View source for Hatra

{{short description|Archaeological site in Iraq}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name           = Hatra
| native_name    = {{lang|ar|الحضر}}
| alternate_name = {{Transliteration|ar|DIN|''al-Ḥaḍr''}}
| image          = اثار الحضر.jpg
| alt            =
| caption        = The ruins of Hatra in 2019 
| map_type       = Iraq#Near East#West Asia
| map_alt        =
| map_size       =
| relief         = yes
| coordinates    = {{coord|35|35|17|N|42|43|6|E|display=inline,title}}
| location       = [[Hatra District]], [[Nineveh Governorate]], [[Iraq]]
| region         = [[Mesopotamia]]
| type           = Settlement, temple
| part_of        =
| length         =
| width          =
| area           = {{convert|300|ha|abbr=on}}
| height         =
| material       =
| built          = 3rd or 2nd century BC
| abandoned      = 241 AD
| cultures       = Arab, Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Parthian
| dependency_of  = [[Parthian Empire]]
| occupants      =
| event          =
| excavations    =
| archaeologists =
| condition      = Ruins
| ownership      =
| management     =
| public_access  = Accessible
| website        = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| notes          =
| designation1            = WHS
| designation1_offname    = Hatra
| designation1_type       = Cultural
| designation1_criteria   = ii, iii, iv, vi
| designation1_date       = 1985 (9th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_number     = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/277 277]
| designation1_free1name  = Region
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab States|Arab States]]
}}

'''Hatra''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|æ|.|t|ɹ|ə}}; {{langx|ar|الحَضْر}} ({{IPA|ar|al.ˈħadˀr}}); {{langx|syr|ܚܛܪܐ}}) was an ancient Arab  city in [[Upper Mesopotamia]] located in present-day eastern [[Nineveh Governorate]] in northern [[Iraq]]. The ruins of the city lie {{convert|290|km|mi|abbr=on}} northwest of [[Baghdad]] and {{convert|110|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of [[Mosul]]. It is considered the richest archaeological site from the [[Parthian Empire]] known to date.<ref name="Dirven 2013">{{cite book | last=Dirven | first=L. | title=Hatra: Politics, Culture and Religion Between Parthia and Rome | publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag | year=2013 | isbn=978-3-515-10507-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U35zzwEACAAJ | access-date=2023-09-29}}</ref>

Hatra was a strongly fortified [[caravan city]] and capital of the small [[Arab]] [[Kingdom of Hatra]], located between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]]/[[Sasanian Empire]]s. Hatra flourished in the 2nd century, and was [[Fall of Hatra|destroyed]] and deserted in the 3rd century. Its ruins were discovered in the 19th century.<ref name=Schmitt />

== Name ==
Hatra is known as {{Transliteration|ar|DIN|''al-Ḥaḍr''}} ({{lang|ar|الحضر}}) in [[Arabic]]. It is recorded as {{lang|mis|𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠}} ({{Transliteration|mis|ḥṭrʾ}}, <small>vocalized as:</small> {{Transliteration|mis|Ḥaṭrāʾ}}) in [[Hatran Aramaic]] inscriptions, probably meaning "enclosure, hedge, fence". In [[Syriac language|Syriac]], it is usually recorded in the plural form ''Ḥaṭrē''. In Roman works, it is recorded as Greek ''Átra'' and Latin ''{{lang|la|Hatra}}'' and ''{{lang|la|Hatris}}''.<ref name=Schmitt>{{cite web |last1=Schmitt |first1=Rüdiger |title=HATRA |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hatra |website=iranicaonline.org |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |access-date=16 March 2019}}</ref>

The temple of [[Shamash]],<ref name=Kubiak-Schneider>{{cite book|last=Kubiak-Schneider |first=A. | title=Hatra of Shamash. How to assign the city under the divine power?| publisher=DeGruyter | year=2022|  url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110798432-041/html | access-date=2024-09-23}} at {{cite book| last=Gallopin| first=Th.| title=Naming and Mapping the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean. Spaces, Mobilities, Imaginaries | publisher=DeGruyter| year=2022| isbn=9783110798432}}</ref> was officially called ''Beit ʾElāhāʾ'' {{script|Hatr| 𐣡𐣩𐣵 𐣠𐣫𐣤𐣠 }} "House of God", in Hatran Aramaic inscriptions<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hatra {{!}} ancient city, Iraq|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hatra|access-date=2020-12-25|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> The city was recorded as "Enclosure of [[Shamash]]" (''ḥtrʾ d-šmš'' {{script|Hatr| 𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠 𐣣𐣴𐣬𐣴 }}) on a coin.<ref name=Schmitt />

== History ==
There is no archeological information on the city before the Parthian period but settlement in the area likely dates back to at least the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] period.<ref name=Schmitt /> Hatra flourished under the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, as a religious and trading center.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039509/Hatra |title=Hatra |access-date=14 December 2013 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> Later on, the city became the capital of possibly the first [[Arab]] Kingdom in the chain of Arab cities running from Hatra, in the northeast, via [[Palmyra]], [[Baalbek]] and [[Petra]], in the southwest. The region controlled from Hatra was the [[Kingdom of Hatra]], a semi-autonomous buffer kingdom on the western limits of the Parthian Empire, governed by Arabian princes.

[[File:Coin of Hatra.jpg|thumb|left|bronze coin struck in Hatra circa 117–138 AD, obverse depicts radiate bust of Shamash]]
[[File:Hatra plan general.svg|thumb|left|Plan of Hatra]]
Hatra became an important fortified frontier city and played an important role in the [[Roman–Parthian Wars|Second Parthian War]], withstanding repeated attacks by the [[Roman Empire]]. During the 2nd century CE the city repulsed sieges by both [[Trajan]] (116/117) and [[Siege of Hatra (197–198)|Septimius Severus (198/199).]]<ref name="AdvBodyEval">[https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/277.pdf Advisory Body Evaluation on Hatra]. International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). 1985. pages 1–2.</ref> Hatra's forces defeated the ascendant [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Persians]] in 238 at the battle of [[Sharazor|Shahrazoor]], but fell shortly after in 241 to the army of Sassanid king [[Shapur I]] and was destroyed.<ref name="AdvBodyEval" /> The traditional stories of the [[fall of Hatra]] tell of [[al-Nadirah]], daughter of the King of Araba, who betrayed the city into the hands of Shapur as she fell in love with him. The story tells of how Shapur killed the king and married al-Nadirah, but later had her killed also after realizing her ingratitude towards her father.<ref name="britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936 |date=1987 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004082656 |page=207a |language=en}}</ref>

Hatra was the best preserved and most informative example of ancient Arabian architecture. Its plan was circular,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Salma|first1=K. Jayyusi|last2=Holod|first2=Renata|last3=Petruccioli|first3=Attilio|last4=André|first4=Raymond|title=The City in the Islamic World|url=https://archive.org/details/cityislamicworld00jayy|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004162402|page=[https://archive.org/details/cityislamicworld00jayy/page/n194 174]}}</ref> and was encircled by inner and outer walls nearly {{convert|2|km|mi}} in diameter<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/277 |title=Hatra UNESCO World Heritage Centre |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=1992–2015 |website=whc.unesco.org/en |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=31 March 2015}}</ref> and supported by more than 160 towers. A [[temenos]] (τέμενος) surrounded the principal sacred buildings in the city's centre. The temples covered some 1.2 hectares and were dominated by the Great Temple, an enormous structure with [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] and [[column]]s that once rose to 30 metres. The city was famed for its fusion of [[Religion in Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Mesopotamian religion|Mesopotamian]], [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite]], Aramean and Arabian [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheons]], known in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] as ''{{Transliteration|sem|Beiṯ Ĕlāhā}}'' ("House of God"). The city had temples to [[Nergal]] ([[Asuristan|Assyrian]]-[[Babylonian mythology|Babylonian]] and [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]]), [[Hermes]] ([[ancient Greek religion|Greek]]), [[Atargatis]] ([[Elohim (gods)|Syro-Aramaean]]), [[Allat]], [[Shamiyyah]] ([[Arabian mythology|Arabian]]), and [[Shamash]] (the [[Mesopotamian mythology|Mesopotamian]] sun god).<ref name="britannica" /> Other deities mentioned in the Hatran Aramaic inscriptions were the Aramaean [[Ba`al Shamîm|Ba'al Shamayn]], and the female deity known as [[Ashurbel]], which was perhaps the assimilation of the two deities the Assyrian god [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]] and the Babylonian [[Bel (mythology)|Bel]]—despite their being individually masculine.

== List of rulers ==
In inscriptions found at Hatra, several rulers are mentioned. Other rulers are sporadically mentioned by classical authors. The earlier rulers are titled ''mrjʾ'' (''māryā'', "lord") and the later ones ''mlkʾ d-ʿrb'' ("king of the Arabs"; ''malkā'', "king").<ref name=Schmitt />

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2| Name
! Title
! Date
! Portrait
! Note
|-
| 1
| Worod
| mry´
|
|
|
|-
| 2
| Ma’nu
| mry´
|
|
|
|-
| 3
| Elkud
| mry´
| 155/156
|
|
|-
| 4
| [[Nashrihab]]
| mry´
| 128/29 – 137/38 AD
|
|
|-
| 5
| [[Naṣru]]
| mry´
| 128/29 – 176/77
|
|
|-
| 6
| [[Wolgash]] I
| mry´ and mlk
|
|
| rowspan="2"| The two brothers may have been co-rulers.
|-
| 7
| [[Sanatruq I]]
| mry´ and mlk
| 176/177
| [[File:Relief of Sanatruk I.jpg|30px|Victory relief of Sanatruq I, king of Hatra. He is using a small altar at his feet.]]
|-
| 8
| [[Abdsamiya]]
| mlk
| 192/93 – 201/202
| [[File:Prince Abdsadmiya son of Sanatruq I and future king.jpg|30px|Prince Absadmiya, son of Sanatruq I and future king.]]
| Supported the Roman emperor [[Pescennius Niger]]
|-
| 9
| [[Sanatruq II]]
| mlk – King
| 207/08 – 229/230
| [[File:Statue of Sanatruq I, king of Hatra, 2nd century CE, Iraq Museum.jpg|30px|Statue of Sanatruq II, king of Hatra, Iraq Museum.]]
| Became a vassal of the Romans under [[Gordian III]] during [[Roman–Persian Wars]]
|-
|}

==Art of Hatra==
According to [[John M. Rosenfield]], the statuary of Hatra belong to the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian cultural sphere]], with numerous similarities in terms of clothing, decorative elements or posture, which tend to be massive and frontal, with feet often splayed.<ref name="JMR">{{cite book |last1=Rosenfield |first1=John M. |title=The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans |date=1967 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=170–173 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udnBkQhzHH4C&pg=PA170 |language=en}}</ref> The architecture of Hatra itself is generally seen as an example of Parthian architecture.<ref name="JMR"/> Similarities can be seen with the [[Art of the Kushans]] as well, due either to direct cultural exchanges between the area of [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Kushan Empire]] at that time, or from a common Parthian artistic background leading to similar types of representation.<ref name="JMR"/>

<gallery class="center" heights="150px">
File:Headless statue of an unidentified nobleman from Hatra, Iraq. 2nd-3rd century CE. Iraq Museum.jpg|Headless statue of a nobleman.
File:Military commander from the city of Hatra. National Museum of Iraq (closeup).jpg|Military commander from the city of Hatra. [[Iraq Museum]], Baghdad.
File:Hatra_military_man.jpg|Limestone statue of a military commander in his uniform holding a statue of a deity. 
Ancient Parthian relief carving of the god Nergal from Hatra.jpg|Relief of the god [[Nergal]] from Hatra.
File:Hatra relief devotee.jpg|Hatra relief devotee.
</gallery>

== Modern Hatra ==
[[File:Archaelogical site of Hatra (before destruction).webm|thumb|thumbtime=31|Archaeological site of Hatra before destruction, 0:59, UNESCO video]]
Hatra was used as the setting for the opening scene in the 1973 film ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'',<ref name="tele-uk-xrcst">{{cite news |last1=Freeman|first1=Colin s |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10925751/Iraqs-Exorcist-temple-falls-into-Isis-jihadist-hands.html |title=Iraq's 'Exorcist' temple falls into Isis jihadist hand |access-date=7 March 2015 |work=The Telegraph |date=25 June 2014 |location=London}}</ref> and since 1985 has been a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="unesco-hatra">{{cite web |title=Hatra |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/277 |website=whc.unesco.org |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=7 March 2015}}</ref>

The site was first surveyed by [[Walter Andrae]] of the German excavation team working in Assur from 1906 to 1911. But systematic excavations have been undertaken only from 1951 by Iraqi archeologists. From the 1980s, the Italian Archaeological Expedition,<ref>[https://hatrasite.com/ Hatra – Italian Archaeological Expedition]</ref> directed by R. Ricciardi Venco ([[University of Turin]]), made major discoveries at Hatra. The excavations were focused on an important house ("Building A"<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-11-25|title=L'Edificio A|url=https://hatrasite.com/ledificio-a/|access-date=2020-07-25|website=Hatra – Italian Archaeological Expedition|language=it-IT}}</ref>), located close to the Temenos, and on deep soundings in the Temenos central area.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-11-25|title=I sondaggi del Temenos|url=https://hatrasite.com/i-sondaggi-del-temenos/|access-date=2020-07-25|website=Hatra – Italian Archaeological Expedition|language=it-IT}}</ref> Now the Expedition is active in different projects regarding the preservation and development of the archaeological site.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-10|title=Progetti/ Projects|url=https://hatrasite.com/progetti-projects/|access-date=2020-07-25|website=Hatra – Italian Archaeological Expedition|language=it-IT}}</ref> In 1990, a Polish expedition of the [[Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology|Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw]] recorded and studied the city's defense walls.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gawlikowski|first=Michał|date=1991|title=The first season of excavations in Hatra, Iraq.|url=https://www.pcma.uw.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/pam/PAM_1990_II/473.pdf|journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean|volume=2}}</ref>

In 2004, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' stated "Hatra's finely preserved columns and statues make it one of the most impressive of Iraq's archaeological sites"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1450907/American-troops-launch-Exorcist-tour-at-ancient-temple.html |title=American troops launch 'Exorcist' tour at ancient temple |work=The Telegraph |first=Colin |last=Freeman |date=4 January 2004}}</ref>

=== Restoration by Saddam Hussein ===

[[Saddam Hussein]] saw the site's Mesopotamian history as reflecting glory on himself, and sought to restore the site, and others in [[Ninevah]], [[Nimrud]], [[Assur|Ashur]] and [[Babylon]], as a symbol of Arab achievement,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum|url=https://archive.org/details/rapeofmesopotami00roth|url-access=registration|author=Lawrence Rothfield|date=1 Aug 2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn = 9780226729435}}</ref> spending more than US$80&nbsp;million in the first phase of restoration of Babylon. Saddam Hussein demanded that new bricks in the restoration use his name (in imitation of [[Nebuchadnezzar]]) and parts of one restored Hatra temple have Saddam's name.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dvidshub.net/video/17073/ancient-hatra-ruins|title=Ancient Hatra Ruins|date=9 September 2006|work=[[Defense Video & Imagery Distribution System]]}}</ref>

=== Partial destruction and looting by ISIL ===
Actions by the forces of the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], which occupied the area in mid-2014, were a major threat to Hatra. In early 2015 they announced their [[Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL|intention to destroy]] many artifacts, claiming that such "graven images" were un-Islamic, encouraged [[shirk (Islam)|shirk]] (or polytheism), and could not be permitted to exist, despite the preservation of the site for 1,400 years by various Islamic regimes. [[ISIL]] militants pledged to destroy the remaining artifacts.  Shortly thereafter, they released a video showing the destruction of some artifacts from Hatra.<ref>{{cite web |first=Patrick |last=Cockburn  |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/iraq-isis-militants-pledge-to-destroy-remaining-archaeological-treasures-in-nimrud-10076133.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220509/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/iraq-isis-militants-pledge-to-destroy-remaining-archaeological-treasures-in-nimrud-10076133.html |archive-date=2022-05-09 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Iraq: Isis militants pledged to destroy remaining archaeological treasures in Nimrud|work=The Independent |date= 27 February 2015 |access-date=8 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/2/26/isil-seen-in-new-video-destroying-7th-century-artifacts.html |title=ISIL video shows destruction of 7th century artifacts |work=aljazeera.com |date=26 February 2015 |access-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> After the bulldozing of Nimrud on March 5, 2015, "Hatra of course will be next" said [[Abdulamir Hamdani]], an Iraqi archaeologist from [[Stony Brook University]].<ref name=merhi>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/bulldozed-ancient-assyrian-city-nimrud-iraq-govt-203312292.html |title=IS 'bulldozed' ancient Assyrian city of Nimrud, Iraq says |agency=AFP |author=Karim Abou Merhi  |date=5 March 2015 |access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref> On March 7, Iraqi official sources reported ISIS had begun the demolishing the ruins of Hatra.<ref>{{cite news |last=Yacoub |first=Sameer N. |agency=Associated Press |date=7 March 2015 |title=IS destroying another ancient archaeological site in Iraq |url=http://www.armytimes.com/story/military/2015/03/07/is-destroying-another-ancient-archaeological-site-in-iraq/24556625/ |newspaper=Army Times |location=United States |access-date=7 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="bbc-hatra">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-31779484 |title=Islamic state 'demolish' ancient Hatra site in Iraq |access-date=7 March 2015 |publisher=BBC |date=29 September 2022}}</ref> A video released by ISIL during the next month showed the destruction of the monuments.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/bcdd18ddfe5143f08e5e2335e19e5af9|title=Video: Islamic State group shot, hammered away Iraq's Hatra|author=Vivian Salama|date=4 Apr 2015|publisher=Associated Press}}</ref>

UNESCO and [[ISESCO]] issued a joint statement saying "With this latest act of barbarism against Hatra, (the IS group) shows the contempt in which it holds the history and heritage of Arab people."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yacoub |first1=Sameer N. |last2=Salam |first2=Vivian |url=http://www.macon.com/2015/03/07/3624731/is-destroying-another-ancient.html |title=IS destroying another ancient site in Iraq |date=7 March 2015 |work=[[The Telegraph (Macon)|The Telegraph]] |location=Macon, Georgia |access-date=8 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150310002213/http://www.macon.com/2015/03/07/3624731/is-destroying-another-ancient.html |archive-date=10 March 2015 }}</ref>

The pro-Iraqi government [[Popular Mobilization Forces]] captured the city on 26 April 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dw.com/en/iraqi-forces-retake-damaged-hatra-heritage-site-from-is/a-38601736 |title=Iraqi forces retake damaged Hatra heritage site from IS |date=26 April 2017 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |access-date=29 April 2017}}</ref> A spokeswoman for the militias stated that ISIL had destroyed the sculptures and engraved images of the site, but its walls and towers were still standing though they contained holes and scratches received from ISIL bullets. PMF units also stated that the group had mined the site's eastern gates, thus temporarily preventing any assessment of damage by archaeologists.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/iraqi-militias-find-relics-destroyed-ancient-town/3828751.html |title=Iraqi Militias Find Relics Destroyed by IS in Ancient Town |first=Rikar |last=Hussain |date=27 April 2017 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |access-date=29 April 2017}}</ref> It was reported on 1 May that the site had suffered less damage than feared earlier. A journalist of [[EFE]] had earlier reported finding many destroyed statues, burnt buildings as well as signs of looting. [[Layla Salih]], head of antiquities for Nineveh Governorate, stated that most of the buildings were intact and the destruction didn't compare with that of other archaeological sites of Iraq. A PMF commander also stated that the damage was relatively minor.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-39770395 |title=Hatra: IS damage to ancient Iraqi city less than feared |date=1 May 2017 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" widths="300">
File:Hatra-1453.jpg|Remains of several temples and ancient walls (2004)
File:Hatra-71339.jpg|Elevated view of the site in 2007
File:Hatra-Ruins-2006-5.jpg|Temple facade (May 2006)
File:Hatra-Ruins-2006-6.jpg|Southern exposure of the temple (May 2006)
File:Hatra Ruins - 2008-07-20.jpg|July 2008
File:Hatra-Ruins-2008-8.jpg|Marn Temple (November 2008)
File:Hatra-Ruins-2008-9.jpg|November 2008
File:Hatra city.jpeg|Elevated view of the temple (September 2014)
File:Hatra-1454.jpg|Detail of a temple, showing Hellenistic, Mesopotamian and Iranian architecture
File:Hatra-109732.jpg|Decorated arch with faces
File:Hatra-109726.jpg|View of [[iwan]]s
File:Hatra-109730.jpg|Closeup of an iwan
File:Hatra-109728.jpg|Facade of Temple
File:Hatra-109736.jpg|Arch of the temple
File:Hatra-109734.jpg|Protruded head on a wall
File:Hatra-Ruins-2006-7.jpg|Statue of the Goddess Shahiro
File:From left to right, an unidentified ruler, Hermes, a female deity, and Sanatruq I.From Hatra. Erbil Civilization Museum.jpg|From left to right, an unidentified ruler, Hermes, a female deity, and Sanatruq I.From Hatra. Erbil Civilization Museum
File:Door lintel from Hatra. 2nd-3rd century AD. Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg|Door lintel from Hatra. 2nd-3rd century AD. [[Sulaymaniyah Museum]], Iraqi Kurdistan
File:Hatra Arch.jpg|Monumental entrance arch from Hatra, now at the Iraqi National Museum
</gallery>

== Climate ==
Hatra has a [[hot semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''BSh''). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Hatra is {{convert|20.7|°C|1}}. About {{convert|257|mm|2|abbr=on}} of precipitation falls annually.

{{Weather box|location = Hatra (Al Hadar)
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan high C = 12.8
|Feb high C = 15.8
|Mar high C = 19.8
|Apr high C = 25.3
|May high C = 33.0
|Jun high C = 39.0
|Jul high C = 42.3
|Aug high C = 42.1
|Sep high C = 37.9
|Oct high C = 31.0
|Nov high C = 22.5
|Dec high C = 14.8
|Jan low C =  3.2
|Feb low C =  4.6
|Mar low C =  7.6
|Apr low C =  11.7
|May low C = 17.3
|Jun low C = 21.8
|Jul low C = 24.8
|Aug low C = 24.1
|Sep low C = 19.7
|Oct low C = 14.3
|Nov low C =  8.8
|Dec low C =  4.1
|Jan precipitation mm = 43
|Feb precipitation mm = 39
|Mar precipitation mm = 49
|Apr precipitation mm = 36
|May precipitation mm = 13
|Jun precipitation mm = 0
|Jul precipitation mm = 0
|Aug precipitation mm = 0
|Sep precipitation mm = 0
|Oct precipitation mm = 8
|Nov precipitation mm = 25
|Dec precipitation mm = 44
|year precipitation mm= 257
|source = {{URL|climate-data.org}}
|date=16 January 2018}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Asia}}
* [[Aramaic of Hatra]]
* [[Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State]]
* [[Taq-i Kisra]], sharing architectural features with structures at Hatra

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last1=al-Salihi |first1=W. |title=Hatra: Three Notes, Historical, Iconographical, and Religious |journal=Iraq |date=2021 |volume=83 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1017/irq.2021.12|s2cid=239871840 }}
* Beyer, Klaus (1998). ''Die aramäischen Inschriften aus Assur, Hatra und dem übrigen Ostmesopotamien (datiert 44 v. Chr. bis 238 n. Chr.)'' [The Aramaic inscriptions from Assur, Hatra and the rest of Eastern Mesopotamia (dated 44 BC to 238 AD)]. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, {{ISBN|3-525-53645-3}}.
* Dirven, Lucinda (ed.) (2013). ''Hatra. Politics, Culture and Religion between Parthia and Rome.'' Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, {{ISBN|978-3-515-10412-8}}.
* Sommer, Michael (2003). ''Hatra. Geschichte und Kultur einer Karawanenstadt im römisch-parthischen Mesopotamien'' [Hatra. History and culture of a caravan city in Roman-Parthian Mesopotamia]. Mainz: Zabern, {{ISBN|3-8053-3252-1}}.
* Vattioni, Francesco (1981). ''Le iscrizioni di Ḥatra'' [The inscriptions of Hatra]. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli.
* Vattioni, Francesco (1994). ''Hatra.'' Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli.

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Hatra}}
* [https://www.academia.edu/987346/Between_Rome_and_Parthia_The_desert_city_of_Hatra Between Rome and Parthia: The Desert City of Hatra]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100201092949/http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/chronicle/8612.shtml bbc.co.uk Lost Kings of the Desert] BBC ''[[Chronicle (UK TV series)|Chronicle]]''
* [https://hatrasite.com/ Italian Archaeological Expedition at Hatra]
* [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/04/27/world/iraqi-forces-seize-ancient-unesco-site-hatra-islamic-state-jihadis-execute-mosul-civilians/#.WR7WoOuGPX4 Iraqi forces seize ancient UNESCO site of Hatra from Islamic State as jihadis execute Mosul civilians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104055902/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/04/27/world/iraqi-forces-seize-ancient-unesco-site-hatra-islamic-state-jihadis-execute-mosul-civilians/#.WR7WoOuGPX4 |date=2018-01-04 }}

{{World Heritage Sites in Iraq}}
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[[Category:Hatra| ]]
[[Category:History of Nineveh Governorate]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Iraq]]
[[Category:Parthian cities]]
[[Category:Sasanian cities]]
[[Category:Populated places destroyed during wars]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Iraq]]
[[Category:District capitals of Iraq]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures destroyed by ISIL]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Arbayistan]]