College]] on a scholarship. He represented the university in [[cricket]] and [[Australian rules football|football]], and was also active in various student organisations, serving as president of the Law Students' Society and of the Queen's College social club. Holt won prizes for oratory and essay-writing, and was a member of the inter-university debating team. He graduated with a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree in 1930. Holt's father&nbsp;– living in London&nbsp;– invited him to continue his studies in England, but he declined the offer.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=6}}

===Legal career===
Holt served his [[articled clerk|articles of clerkship]] with the firm of [[Theodore Fink|Fink]], [[Robert Best (Australian politician)|Best]] & Miller. He was admitted to the [[Victorian Bar]] in late 1932, and opened his own legal practice the following year. However, clients during the [[Great Depression|Depression]] were scarce and frequently underpaid, so Holt lived in a boardinghouse and often relied upon the hospitality of friends.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=6}} Drawing on his family connections in show business, he eventually accepted an offer to become secretary of the Victorian Cinematograph Exhibitors' Association, a film industry lobby group. In this capacity he appeared several times before the [[Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration]].<ref name = ADB>{{cite news|url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/holt-harold-edward-10530|first=I. R.|last=Hancock|title=Biography - Harold Edward Holt - Australian Dictionary of Biography |work=Australian Dictionary of Biography|publisher=Melbourne University Press|volume=14|year=1996}}</ref>{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=9}} This had a positive effect on his own practice, and he eventually took on two partners, first Jack Graham and later James Newman.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=13}} The firm of Holt, Graham, & Newman was dissolved in 1963, following a financial dispute and subsequently reconstituted as Holt, Newman, & Holt, with Holt's son Sam as the new addition. Holt's involvement in the practice declined once he entered politics and ceased altogether in 1949, although he did not formally retire until assuming the prime ministership.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=306}}

==Early political career==
[[File:Holt and Menzies 1939.jpg|thumb|Holt with [[Robert Menzies]] on 26 April 1939, the day Menzies first became prime minister|left|217x217px]]
In 1933, Holt joined the [[Nationalist Party (Australia)#Young_Nationalists_Organisation|Young Nationalists]], the youth wing of the [[United Australia Party]].{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=9}} He cultivated a friendship with [[Mabel Brookes]], and through Brookes became acquainted with senior members of the influential [[Australian Women's National League]] (AWNL). He also secured the patronage of [[Robert Menzies]], with whom he shared a similar background and political views.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=11}} At the [[1934 Australian federal election|1934 federal election]], Holt stood for the UAP in the [[Division of Yarra]]. It was a [[safe seat]] for the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], held by the party's leader (and former prime minister) [[James Scullin]]. Holt lost heavily, as was expected, but was praised for his campaigning.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=9}} Early the following year, he contested [[Electoral district of Clifton Hill|Clifton Hill]]&nbsp;– another safe Labor seat&nbsp;– at the [[1935 Victorian state election|Victorian state election]], losing to [[Bert Cremean]].{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=10}} Holt was eventually elected to parliament on his third attempt, winning [[1935 Fawkner by-election|a federal by-election]] for the seat of [[Division of Fawkner|Fawkner]] in August 1935; his predecessor, [[George Maxwell (Australian politician)|George Maxwell]], had died in office. He won UAP [[preselection]] against five other candidates, a victory which ''[[Smith's Weekly]]'' attributed to his "political godmothers" in the AWNL.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=11}}<ref>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/234615406 Political Godmothers Rule U.A.P. With Haughty Mien], ''[[Smith's Weekly]]'', 10 August 1935.</ref> His new seat was centred on Melbourne's wealthy inner-eastern suburbs.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 12.</ref>

Holt was twenty-seven years old when he entered parliament, making him its youngest member. He kept a relatively low profile in his first few years, but spoke on a wide range of topics.{{sfn|Frame|2005|pp=12-15}} When Robert Menzies became prime minister in April 1939, he made Holt one of four [[minister without portfolio|ministers without portfolio]]. His inclusion was made possible by the collapse of [[Coalition (Australia)|the coalition]] with the [[National Party of Australia|Country Party]]&nbsp;– previously a certain number of positions had been reserved for Country MPs, but [[First Menzies Ministry|the new ministry]] was composed solely of UAP members.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=16}} Although Holt officially had no portfolio, he effectively was an assistant minister to [[Richard Casey, Baron Casey|Richard Casey]], who headed the [[Department of Supply & Development (1939-1942)|Department of Supply & Development]]. He was given responsibility for the [[CSIRO|Council for Scientific and Industrial Research]] (CSIR),{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=17}} and also acted for periods as [[Minister for Trade (Australia)|Minister for Trade and Customs]] and [[Minister for Air (Australia)|Minister for Civil Aviation and Air]] while the incumbents were overseas.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=18}} Holt's first stint as a government minister came to an end in March 1940, when the coalition with the Country Party was reinstituted. His replacement was [[Arthur Fadden]], another future prime minister.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=19}}

==World War II==
===Military service===
Holt enlisted in the [[Australian Army Reserve|Militia]] in February 1939, joining a part-time artillery unit for businessmen and professionals. He was given indefinite leave during his ministerial service.<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 16–17.</ref> In May 1940, without resigning his seat, Holt enlisted in the [[Second Australian Imperial Force|Australian Imperial Force]] with the intent of becoming a full-time soldier. Several of his parliamentary colleagues did likewise at various points in the war.{{Efn|[[William Hutchinson (Australian politician)|William Hutchinson]] and [[Keith Wilson (South Australian politician)|Keith Wilson]], enlisted around the same time as Holt, while [[Thomas White (Australian politician)|Thomas White]] had already done so.<ref name=p20/> In total, nine sitting MPs served in the military at some point in World War II.<ref>[https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1617/MembersWWII Commonwealth Members of Parliament who have served in war: the Second World War], Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2017.</ref>}} Holt was posted to the [[2/4th Field Regiment (Australia)|2/4th Field Regiment]], holding the rank of [[Gunner (rank)|gunner]]. He had been offered a commission as an officer in the [[Royal Australian Air Force]], but declined due to his lack of experience. In a press statement, Holt said "as the youngest member of the House, I could not feel happy in my position if I were not prepared to make some sacrifice and take an active part".<ref name=p20>Frame (2005), p. 20.</ref> He was sent to [[Puckapunyal]] for training, and expected to be posted to North Africa or Palestine.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 21.</ref>

===Return to the ministry, 1940–1941===
[[File:Harold Holt 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Holt in 1940]]
Holt's brief military career came to an end as a result of the [[1940 Canberra air disaster|Canberra air disaster]] on 13 August, which killed three senior government ministers. Menzies called [[1940 Australian federal election|an early general election]] for 21 September, which resulted in a [[hung parliament]] and a UAP–Country minority government. Holt was given leave from the army to campaign, and won re-election with a large majority. Menzies subsequently asked him to return to cabinet, to which he agreed.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 22.</ref> Holt was sworn in as [[Minister for Labour and National Service]] on 28 October, and formally resigned from the army the same day. He was placed in charge of the new [[Department of Labour and National Service]], which took over most of the responsibilities of the previous [[Department of Industry (1928–40)|Department of Industry]].<ref name=p23>Frame (2005), p. 23.</ref> He also became a member of the bipartisan [[Advisory War Council]], although he personally favoured the establishment of a [[national unity government]] with the Labor Party.<ref name=p24>Frame (2005), p. 24.</ref>

As labour minister, Holt's foremost task was to prevent industrial disputes from disrupting the war effort.<ref name=p25>Frame (2005), p. 25.</ref> He met with union leaders and employer groups, and secured their agreement to a streamlining of the arbitration process while the war was underway.<ref name=p23/> He had also been made [[Minister for Industry (Australia)|Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research]], which gave him responsibility for the [[CSIRO|CSIR]] and its wartime efforts.<ref name=p23/> In April 1941, Holt sponsored and oversaw the passage of the ''Child Endowment Act'', which introduced a universal [[child endowment]] scheme;{{Efn|Five shillings per week for every child under the age of 16, excluding first-born children.<ref name=p25/>}} newspapers labelled him "the godfather to a million Australian children".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 26.</ref> When leadership troubles hit the Coalition later in the year, Holt initially supported Menzies. However, he and five cabinet colleagues eventually transferred their allegiance to [[Arthur Fadden]], the leader of the Country Party, believing this way the only to ensure stable government. Menzies felt he had been betrayed, but forgave Holt and accepted his assurances that he had been acting in the best interests of the country.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 27.</ref> He retained his portfolios in the [[Fadden government]], which lasted only 40 days before being defeated on a [[confidence motion]] in October 1941.<ref name=p31>Frame (2005), p. 31.</ref>

===Opposition, 1941–1949===
After going into [[Opposition (Australia)|opposition]], Holt kept a reasonably low profile for the remainder of the war, except for his membership of the Joint Committee on War Expenditure.<ref name=p31>Frame (2005), p. 31.</ref> He was criticised by some for not re-joining the army,<ref>Frame (2005), p. 28.</ref> and at the [[1943 Australian federal election|1943 election]] was opposed by Brigadier [[William Cremor]], whose campaign was funded by Sydney businessmen (including [[Keith Murdoch]]). He lost a significant portion of his [[First-preference votes|primary vote]], but suffered only a small swing on the [[two-party-preferred]] count.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 29.</ref> Menzies returned as leader of the UAP [[1943 United Australia Party leadership election|in September 1943]], and Holt was initially a candidate for the deputy leadership; he withdrew once former prime minister [[Billy Hughes]] entered the race.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 30.</ref> Holt was in favour of the creation of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] as a successor to the UAP, but played little role in the practical aspects of its establishment. He became an official member of the new party in February 1945.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 32.</ref>

==Menzies government, 1949–1966==
[[File:HaroldHoltPortrait1953.JPG|thumb|upright|Holt in 1953]]
Holt transferred to the newly created seat of [[Division of Higgins|Higgins]] at the [[1949 Australian federal election|1949 federal election]], which saw the ALP government defeated in a landslide. In [[Menzies government (1949–1966)|the new government]] he was re-appointed to his former post of Minister for Labour and National Service and was also made [[Department of Immigration|Minister for Immigration]], with Menzies returning as prime minister at the head of a coalition between the Liberal Party and Country Party.<ref name = ADB />

Holt's portfolios gave him a high public profile, along with his extra role as minister responsible for the [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in Melbourne.{{sfn|Walker|2022|p=111}} He also served as chairman of the [[Commonwealth Parliamentary Association]] from 1952 to 1955, which allowed him to travel frequently and develop a reputation overseas.<ref name = ADB /> In 1956, Holt was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party after [[Eric Harrison]]'s retirement, defeating [[Richard Casey, Baron Casey|Richard Casey]] and [[William Spooner (Australian politician)|William Spooner]]. He was also appointed [[Leader of the House (Australia)|Leader of the House]].<ref name = ADB /> By this time he was already seen as Menzies' heir apparent,{{sfn|Walker|2022|p=111}} although he was apparently content to wait for Menzies to retire and never considered challenging his leadership.{{sfn|Walker|2022|p=132}}

During the [[1955 Australian federal election|1955 election]] campaign, Holt was hospitalised with head injuries for two weeks after a single-car accident which killed his driver, Gustav Heilster.{{sfn|Walker|2022|pp=108-109}}

===Immigration minister, 1949–1956===
Holt oversaw the continued expansion of the [[Post-war immigration to Australia|post-war immigration scheme]] begun by the Chifley government and was said to favour a "big, virile population".{{sfn|Walker|2022|p=111}} He continued the policy of giving preference to British migrants, but did expand the [[Assisted Passage Migration Scheme]] to include other countries.<ref name = ADB /> Immigration policy initially focused on family migration, but from the early 1950s targeted skilled workers for the [[Snowy Mountains Scheme]] and other public infrastructure projects.<ref name=before>{{Cite news|url=https://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/harold-holt/before-office|title=Harold Holt: before office|publisher=National Archives of Australia|work=Australia's Prime Ministers|access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> In 1955, Holt publicly welcomed Australia's one millionth post-war migrant and said he was "looking forward to our second million".{{sfn|Walker|2022|p=108}} The following year, following the [[Soviet invasion of Hungary]], he secured cabinet approval for 10,000 Hungarian refugees to settle in Australia.<ref name=before/>

Holt and the government did not break from the [[White Australia policy]], but he believed it needed to be administered more tactfully to avoid offending Australia's Asian neighbours.<ref name = ADB /> He allowed 800 non-European refugees to remain in Australia, stopping the enforcement of Calwell's ''[[War-time Refugees Removal Act 1949]]'', and in the early 1950s allowed Japanese war brides to join their Australian husbands.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-06/fact-check-did-harold-holt-abolish-the-white-australia-policy/10194408|title=Fact check: Did former prime minister Harold Holt abolish the White Australia policy?|first=David|last=Campbell|publisher=ABC News|date=6 September 2018|access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> As opposition spokesman for immigration, Holt had been critical of previous immigration minister [[Arthur Calwell]]'s treatment of [[Lorenzo Gamboa]], a Filipino man with an Australian wife and children who had been denied entry by Calwell due to his race. One of his first acts as minister was to allow Gamboa to enter Australia and reunite with his family.{{sfn|Walker|2022|pp=88-90}}

===Labour and national service minister, 1949–1958===
As labour minister, Holt was credited with reducing industrial conflict, with working hours lost to strikes reducing significantly during his tenure.{{sfn|Walker|2022|p=112}} He had a close relationship with [[Albert Monk]], the president of the [[Australian Council of Trade Unions]] (ACTU), which led to criticism from Monk's colleagues in the labour movement and led Calwell to speak of a "Holt-Monk axis".{{sfn|Walker|2022|pp=90-92}} In 1950, at Monk's suggestion, Holt commissioned the first national inquiry into [[vocational education]] and training, with a particular focus on apprenticeship schemes.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Peter|last=Rushbrook|year=2001|pages=60–75|volume=30|journal=History of Education Review|title=Australia's first national report on vocational education: The Commonwealth-State Apprenticeship Inquiry (The Wright Report) 1954}}</ref> He also had a good working relationship with [[Jim Healy (trade unionist)|Jim Healy]], the general secretary of the [[Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia|Waterside Workers' Federation]] which had been the source of several industrial disputes.{{sfn|Walker|2022|pp=92}}

Holt introduced legislation in 1951 to mandate the use of [[secret ballot]]s in union elections. After the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]]'s ruling in the [[Boilermakers' case]] in 1956, he also oversaw the replacement of the [[Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration]] with a separate [[Commonwealth Industrial Court]], "thus establishing the modern form of the federal arbitration system".<ref name=ADB/> When [[Australia in the Korean War|Australia became involved in the Korean War]], Holt became responsible for administered the reintroduced conscription scheme under the ''[[National Service Act 1951]]''.<ref name=ADB/>

===Treasurer, 1958–1966===
[[File:Holt and Menzies.jpg|thumb|right|Holt with Prime Minister [[Robert Menzies]]]]
In December 1958, following the retirement of [[Arthur Fadden]], Holt succeeded him as [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]].<ref name = ADB /> Holt had little knowledge or interest in economics, but the job cemented his position as Menzies' likely successor.<ref>{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |page = 63 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref> As Treasurer, Holt relied strongly on the advice of Treasury secretary [[Roland Wilson (economist)|Roland Wilson]].<ref>{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |pages = 63–64 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref> His achievements included major reforms to the banking system (originated by Fadden){{spaced ndash}}including the establishment of the [[Reserve Bank of Australia]]{{spaced ndash}}and the planning and preparation for the introduction of [[decimal currency]]. It was Holt who convinced Cabinet to call the new currency the "dollar" rather than the "royal".<ref name="Hawkins 66–67">{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |pages = 66–67 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref>

The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly, aided by the opening of new iron ore mines.<ref>{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |pages = 64–65 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref> However, in 1959, inflation was running at 4.5% and Treasury was alarmed. Holt was reluctant to act, but in November 1960 introduced a deflationary package of tax changes. He also reluctantly agreed to an interest rate rise by the Reserve Bank. The [[credit squeeze]] was nicknamed the "Holt jolt". The economy went into recession, and unemployment rose to three percent, which was considered high for the time and contrary to the government's policy of [[White Paper on Full Employment in Australia|full employment]].<ref>{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |pages = 65–66 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/business/its-half-a-century-since-australia-received-the-holt-jolt-20100222-orwn.html It's half a century since Australia received the Holt Jolt], ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'', 23 February 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</ref>

The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the [[1961 Australian federal election|1961 election]], with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority. There were calls for Holt to be sacked, but he retained Menzies' support.<ref>{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |page = 66 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref> He later described 1960–61 as "my most difficult year in public life". Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962,<ref name="Hawkins 66–67"/> and unemployment dropped down to 1.5 percent by August 1963.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 119.</ref> In later budgets, Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared.<ref>{{cite news |title = Harold Holt: urbane treasurer |first = John |last = Hawkins |work = Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012 |publisher = The Treasury |url = http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |page = 68 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140212121321/http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Publications%20and%20Media/Publications/2012/Economic%20Roundup%20Issue%201/Downloads/05%20Hawkins%20Harold%20Holt.ashx |archive-date = 12 February 2014 }}</ref> He said that the 1965 budget "has had the best reception yet of any in the series I have presented".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 127.</ref>

==Prime Minister (1966–1967)==
{{Further|Holt government}}
[[File:Harold_Holt_Swearing_In.jpg|thumb|left|Holt (right) moments after being sworn in as Prime Minister on 26 January 1966]]
Holt was sworn in as prime minister on 26 January 1966, following the retirement of Robert Menzies six days earlier. He won [[1966 Liberal Party of Australia leadership election|the leadership election]] unopposed, with [[William McMahon]] elected as his deputy.<ref name=p137>Frame (2005), p. 137.</ref> His swearing in was delayed by the death of Defence Minister [[Shane Paltridge]]; he and Menzies were both pallbearers at Paltridge's state funeral on 25 January.<ref>[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/105883346 "Paltridge to have state funeral"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 22 January 1966. Retrieved 7 December 2017.</ref><ref>[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/105883911 "Hundreds pay last respects"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 26 January 1966. Retrieved 7 December 2017.</ref> Holt was the first Australian prime minister born in the 20th century and the first born after [[Federation of Australia|federation]]. He was almost fourteen years younger than his predecessor, but, at the age of 57, was still the fourth-oldest man to assume the office.

He had been an MP for over 30 years before becoming prime minister, still the longest wait for any non-caretaker Prime Minister. The only person who had a longer wait was his caretaker successor [[John McEwen]], who had served 33 years before ascending to the post.<ref>[http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/mcewen/fast-facts.aspx Fast facts: John McEwen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312021617/http://www.primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/mcewen/fast-facts.aspx |date=12 March 2014 }} National Archives of Australia. Retrieved 30 March 2020.</ref> Stylistically, Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies, and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight.<ref name=p137/> He gave the media an unprecedented level of access, and was the first prime minister to conduct regular press conferences and grant regular television interviews. His press secretary, [[Tony Eggleton]], accompanied him virtually every time he travelled.<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 147–148.</ref>
[[File:CongressBuilding SEATO.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Holt (2nd from left) with other world leaders at the [[Manila Summit Conference]] in October 1966]]
[[First Holt Ministry|Holt's initial cabinet]] was virtually unchanged from that of his predecessor. [[John Gorton]] and [[Les Bury]] were promoted to replace Menzies and Paltridge, but there were no other changes in composition. There were also no major changes in portfolio, outside of McMahon's promotion to Treasurer in place of Holt. A notable addition to the outer ministry was Senator [[Annabelle Rankin]] as [[Minister for Housing (Australia)|Minister for Housing]]&nbsp;– the first woman to hold a ministerial portfolio.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 141.</ref>{{efn|[[Enid Lyons]] had served in cabinet from 1949 to 1951, but only as [[Vice-President of the Executive Council]], a largely honorific post that did not have its own department.}} A minor [[cabinet reshuffle|reshuffle]] occurred after the 1966 election, with [[Doug Anthony]] and [[Ian Sinclair]] added to cabinet and [[Charles Barnes (Australian politician)|Charles Barnes]] demoted to the outer ministry. The only new government department created during Holt's tenure was the [[Department of Education and Science (Australia)|Department of Education and Science]], established in December 1966, which was the first federal department specific to either of those areas.<ref name="p168"/> The Country Party leader and de facto [[Deputy Prime Minister of Australia|Deputy Prime Minister]], [[John McEwen]], was effectively given veto power over government policy by virtue of being the longest-tenured member of the government.

===Elections===
{{further|Australian federal election, 1966|Australian Senate election, 1967}}
{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqIMzc2e4RA Newsreel footage of the 1966 election] from [[Pathé News]]}}
[[1966 Australian federal election|On 26 November 1966]], Holt fought his first and only general election as prime minister, winning a somewhat unexpected landslide victory. The Coalition secured 56.9 percent of the [[two-party-preferred vote]], gaining 10 seats and bringing its total number of seats in the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] to 82 out of 124, the largest majority government in Australian history at the time. The Liberals finished only two seats away from forming majority government in its own right. It was a higher margin of victory than Menzies had achieved in eight elections as Liberal leader, and was the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]]'s worst electoral defeat [[1934 Australian federal election|in 31 years]].<ref>Frame (2005), p. 170.</ref>

Holt received little credit for the Coalition's election victory, even from within his own party.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 172.</ref> It was generally held that the Labor Party's poor campaign had been the major factor in its defeat. [[Arthur Calwell]], the [[Leader of the Opposition (Australia)|Leader of the Opposition]], was 70 years old and had limited personal popularity&nbsp;– a [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll before the election placed his personal approval rating at 24 percent, compared with Holt's 60 percent.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 169.</ref> Calwell had suffered a damaging rift with his deputy [[Gough Whitlam]] earlier in the year, and the general public still perceived the party as divided.<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 166">Frame (2005), p. 166.</ref> In an election where the Vietnam War was a major campaign issue, he and Whitlam publicly contradicted each other on major policy decisions.{{Efn|Calwell had pledged to withdraw ''all'' Australian troops from Vietnam, whereas Whitlam suggested that Labor was contemplating withdrawing only conscripts and allowing the regular army to remain.<ref name=p168>Frame (2005), p. 168.</ref>}} Labor ran on an anti-war platform, but struggled to appeal to voters concerned about national security; combined with Calwell's dedication to the [[White Australia policy]], this allowed the party to be portrayed as isolationist and naive about external affairs.{{Efn|''[[The Bulletin (Australian periodical)|The Bulletin]]''&nbsp;– normally supportive of the Labor Party&nbsp;– accused Calwell of wanting Australia to be "a cosy little isolated British community, without people from continental Europe, let alone any other fearful regions".<ref name=p168/>}} Calwell was far less telegenic than his opponent, and was seen as gruff and antagonistic where Holt was suave and easy-going. At a rally in [[Adelaide]] a week before the election, Calwell accused Holt of having "chickened out of World War II&nbsp;– just as his three stepsons are chickening out of the war in Vietnam today". His attack on Holt's family&nbsp;– which he refused to withdraw&nbsp;– was viewed as desperate and undignified, and it was pointed out that, unlike Holt, Calwell had performed no military service in World War II.<ref name=p168/>
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In early 1967, Calwell retired as ALP leader. Whitlam succeeded him, and proved a far more effective opponent than Calwell had been, consistently getting the better of Holt both in the media and in parliament. Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground.<ref name = ADB /> By this time, the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge. Throughout his reign as Liberal leader, Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but, once he was gone, dissension began to surface. Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt's weak leadership. [[Alan Reid (journalist)|Alan Reid]] asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death, that he was perceived as being "vague, imprecise and evasive" and "nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness".

===Domestic policy===
According to his biographer [[Tom Frame (bishop)|Tom Frame]], "Holt's inclinations and sympathies were those of the political centre [...] he was a pragmatist rather than a philosopher, but he nonetheless claimed a philosophical lineage connecting him with [[Alfred Deakin]] and approvingly quoted his statement that 'we are liberal always, radical often, and reactionary never'."<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 133–134.</ref>

====Economy====
[[File:ABC Decimal Currency.ogv|thumb|right|An [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC) video showing Holt (as Treasurer) introducing the coins of the new Australian dollar in 1964]]
Holt as prime minister was sometimes criticised for a failure to be assertive on economic matters. A major [[Drought in Australia|drought]] in 1965 had led to slowdown in growth, but he was unwilling to increase public spending in case it increased inflation.<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 161">Frame (2005), p. 161.</ref> The [[Australian dollar]]&nbsp;– a legacy of Holt's period as Treasurer&nbsp;– came into circulation on 14 February 1966, less than a month after his prime ministership began. In November 1967, the British government unexpectedly announced that it would be devaluing the [[pound sterling]] by 14 percent. Holt announced that the Australian government would not follow suit, effectively withdrawing Australia from the [[sterling area]]. The decision was strongly opposed by the Country Party, who feared it would disadvantage primary industry. McEwen went as far as to issue a public statement criticising the decision, which Holt considered a breach of [[cabinet solidarity]]. The dispute caused a breakdown in Holt and McEwen's relationship and nearly brought down the Coalition; at one point, Holt made preparations for the Liberals to govern as a minority government the event McEwen tore up the Coalition agreement. Ultimately, the dispute was resolved in Holt's favour.  ''[[The Bulletin (Australian periodical)|The Bulletin]]'' said that the withdrawal was "quite certain to mean the end of any remaining special relationship between Australia and Britain".<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 239–241.</ref> There were no other important economic policy reforms made by the Holt government, although Australia did become a founding member of the [[Asian Development Bank]] in 1966.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 180.</ref>

====Immigration====
As prime minister, Holt continued the liberalisation of immigration law that he had begun as Minister for Immigration. When he came to office, what remained of the [[White Australia policy]] was upheld by [[ministerial decree]] rather than by explicit legislation. In March 1966, the residency requirement for [[naturalisation]] was changed to a uniform five years; it had previously been 15 years for non-whites. Discriminatory provisions relating to [[family reunification]] were also removed.<ref name=new>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/105891028 "New migration policy will aid Japanese"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 11 March 1966. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> As a result, in the two years after March 1966 around 3,000 Asian immigrants were granted Australian citizenship,<ref>Frame (2005), p. 160.</ref> compared with 4,100 in the preceding two decades.<ref>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/105888104 "Sir Robert rejected migrant plan"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 22 February 1966. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> Additionally, Immigration Minister [[Hubert Opperman]] announced that potential immigrants to Australia would be assessed solely "on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily, and their possession of qualifications which are in fact positively useful to Australia";<ref>[https://www.moadoph.gov.au/blog/white-australia-policy-the-beginning-of-the-end-50-years-ago/ White Australia policy&nbsp;– the beginning of the end 50 years ago], Museum of Australian Democracy, 9 March 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> non-whites had previously had to demonstrate that they were "highly qualified and distinguished" to gain entry.<ref name=new/>

[[Keith Wilson (South Australian politician)|Keith Wilson]] believed that the Holt government's reforms ensured that "from now on there will not be in any of our laws or in any of our regulations anything that discriminates against migrants on the grounds of colour or race". However, there would not be a practical change in the composition of Australia's immigration intake for many more years.<ref>[http://www.nma.gov.au/online_features/defining_moments/featured/end_of_the_white_australia_policy White Australia policy ends] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913014001/http://www.nma.gov.au/online_features/defining_moments/featured/end_of_the_white_australia_policy |date=13 September 2017 }}, National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> Holt maintained that "every country reserves to itself the right to decide what the composition of its people shall be", and promised "a community life free from serious minority and racial problems".<ref name=cap>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/105890727/11617882 "'We are a capital importing country': Mr Holt"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 9 March 1966. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> He was careful to frame his changes as simply a modification of existing policy, in order to avoid alienating organised labour (historically the greatest supporters of restricting non-white immigration).<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 161"/> The Labor Party had only removed "White Australia" from its platform in 1965, and Opposition Leader [[Arthur Calwell]] stated he was "determined to continue to oppose, for many obvious reasons, any attempt to create a multi-racial society in our midst".<ref>[https://electionspeeches.moadoph.gov.au/speeches/1966-arthur-calwell Australian Federal Elections Speeches: Arthur Calwell], Museum of Australian Democracy. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> However, Holt was less circumspect outside Australia, telling British journalists that no White Australia policy existed and ordering Australian embassies to promote the changes to Asian governments and media outlets.<ref name=new/><ref>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/107881136 "Holt, Wilson in weekend meeting"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 11 July 1966. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref>

====Constitutional reform====
{{Further|Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|Australian referendum, 1967 (Parliament)}}
[[File:Harold Holt and FCAATSI.jpg|thumb|right|Holt, [[Gordon Bryant]] (left), and [[Bill Wentworth]] (right) meeting with [[Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders|FCAATSI]] representatives&nbsp;– from left to right, [[Faith Bandler]], [[Douglas Nicholls]], [[Burnum Burnum]], and [[Winnie Branson]]]]
In 1967, the Holt government amended the constitution to alter [[Section 51(xxvi) of the Australian Constitution|section 51 (xxvi)]] and remove [[Section 127 of the Australian Constitution|section 127]]. This gave the federal government the power to legislate specifically for [[Indigenous Australians]], and also mandated counting Indigenous people in the [[Australian census|census]]. The constitutional amendments required [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|a referendum]] before they could be enacted, which passed with over 90 percent of the vote; it remains the largest referendum majority [[Referendums in Australia|in Australian history]]. Holt personally considered the amendments unnecessary and mostly symbolic, but thought they would be well received by the international community (particularly Asia).<ref>Frame (2005), p. 213.</ref> According to [[Barrie Dexter]], he was privately shocked by the referendum result, having been uncertain whether it would even pass.<ref name=p214>Frame (2005), p. 214.</ref>

Holt came to regard the referendum as indicative of a shift in the national mood. In the following months, he toured Aboriginal communities and consulted with indigenous leaders, including [[Charles Perkins (Aboriginal activist)|Charles Perkins]] and [[Kath Walker]]. Despite opposition from state governments,{{Efn|At a meeting in [[Perth]] in July 1967, the Aboriginal Welfare Conference of State and Commonwealth Ministers voted to preserve the ''status quo''.<ref name=p214/>}} he created a new [[Office of Aboriginal Affairs]] within the [[Prime Minister's Department (Australia)|Prime Minister's Department]], as well as a new advisory body called the Council of Aboriginal Affairs (chaired by [[H. C. Coombs]]).<ref>Frame (2005), p. 215.</ref> According to Coombs and [[Paul Hasluck]], Holt had little interest in indigenous affairs before becoming prime minister.{{Efn|Coombs said: "When we talked it became clear that Holt had little knowledge of Aborigines and was puzzled to know how the Government should go about creating an appropriate administrative agency to deal with the problems associated with them".<ref name="p214"/> Hasluck said: "I am puzzled about Holt's role as innovator in Aboriginal affairs. In sixteen years with him in cabinet I had never known him to show any interest in Aborigines".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 216.</ref>}} Despite this, he brought about a fundamental shift in the way policy was handled, paving the way for the federal government to assume many of the powers and responsibilities that had previously been the preserve of the states. Indigenous academic [[Gary Foley]] has said that Holt's death was a setback for Aboriginal people, as his successors did not show the same commitment to the framework that he established.<ref>[[Gary Foley|Foley, Gary]], [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/may/27/harold-holts-death-and-why-the-1967-referendum-failed-indigenous-people Harold Holt's death and why the 1967 referendum failed Indigenous people], ''[[The Guardian Australia]]'', 27 May 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2017.</ref>

The Holt government also unsuccessfully attempted to remove [[Section 24 of the Constitution of Australia|section 24]] of the constitution (the so-called "nexus clause"), which requires the number of members in the House of Representatives to be "as nearly as practicable, twice the number of senators". [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Parliament)|The resulting referendum]] did not come close to passing, with only 40 percent voting in favour nationwide and only one state ([[New South Wales]]) recording a majority. All three major-party leaders campaigned for the "Yes" vote, while opposition came mainly from Coalition backbenchers and [[Democratic Labor Party (Australia, 1955)|Democratic Labor Party]] senators. Supporters of the "No" vote successfully argued that section 24 protected the influence of the Senate, and thus the interests of less populous states and rural areas.<ref>[http://insidestory.org.au/the-forgotten-1967-referendum/ "The forgotten 1967 referendum"], ''Inside Story'', 26 May 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2017.</ref> Holt did make one other significant legal reform, albeit one that did not require a constitutional amendment. In September 1967, he announced that his government would use [[Section 74 of the Constitution of Australia|section 74 of the constitution]] to remove the potential for [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] cases to be appealed to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]]. The necessary legislation was not passed until after his death.{{Efn|The ''Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act'' came into effect in August 1968. It closed off appeals to the Privy Council in matters involving federal legislation, but it remained possible to appeal from [[Judiciary of Australia|state supreme courts]] until the passage of the ''[[Australia Act 1986]]''.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 217.</ref>}}

====The arts====
In November 1967, in one of his last major policy statements, Holt announced the establishment of the [[National Gallery of Australia]] and the [[Australia Council for the Arts]]. The National Gallery, which did not open until 1982, was the first arts-related major infrastructure project to be funded by the federal government; previous projects had been funded by state governments or by private subscription. Holt said it would "add significantly to the cultural life of Australia and the national capital".<ref>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/106980131 "Work to begin on National Gallery"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 2 November 1967. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> The other element of his announcement, the Australia Council for the Arts, was the first national [[arts council]], intended to provide arms-length advice to the [[Prime Minister's Department (Australia)|Prime Minister's Department]] on arts funding.<ref>[http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/106980333 "New council for the arts"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 2 November 1967. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref> [[Rupert Myer]] has suggested that "Holt's legacy ought to be a core belief in, and broad public demand for, the sustained support of cultural activity from all three tiers of government".<ref>[[Rupert Myer|Myer, Rupert]], [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/cherish-harold-holts-legacy-so-the-arts-can-flourish/news-story/0a72e3c21d885f2dd523c59db7f3cb42 "Cherish Harold Holt's legacy so the arts can flourish"], ''[[The Australian]]'', 1 November 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</ref>

===Foreign policy===
[[File:Holt and Ky 01.jpg|thumb|right|Holt and Prime Minister [[Nguyễn Cao Kỳ]] of South Vietnam on Kỳ's visit to Australia in 1967]]
Holt believed it was his responsibility as prime minister "to reflect the modern Australia to my fellow countrymen, to our allies and the outside world at large".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 158.</ref> His approach to national security emphasised opposition to international communism and the need to engage more with Asia. Holt said that the "great central fact of modern history" was "the tremendous power conflict between the communist world and the free world".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 167.</ref> He was a strong believer in the [[domino theory]] and [[containment]], holding that communism had to be fought wherever it occurred in order to prevent it spreading to neighbouring countries.<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 166"/> In April 1967, Holt told parliament that "geographically we are part of Asia, and increasingly we have become aware of our involvement in the affairs of Asia&nbsp;– our greatest dangers and our highest hopes are centred in Asia's tomorrows".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1UhAQAAIAAJ&q=%22geographically+we+are+part+of+Asia,+and+increasingly+we+have+become+aware+of+our+involvement+in+the+affairs+of+Asia%22 Parliamentary Debates (Hansard): House of Representatives], Volume 55, 1967, page 1172</ref> [[Gough Whitlam]] said that Holt "made Australia better known in Asia and he made Australians more aware of Asia than ever before [...] this I believe was his most important contribution to our future".<ref name=mrc>[http://www.menziesrc.org/news/item/australia-s-17th-prime-minister-proved-no-holt-on-national-progress Australia's 17th Prime Minister Proved no Holt on National Progress] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209100158/http://www.menziesrc.org/news/item/australia-s-17th-prime-minister-proved-no-holt-on-national-progress |date=9 December 2017 }}, Menzies Research Centre, 3 November 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2017.</ref>

Personal diplomacy was Holt's strong point&nbsp;– he believed diplomatic ties could be strengthened by making intimate connections with other world leaders.<ref name=personal>[http://insidestory.org.au/harold-holt-and-the-art-of-personal-diplomacy/ "Harold Holt and the art of personal diplomacy"], ''Inside Story'', 1 July 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2017.</ref> This approach was disliked by his external affairs minister, [[Paul Hasluck]], who in his memoirs accused him of believing in "instant diplomacy" and crediting his personal charms for advances made by diplomatic officials.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 175.</ref> As prime minister, Holt's first overseas trip was to South-East Asia in April 1966, where he visited Malaysia, Singapore, South Vietnam, and Thailand.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 179.</ref> He toured Cambodia, Laos, South Korea, and Taiwan in March and April 1967, and had planned to visit Burma, India, Indonesia, Japan, and Pakistan in 1968.<ref name=asict>[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/107037571 "A human approach to great issues"], ''[[The Canberra Times]]'', 18 December 1967. Retrieved 9 December 2017.</ref> Most of those countries had never before been visited by an Australian prime minister.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 192.</ref> There were also a number of reciprocal visits from East Asian leaders, including [[Eisaku Satō]] of Japan, [[Souvanna Phouma]] of Laos, and [[Thanom Kittikachorn]] of Thailand.<ref name=asict/> The most controversial of those occurred in January 1967, when Prime Minister [[Nguyễn Cao Kỳ]] of South Vietnam visited on Holt's personal invitation&nbsp;– issued without consulting cabinet. Public sentiment was beginning to turn against the war, and Ky's visit was met with large demonstrations; opposition leader [[Arthur Calwell]] issued a statement calling him a "miserable little butcher". Ky nonetheless handled himself well, and ''[[The Bulletin (Australian periodical)|The Bulletin]]'' called his visit a "personal triumph".<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 191">Frame (2005), p. 191.</ref>

====Vietnam War====
{{Further|Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War}}
[[File:Holt-1-7-1966.JPEG|thumb|Holt with U.S. Defense Secretary [[Robert McNamara]] at [[the Pentagon]] in July 1966]]
The [[Vietnam War]] was the dominant foreign policy issue during Holt's term in office. He was a strong supporter of [[Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War|Australian involvement in the war]], which had begun in 1962,<ref name=personal/> and accused its critics of adopting a "[[Lotus Land]]" attitude.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 197.</ref> As well as citing Australia's [[SEATO]] obligations to [[South Vietnam]], Holt justified the war on the grounds that Australia was morally obligated to "resist communist subversion and aggression" and "defend the right of every people to choose their own social and economic order". He held that "unless there is security for all small nations, there cannot be security for any small nation".<ref>[https://electionspeeches.moadoph.gov.au/speeches/1966-harold-holt Australian Federal Election Speeches: Harold Holt], Museum of Australian Democracy. Retrieved 10 December 2017.</ref>

In March 1966, Holt announced that the [[1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment]], would be withdrawn and replaced by the [[1st Australian Task Force]], a self-contained [[brigade]]-sized unit based at [[Nui Dat]]. This effectively tripled the number of Australian troops in Vietnam to around 4,500, and also included 1,500 [[Conscription in Australia#Vietnam War|national servicemen]]&nbsp;– the first conscripts to serve in the conflict.<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 178">Frame (2005), p. 178.</ref> By the final months of Holt's prime ministership, Australia had over 8,000 personnel stationed in South Vietnam, drawn from all three branches of the [[Australian Defence Force]]; the final troop increase was announced in October 1967.<ref name=personal/> Holt "never deviated from his whole-hearted support for American bombing of [[North Vietnam]] and the hope that steadily increasing the number of foreign troops deployed to South Vietnam would lead to military victory and a solution to the crisis".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 203.</ref> [[John Gorton]] later said it was "ironical that, being a man of peace, he should have presided over one of the greatest build-ups of military power that Australia has found itself engaged in".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 270.</ref>

The government's handling of the war initially enjoyed broad public support, and was considered a key contributor to the landslide election victory in 1966&nbsp;– referred to by some as a "[[khaki election]]".<ref name=p188>Frame (2005), p. 188.</ref> By the end of the following year, however, opinion polls were showing that public sentiment had turned against the war, and previously supportive media outlets had begun to criticised Holt's decision-making.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 201.</ref> He did not live long enough to see the mass demonstrations experienced by his successors. Political opposition to the war was initially led by Opposition Leader [[Arthur Calwell]], who promised a total withdrawal from the conflict and labelled it a "cruel, unwinnable civil war".<ref name=p188/> His replacement, [[Gough Whitlam]], adopted a more pragmatic approach, focusing on policy specifics (particularly the government's apparent lack of an [[exit strategy]]) rather than the validity of the war itself.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 200.</ref>

===="All the way with LBJ"====
{{See also|Australia–United States relations}}
[[File:Harold Holt and Lyndon Johnson.jpg|thumb|right|Holt with U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in October 1966]]
Holt cultivated a close relationship with the United States under President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. He believed that "without the American shield most of us who live in Asia and the South Pacific would have a continuing sense of insecurity". Cooperation between the two countries extended beyond the Vietnam War. Holt approved the construction of several [[Earth stations in Australia|Earth stations]] for use by [[NASA]] and American intelligence agencies, including [[Pine Gap]], [[Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station|Honeysuckle Creek]], and [[Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex|Tidbinbilla]]. This made Australia "the most substantial centre for American missile and space operations outside the continental United States".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 190.</ref>

Holt and Johnson developed a personal friendship. They were the same age, and had first met in 1942, when Johnson visited Melbourne as a naval officer; afterwards they shared a similar career trajectory. Holt visited the U.S. twice while in office, in June and July 1966, and on the latter visit was invited to stay at [[Camp David]]. He and Johnson reportedly played tennis, lounged by the pool, and watched movies together.<ref name=beyond>[http://www.theaustralian.com.au/all-the-way-and-beyond/news-story/5027b3daabfa592207fc491f21adfaa1 All the way, and beyond], ''[[The Australian]]'', 4 November 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</ref><ref>[https://providencemag.com/2017/02/lbjs-australian-bromance/ LBJ's Australian Bromance], 8 February 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</ref> In October 1966, Johnson made the first visit to Australia by an incumbent American president; Vice President [[Hubert Humphrey]] had visited in February of that year.<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 178"/> He toured five cities, and was greeted by large crowds as well as a number of anti-war demonstrators, who disrupted the presidential motorcade. The opposition criticised the visit as a publicity stunt.<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 163–164.</ref> Johnson later returned to Australia for Holt's memorial service, and invited his widow [[Zara Holt|Zara]] to stay with him when she visited the United States in 1969.<ref name=beyond/>

On his first visit to the U.S., Holt made what was widely viewed as a ''faux pas'' while delivering a ceremonial address at the [[White House]]. Departing from his prepared remarks, he said: "And so, sir, in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader, I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend that will be ''all the way with LBJ''."<ref>Frame (2005), p. 181.</ref> Holt had meant it to be a "light-hearted gesture of goodwill towards a generous host", referencing the slogan used in [[1964 United States presidential election|Johnson's 1964 presidential campaign]].<ref>Frame (2005), p. 182.</ref> It was interpreted as such by his immediate audience, but once it was reported back in Australia it came to be viewed as a "foolish, sycophantic and dangerous statement" that was indicative of Australian subservience.<ref name=beyond/> [[Bill Hayden]] said Holt's remarks "shocked and insulted many Australians [...] its seeming servility was an embarrassment and a worry".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 183.</ref> Newspaper editorials generally agreed with Holt's assertion that he had been misinterpreted, but still criticised him for making an error in judgment.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 184.</ref> His comments intensified anti-war sentiments among those who were already opposed to the war, but had little electoral impact. Nonetheless, "all the way with LBJ" is still remembered as Holt's "best-known utterance".<ref name=personal/>

====Britain and the Commonwealth====
[[File:NAAImageM4297 Holt Wilson.jpg|thumb|right|Harold and Zara Holt meeting with [[Harold Wilson|Harold]] and [[Mary Wilson, Baroness Wilson of Rievaulx|Mary Wilson]] in 1967]]
Holt was a strong supporter of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], and believed its member states had moral obligations to one another&nbsp;– particularly Britain, as the former "mother country".<ref>Frame (2005), p. 195.</ref> However, his relationship with [[Harold Wilson]], the British prime minister, was somewhat frosty. He repeatedly lobbied Wilson to maintain a strong British presence "[[East of Suez]]", in order to complement American efforts, and in early 1967 received assurances that no reduction was being contemplated.<ref name="Frame 2005, p. 191"/> However, by the middle of the year Wilson had announced that Britain intended to close all of its bases in Asia by the early 1970s (except for [[Hong Kong]]).<ref>Frame (2005), p. 194.</ref> In response to Holt's concerns, it was suggested by Wilson that a British naval base could be established in [[Cockburn Sound]].<ref>Frame (2005), p. 193.</ref> Holt rejected this outright, and felt that Wilson had deliberately misled him as to his intentions.<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 193, 196.</ref>

===Controversies===
Holt's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967. In April, the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]'s new nightly current affairs program ''[[This Day Tonight]]'' ran a story which criticised the government's decision not to reappoint the Chair of the ABC Board, [[James Ralph Darling|Sir James Darling]]. Holt responded rashly, questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalist [[Mike Willesee]] (whose father [[Don Willesee]] was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister), and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and the [[Australian Journalists' Association]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Behind closed doors|work=[[The Age]]|location=[[Melbourne]]|first=John|last=Bennetts|date=25 April 1967|page=5}}</ref>

In May, increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a [[Melbourne-Voyager collision|second inquiry into the 1964 sinking]] of {{HMAS|Voyager|D04|6}} to be held on 16 May. The debate included the [[maiden speech]] by newly elected NSW Liberal MP [[Edward St John]] QC, who used the opportunity to criticise the government's attitude to new evidence about the disaster. An enraged Holt interrupted St John's speech, in defiance of the parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence; his blunder embarrassed the government and further undermined Holt's support in the Liberal Party.<ref>{{cite news|title=PM red-faced|work=[[The Age]]|date=17 May 1967|location=[[Melbourne]]|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Attorney-General opens debate on Voyager|work=[[The Age]]|date=17 May 1967|location=[[Melbourne]]|pages=10–11}}</ref> A few days later, Holt announced a new [[Royal Commission]] into the disaster.

In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over [[VIP affair|the alleged misuse of VIP aircraft]], which came to a head when [[John Gorton]] (Government Leader in the Senate) tabled documents that showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter. Support for his leadership was eroded even further by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air, [[Peter Howson (politician)|Peter Howson]], in order to defuse the scandal, fuelling criticism from within the party that Holt was "weak" and lacked Menzies' ruthlessness. Much of the blame for the episode within the Public Service was visited upon Sir [[John Bunting (diplomat)|John Bunting]], Secretary of the Prime Minister's Department, although other figures such as the Deputy Secretary [[Peter Lawler (public servant)|Peter Lawler]] were able to protect themselves. One of John Gorton's first acts upon becoming prime minister in January 1968 was to sideline Bunting by creating a separate Department of the Cabinet Office with Bunting as its head, and replaced him with [[Lenox Hewitt]].

In November 1967, the government suffered a serious setback in the [[1967 Australian Senate election|senate election]], winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor's 45 per cent. The coalition also lost the seats of [[Division of Corio|Corio]] and [[Division of Dawson|Dawson]] to Labor in by-elections. [[Alan Reid (journalist)|Alan Reid]] says that, within the party, the reversal was blamed on Holt's mishandling of the V.I.P. planes scandal. Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems.<ref name = ADB />

==Disappearance==
{{Main|Disappearance of Harold Holt}}
[[File:Cheviot Beach.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Cheviot Beach]], the site of Holt's disappearance]]
Holt loved the ocean, particularly [[spearfishing]], and had holiday homes at [[Portsea, Victoria]], and [[Bingil Bay, Queensland]].<ref>Frame (2005), p. 272.</ref> On 17 December 1967, while Holt was spending the weekend at Portsea, he and four companions decided to drive to [[Point Nepean]] to watch sailor [[Alec Rose]] pass through [[The Rip]] on his solo circumnavigation attempt. On their way back to Portsea, Holt convinced the group to stop at remote [[Cheviot Beach]] for a swim before lunch&nbsp;– he had spearfished there on many previous occasions, and claimed to "know this beach like the back of my hand". Because of the rough conditions, only one other person, Alan Stewart, joined Holt in the water. Stewart kept close to shore, but Holt swam out into deeper water and was seemingly caught up in a [[rip current|rip]], eventually disappearing from view. One of the witnesses, Marjorie Gillespie, described it as "like a leaf being taken out [...] so quick and final".<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 248–250.</ref>

Holt's disappearance sparked "one of the largest search operations in Australian history", but no trace of his body was ever found.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 250.</ref> At 10 p.m. on 18 December, Governor-General [[Richard Casey, Baron Casey|Lord Casey]] announced he had terminated Holt's commission as prime minister upon his presumed death.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/harold-holt/after-office|title=Harold Holt: after office|publisher=National Archives of Australia|access-date=30 January 2021}}</ref> A police report released in early 1968 made no definitive findings about Holt's death, while a [[Coroners Court of Victoria|coronial inquest]] in 2005 returned a verdict of accidental drowning. It is generally accepted that Holt overestimated his swimming ability.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 275.</ref> Some have alleged that Holt committed [[suicide]], but those close to him rejected this as uncharacteristic of his personality.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 277.</ref> Conspiracy theories have included suggestions that Holt [[Faked death|faked his own death]], was assassinated by the [[CIA]], or [[The Prime Minister Was a Spy|was collected by a submarine so that he could defect to China]].<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 278–293.</ref>

A memorial service for Holt was held at [[St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne]], on 22 December, and attended by numerous world leaders.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 267.</ref> Aged 59 at the time of his death, Holt became the third Australian prime minister to die in office, after [[Joseph Lyons]] (1939) and [[John Curtin]] (1945). [[John McEwen]], the leader of the [[National Party of Australia|Country Party]], was sworn in as caretaker prime minister on 19 December.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 254.</ref> The Liberal Party held [[1968 Liberal Party of Australia leadership election|a leadership election]] on 9 January 1968, in which [[John Gorton]] defeated [[Paul Hasluck]], [[Billy Snedden]], and [[Les Bury]]. Gorton was a member of the [[Australian Senate|Senate]], and in line with [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]] sought and gained election to the House of Representatives at [[1968 Higgins by-election|the by-election]] caused by Holt's death.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 269.</ref>

==Personal life==
===Relationships===
[[File:Harold Zara Holt-1950.jpg|thumb|right|Harold and Zara Holt in the 1960s]]
While at university, Holt met [[Zara Bate|Zara Dickins]], the daughter of a Melbourne businessman; there was an "instant mutual attraction". They made plans to marry once Holt had graduated, but after a financial dispute chose to separate.{{sfn|Frame|2005|p=6}} Zara went on a trip to Britain, where she was introduced to James Fell, a [[British Indian Army]] officer. She accompanied Fell to India, and then in early 1935 returned to Australia where Holt again proposed marriage. She declined his offer, and married Fell a short time later, going to live with him in [[Jabalpur]]. Holt had entered parliament by that time, and was soon being profiled as "the most eligible bachelor in parliament". He briefly dated Lola Thring, the daughter of his father's business partner, [[F. W. Thring]], but his widowed father Tom was also interested in her (to his son's "disgust"). Tom Holt married Lola in 1936, and their daughter Frances (Harold's half-sister) was born in 1940; Tom Holt died in 1945.<ref name=p7>Frame (2005), p. 7.</ref>

In 1937, Zara returned to Australia to give birth to her first child, Nicholas. She had two more children, twins Sam and Andrew, in 1939. Her marriage with Fell broke down a short time later, and in late 1940 she returned to Australia permanently and resumed a relationship with Holt. Their relationship did not become public for some time, in order to avoid Holt's being implicated in Zara's divorce proceedings.<ref name=p8>Frame (2005), p. 8.</ref> They eventually married on 8 October 1946, at Zara's parents' home on St Georges Road, [[Toorak, Victoria|Toorak]].<ref>Frame (2005), p. 33.</ref> They initially lived on nearby Washington Street, but in 1954 bought the St Georges Road house.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 34.</ref> Holt legally adopted Zara's three children, and as young men they changed their surname to his.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 55.</ref> According to biographer [[Tom Frame (bishop)|Tom Frame]], it was an "open secret" that Holt was the biological father of the twins, as they shared his physical appearance and had been conceived at a time when Zara was known to have been in Melbourne.<ref name=p8/>

Zara Holt was a successful businesswoman, owning a chain of dress shops, and out-earned her husband even as prime minister. It was her success that allowed the couple to purchase two holiday homes, one at [[Portsea, Victoria]], and the other at [[Bingil Bay, Queensland]].<ref>Frame (2005), pp. 114–115</ref> She nonetheless made sacrifices for her husband's political career, accompanying him on all but one of his overseas trips, which could last for weeks.{{Efn|The only time Holt travelled overseas without his wife was in August 1948, when he attended a meeting of the [[Empire Parliamentary Association]] in London. It was the first time he had been outside Australia.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 37.</ref>}}

After her husband's death, Zara remarried in 1969 to one of his Liberal Party colleagues, [[Jeff Bate]].<ref>Frame (2005), p. 304.</ref> She was widowed a second time in 1984, and died in 1989. In a 1988 interview with ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'', Zara stated that her husband Harold had carried on "dozens" of extramarital affairs.<ref>Frame (2005), p. 305.</ref> In his biography of Holt, Tom Frame wrote: "I have not included the names of women with whom Holt allegedly had a sexual relationship because I was unable to confirm or deny that most of these relationships took place […] by their very nature they were always illicit and Holt was very discreet."<ref>Frame (2005), p. xvii.</ref>

===Personality===
Holt was the first Australian Prime Minister born in the twentieth century. He was an enthusiastic sportsman and avid swimmer, in stark contrast to Menzies and the majority of his predecessors and colleagues. Like later successor [[Bob Hawke]], this resonated with positive effect within the electorate. His oratory skills were vastly superior to that of [[Arthur Calwell]], whom Holt resoundingly beat in 1966. Holt's rhetoric was, however, considered a match to that of new Labor leader [[Gough Whitlam]]. Whitlam himself later said of Holt:

{{Blockquote|(his) ability to establish relationships with men of different backgrounds, attitudes and interests was his essential decency. He was tolerant, humane and broadminded. His suavity of manner was no pose. It was the outward reflection of a truly civilised human being. He was in a very real sense a gentleman.<ref>https://www.sbs.com.au/news/harold-holt-the-australian-prime-minister-who-disappeared | SBS News, 'The Australian Prime Minister who disappeared' - Retrieved 20180314</ref><ref>https://www.moadoph.gov.au/blog/on-this-day-prime-minister-harold-holt-commences-his-692-days-as-leader-of-australia/ | Museum of Australian Democracy, 'On this day' - Retrieved 20180319</ref><ref>https://www.smh.com.au/news/books/holt-legacy-rescued-from-the-deep/2005/09/01/1125302674781.html | Sydney Morning Herald, 'Holt legacy rescued from the deep' - Retrieved 20180319</ref>|Gough Whitlam, Leader of the Opposition, March 1968}}

===Religious beliefs===
Holt has been described as an "apathetic agnostic". He was baptised [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], attended [[Methodism|Methodist]] schools, and married with [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] forms,{{clarify|date=July 2024}} but neither he nor his wife had any interest in religion.{{sfnp|Williams|2013|p=140}} His lack of religiosity apparently had little impact on his political prospects, and was not generally remarked upon.<ref>Williams (2013), p. 141.</ref> [[Alick Downer]] believed that Holt's thoughts "lay in this world not the next".<ref>Williams (2013), p. 144.</ref> According to his friend [[Simon Warrender]], he "was an agnostic whose ''raison d'être'' was dedication to his career".<ref name=p266>Frame (2005), p. 266.</ref> Holt had a reputation as something of a [[fatalism|fatalist]], and frequently quoted from [[Andrew Marvell]]'s ''[[carpe diem]]'' poem "[[To His Coy Mistress]]".<ref>Williams (2013), p. 143.</ref> He was also fond of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem "[[If—]]", which Warrender said he used as a "guiding light in his political and private life".<ref name=p266/>

==Memorials and other legacies==
[[File:Harold Holt Swim Centre.JPG|thumb|upright|Melbourne's Harold Holt Swim Centre]]

[[File:Harold Holt bust.jpg|upright|thumb|Bust of Harold Holt located in the [[Prime Ministers Avenue]] in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens]]

Harold Holt is commemorated by the [[Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stonnington.vic.gov.au/explore-stonnington/sport-and-recreation/swim/|title=Harold Holt Swim Centre|publisher=Stonnington.vic.gov.au|access-date=12 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130081144/http://www.stonnington.vic.gov.au/explore-stonnington/sport-and-recreation/swim/|archive-date=30 January 2012}}</ref> in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Iris. The complex was under construction at the time of Holt's disappearance, and since he was the local member, it was named in his memory. The irony of commemorating a man who is presumed to have drowned with a swimming pool has been a source of wry amusement for many Australians.<ref>[[Bryson, Bill]]. ''[[In a Sunburned Country]]'' (Broadway Books, New York, 2000) {{ISBN|0-7679-0385-4}}</ref> The swimming pool within the [[1st Australian Support Compound]] in South Vietnam was also named for him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kelley|first=Michael|title=Where we were in Vietnam|publisher=Hellgate Press|year=2002|isbn=978-1555716257|page=390}}</ref>

In 1968, the newly commissioned [[United States Navy]] [[Knox-class frigate|''Knox''-class destroyer escort]] {{USS|Harold E. Holt|FF-1074|6}} was named in his honour. It was launched by Holt's widow Dame Zara at the [[Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division|Todd Shipyards]] in Los Angeles on 3 May 1969, and was the first American warship to bear the name of a foreign leader.

In 1969, a plaque commemorating Holt was bolted to the seafloor off Cheviot Beach after a memorial ceremony. It bears the inscription:

{{quote|In memory of Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, who loved the sea and disappeared hereabouts on 17 December 1967.}}

Other memorials include:

* the suburb of [[Holt, Australian Capital Territory]];
*the [[Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt]];
* the [[Division of Holt]], an electoral district in the [[Australian House of Representatives]] in Victoria;
* a wing for boarders at [[Wesley College (Victoria)|Wesley College, Melbourne]];
* the Harold Holt Fisheries Reserves&nbsp;– five protected areas in southern [[Port Phillip]], located at [[Swan Bay]], [[Point Lonsdale]], [[Mud Islands]], [[Point Nepean]] and [[Pope's Eye]] (The Annulus). 
* a memorial stone within the 'Prime Ministers Garden' of [[Melbourne General Cemetery]]

By way of a folk memorial, he is recalled in the [[Australian English vocabulary|Australian vernacular]] expression "do a Harold Holt" (or "do the Harry"), [[rhyming slang]] for "do a bolt" meaning "to disappear suddenly and without explanation", although this is usually employed in the context of disappearance from a social gathering rather than a case of presumed death.<ref>Lambert, James (2004) ''The Macquarie Australian Slang Dictionary,'' p. 69 (Macquarie Library: Sydney) {{ISBN|1-876429-52-6}}</ref>

In the Queen's Birthday Honours of June 1968, Holt's widow Zara was made a Dame Commander of the [[Order of the British Empire]], becoming Dame Zara Holt DBE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/1067227 |title=It's an Honour |publisher=Itsanhonour.gov.au |date=8 June 1968 |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's, [[Jeff Bate]], and was then known as Dame Zara Bate.

The mineral [[holtite]] is named in his honor.  It was discovered in Greenbushes Tinfield, Western Australia and formally described in 1971.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pryce |first1=M. W. |title=Holtite: a new mineral allied to dumortierite |journal=Mineralogical Magazine |date=1971 |volume=38 |issue=293 |pages=21–25|doi=10.1180/minmag.1971.038.293.02 |bibcode=1971MinM...38...21P |s2cid=251024619 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Holtite |url=https://www.mindat.org/min-1925.html |website=Mindat.org |access-date=13 October 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[First Holt ministry]]
* [[Second Holt ministry]]
* [[Presumption of death]]
* [[List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book|last1=Frame |first1=Tom |author1-link=Tom Frame (bishop) |title=The Life and Death of Harold Holt|publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] / [[National Archives of Australia]]|year=2005|isbn=978-1-74114-672-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Walker |first=Ross |title=Harold Holt: Always one step further |publisher=[[La Trobe University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-76064-383-6}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Frame |first1=Tom |author1-link=Tom Frame (bishop) |title=Harold Holt and the liberal imagination |series=Australian Biographical Monographs |volume=2 |date=2018 |publisher=[[Connor Court Publishing]] |location=Redland Bay, Qld |isbn=9781925501865}}
* {{cite book|author=Griffen-Foley, Bridget |author-link=Bridget Griffen-Foley |title=Party Games: Australian Politician and the Media from War to Dismissal|publisher=[[Text Publishing]], Melbourne|year=2003|isbn=978-1-877008-64-1}}
* Hancock, Ian (2000), 'Harold Edward Holt,' in [[Michelle Grattan]] (ed.), ''Australian Prime Ministers'', [[New Holland Publishers]], Sydney, pages 270–285. {{ISBN|1-86436-756-3}}
* [[Zara Bate|Holt, Zara]] (1968), ''My Life and Harry. An Autobiography'', [[Herald & Weekly Times]], Melbourne.
* [[Colin Hughes|Hughes, Colin A]] (1976), ''Mr Prime Minister. Australian Prime Ministers 1901–1972'', [[Oxford University Press]], Melbourne, Victoria, Ch.19. {{ISBN|0-19-550471-2}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Ken Inglis|Inglis, Kenneth S.]]|title=This Is The ABC|publisher=Melbourne University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-522-84258-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/thisisabcaustral0000ingl}}
* {{cite book|author=[[James Jupp|Jupp, James]]|title=Party Politics in Australia 1966–81|publisher=George [[Allen & Unwin]], Sydney|year=1982}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Alan Reid (journalist)|Reid, Alan]]|title=The Power Struggle|publisher=Shakespeare Head Press, Sydney|year=1969}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Alan Reid (journalist)|Reid, Alan]]|title=The Gorton Experiment: The Fall of John Gorton|publisher=[[Shakespeare Head Press]], Sydney|year=1971|author-mask=4}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Alan Renouf|Renouf, Alan]]|title=The Frightened Country|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]], Melbourne|year=1979|isbn=978-0-333-25248-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams|first=Roy|date=2013|title=In God They Trust? The Religious Beliefs of Australia's Prime Ministers, 1901–2013|publisher=[[Bible Society Australia]]|isbn=978-0-647-51855-7}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/harold-holt Harold Holt]– Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia

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{{s-ttl|title=[[Division of Higgins|Member for Higgins]]|years=1949–1967}}
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{{Prime ministers of Australia}}
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{{Leaders of the Liberal Party of Australia}}
{{Treasurers of Australia}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Holt, Harold}}
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